EEET2465 Lecture 6

EEET2465 Communication Engineering
Digital Modulation
- Channel capacity in noise
- ASK, FSK, PSK and QAM
- Constellation diagrams
Lecturer: Dr
Overview
This lecture will look at introducing digital modulation.
Digital modulation is commonly used in applications such as

modem communications and digital broadcasting.
We will look at some of the most common types of digital
modulation including; ASK, FSK and PSK.
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Digital Modulation
Digital modulation is the process of modulating digital data
onto a high frequency carrier.
The process is very similar to analogue modulation; the carrier
is still an analogue high frequency sinusoid.
But now our data is in digital form; ones and zeros.
Using digital modulation (like analogue modulation) allows us
to transmit data wirelessly.
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Baseband Modulation Mapping

Last lecture we discussed line-coding and how we can use
square waveforms to encode binary data.
In digital modulation binary encoding is still performed but is
called baseband modulation mapping.
This mapping process can be both binary (two values, one for a
zero and one for a one) or
Multilevel, where multiple bits are encoded and assigned a
single value, this is used in M-level modulation mapping.
Mapped symbols are usually shaped (e.g. using the raised
cosine pulse shape) before being modulated onto a carrier.
This pulse-shaping process improves the bandwidth
consumption of the modulated message.
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Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

ASK is basically a digital version of amplitude modulation (AM).
In the on-off keying case (OOK, shown below) a zero is given

by zero carrier, a one is given as a pulse of carrier frequency
for the duration of one symbol period.
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As a bit of trivia, OOK modulation actually pre-dates analogue
communication systems*!
This type of modulation was used in the transmission of Morse
Code.
.... . . - ..
Morse Code (OOK)
0.5
Hello World
-0.5
H
-1
0.2
0.4
E
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
Time, sec
*L. W. Couch, Digital and Analog Communication Systems, Eighth Edition, Pearson/Prentice Hall,
New Jersey, 2014
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Multilevel Encoding
As discussed in the last lecture we can improve bandwidth
efficiency in a digital transmission system by using a multilevel encoding scheme.
This is when multiple bits are encoded using a single voltage

level or value.
This example is for 4-level encoding:
0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
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Multilevel Encoding
4-Level encoding:
0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
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M-ASK
Using M-level encoded data to modulate our carrier results in
several amplitude levels in the ASK signal.
When using this encoding method the term M-ASK is used to
denote that this carrier is modulated using a multi-level
encoded digital signal.
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If we have encoded data, d (t ), which represents an M-level
encoded digital data stream (M will equal 2 in the case of binary
encoding).
Then the general formula for an ASK (M-ASK) signal is given as:
y(t ) Ac d (t ). cos(ct )
As with analogue AM, M-ASK does perform poorly in noisy
channels so in most practical digital systems this type of
modulation is rarely used.
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As ASK/OOK is a type of amplitude modulation, the same
demodulation circuitry can be used to receive the data.
Both envelope detectors (asynchronous detection) and coherent
(synchronous detection) can be used.
For optimal detection, though, a coherent detector with
matched filters should be used.
As discussed on slide 13, a matched filter is a filter with an
impulse response, h(t ) matched to the line-code being used, s(t ):
i.e. h(t ) s(t )
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Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

As with ASK, FSK is basically digital frequency modulation
(FM).
Again a binary version of this modulation scheme can be used
(as shown below) or a multilevel encoded signal can be used
to modulate the carrier.
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M-FSK
M-FSK can be implemented using a switching scheme where a
system will switch between a set of M different frequencies to
modulate the incoming data.
Or for greater frequency/phase continuity M-FSK can be

implemented using the same technique as FM:
t
yn (t ) Ac cos[ct d (t )dt ]
0
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Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

FSK was a common modulation method in early dial-up
modems such as the Bell 202 standard (circa 1980s 1990s).
Since telephone channels have a bandwidth of only around
300 - 3000 Hz, modulation needed to occur within audio range.
AFSK (Audio FSK) modems (Bell 202) used variations in
audible frequencies; modulating a one at 1200 Hz and a zero
at 2200 Hz, to transmit data over telephone channels.
Newer modems dont use this standard anymore. ADSL for
example uses QAM with OFDM.
Sample AFSK modem signal at 1200 bps:
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Bandwidth in FSK
As with analogue FM, FSK bandwidth, W can be estimated
using Carsons Rule:
W 2(1 ) B
Where B is the message bandwidth, which is the first-null

bandwidth of the baseband line-code used (see slide 5).
And is the FM modulation index:
f max
K f mt max
B
B
Generally, for square-shaped polar NRZ pulses the effective
bandwidth would be:
W 2 f max 2Rb
For raised-cosine shaped pulses this would be:
W 2 f max 1 r Rb
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Example 6.1: Bandwidth in FSK

A binary FSK system with centre carrier frequency, f c 1700 Hz
encodes binary symbols as two different frequencies:
f 0 2200 Hz and f1 1200 Hz .
Assume the initial binary data was encoded at a bit rate of

Rb 1200 bps using a polar NRZ baseband line-coding scheme.
Calculate the bandwidth of this modulated signal.
Use Carsons Rule:
W 2(1 ) B
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Using the information about the centre frequency and the two
frequencies used to modulate a zero and a one, we can find
the maximum frequency deviation:
f max 2200 1700 500 Hz

From slide 5 we know the bandwidth of a polar NRZ line-code
is the same as its bit rate so:
B Rb 1200 Hz
Using Carsons rule we get:
W 2 f max 2 Rb
2 500 2 1200
3400 Hz
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We could visualise this by adding together two PSDs of polar
NRZ line-coded data modulated independently at 1200 Hz (red
line) and at 2200 Hz (green line).
The result of this, shown in blue, displays an approximate PSD
of a binary FSK signal that uses these two frequencies to
modulate data.
1.5
W 2 f max 2Rb 3400 Hz

PSDFSK
0.5
f1=1200 fc=1700 f0=2200
W=3400
Frequency, Hz
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Demodulation of FSK
There are two main methods of FSK demodulation:
synchronous and asynchronous.
Shown below is the synchronous method using local oscillators
and phase locked loops (PLLs).
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Demodulation of FSK
The other method is the asynchronous method with makes use
of band pass filtering and envelope detection.
This block diagram is for binary FSK but it can be extended to
M-FSK as well.
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Demodulation of FSK
Band-pass filters with
bandwidth W Rb Hz are used
in this type of demodulation.
Each BPF has a centre
frequency of the FSK
frequency to be detected.
A sampler and comparator are
then used to determine which
symbol was transmitted.
Above: Band-pass filters used in FSK
demodulation in the case of 4-level
encoding
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Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

Again with PSK we basically have the digital version of phase
modulation (PM).
This type of digital modulation is the most common type.
Shown is the binary version of PSK (a.k.a. BPSK).
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If we have encoded data, d (t ) , which represents an M-level
encoded digital data stream (M will equal 2 in the case of
binary encoding).
Then the general formula for a PSK signal is given as:
m
y(t ) Ac .h1 (t ). cos[ct 2 ]
M
Where: h1 (t ) is the pulse shaping transmit filter,
is the total number of phases that can be used to

modulate the data and,
is the encoded signals level
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M-PSK
M-PSK can be referred to by several names depending on the
value of M in the encoding.
BPSK is used to denote two levels of encoding; one or zero.
And 4-PSK is also known as QPSK (Quadrature PSK).
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Bandwidth of BPSK Signals

Carrier frequency does not change in a BPSK modulated signal,
only the phase does.
This means effective bandwidth of a BPSK signal can be
estimated using the first-null bandwidth of the baseband linecode used to encode the original binary data.
For Polar NRZ line-coded data, the effective bandwidth would be:
W 2Rb
For raised-cosine shaped pulses this would be:
W 1 r Rb
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Bandwidth of BPSK Signals

Again this can be visualised by taking the original PSD of
the line-code used initially and centring that around the
carrier frequency, f c .
For a polar NRZ line-coded signal, this would give the

bandwidth shown below:
0.4
PSDPSK(Polar NRZ)
0.35
W 2Rb
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
fc-Rb
fc
fc+Rb
Frequency, Hz
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Bandwidth of PSK Signals

More efficient use of bandwidth can be achieved with PSK if
larger numbers of levels are used (M > 2).
For example, in a 16-PSK system that has an effective channel
bandwidth of B 1200 Hz we can have a symbol rate of:
Rs 2B 2400 baud which will give a bit rate of:
Rb nRs 4 2400 9600 bps .
This same system with BPSK would give a bit rate of:
Rb 2400 bps.
Transmission bandwidth has nothing to do with the carrier
frequency so for a bit rate of Rb bps the transmission BW is:
BT
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( Rb / 2)
Hz
log 2 ( M )
27
Using DSB/SC to Implement BPSK

Interestingly BPSK can be implemented using the DSB/SC
AM modulation method.
This technique is specific to BPSK where only two levels are
used, -1 (for a zero) and +1 (for a one).
i.e.
Ac . cos(ct ), m 0
yn (t ) Ac . cos[c t m ]
Ac . cos(ct ), m 1
Ac d (t ) cos(ct )
This method also allows for demodulation using a

synchronous AM demodulator.
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Using PM Techniques to Implement PSK

MPSK can be implemented using analogue phase modulation
techniques.
This modulator will take in an M-level analogue input.
In this case we will need a digital to analogue converter.
Input data stream

{d (k )}
Data rate R b bps
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Serial to
parallel
converter
n bit
M 2n
Digital to
analogue
converter
levels
PM
MPSK
Rs Rb / n
29
What is the Quadrature Method?

The quadrature method of generating PSK signals is the most
widely used method in practice.
m
y
(
t
)
A
.
cos[
] can be
Any signal of the form
c
c
M
represented by a superposition of cosines and sinusoids.
m
m
yn (t ) Ac . cos(ct ) cos(2 ) Ac . sin(ct ) sin(2 )
M
M
I m cos(ct ) Qm sin(ct )
Where:
I m Ac cos(2m / M )
is the in - phase component amplitude
Qm Ac sin(2m / M ) is the quadrature component amplitude

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What is the Quadrature Method?

This can also be represented in complex form as:
vm I m jQm
The quadrature component, Qm is then modulated with a
sinusoidal carrier while the in-phase component, I m is
modulated with a co-sinusoidal carrier.
These are then subtracted from each other to produce the
varying phase signal.
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Using Quadrature Method to Implement PSK

A block diagram of how the quadrature method is implemented
is shown:
+
-
We will examine this type of modulation in more depth next

lecture when we discuss ways in which quadrature modulation
schemes can be visualised.
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M-PSK Demodulation
To demodulate a M-PSK signal we need to use a synchronous
demodulator.
A M-PSK demodulator is very similar to the synchronous FSK
demodulator:
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Demodulation of FSK
There are two main methods of FSK demodulation:
synchronous and asynchronous.
Shown below is the synchronous method using local oscillators
and phase locked loops (PLLs).
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Demodulation of FSK
The other method is the asynchronous method with makes use
of band pass filtering and envelope detection.
This block diagram is for binary FSK but it can be extended to
M-FSK as well.
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PSK is equivalent to a digital
version of phase modulation
(PM).
Binary PSK (a.k.a. BPSK) is

shown at the top, 4-PSK
(a.k.a. QPSK) is shown at the
bottom.
The general formula for an
M-PSK signal is:
m
y(t ) Ac .h1 (t ). cos[ct 2 ]
M
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Using DSB/SC to Implement BPSK

Interestingly BPSK can be implemented using the DSB/SC
AM modulation method.
This technique is specific to BPSK where only two levels are
used, -1 (for a zero) and +1 (for a one).
i.e.
Ac . cos(ct ), m 0
yn (t ) Ac . cos[c t m ]
Ac . cos(ct ), m 1
Ac d (t ) cos(ct )
This method also allows for demodulation using a

synchronous AM demodulator.
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Using PM Techniques to Implement PSK

M-PSK can be implemented using analogue phase modulation
techniques.
This modulator will take in an M-level analogue input.
In this case we will need a digital to analogue converter.
Input data stream

{d (k )}
Data rate R b bps
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Serial to
parallel
converter
n bit
M 2n
Digital to levels
analogue
R Rb / n
converter s
PM
MPSK
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Using Quadrature Method to Implement M-PSK

The quadrature method of generating PSK signals is the most
widely used method in practice.
m
y
(
t
)
A
.
cos
c
can be
An M-PSK signal of the form
c
M
represented by a superposition of cosines and sinusoids.

This can be implemented in practice by modulating symbols
onto two carriers, one a sinusoid the other a cosine and adding
them together before transmitting:
+
-
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To fully understand the quadrature method we need to review
how sinusoids can be represented by phasors.
Phasors can represent a sinusoid by plotting a magnitude and
phase angle on a circular (polar) figure.
As the phase of a sinusoid increases, the angle of the phasor
also increases:
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Alternatively phasors can be represented in Cartesian form:
Polar form is written mathematically as a magnitude term and a
phase term: z (t ) r .
while Cartesian form is written mathematically as x- and ycoordinates on the Cartesian plane: z t x jy .
The conversion between these two forms are given below:

Polar form
Cartesian form
z r
z x jy
Converting from Cartesian form :
Converting from polar form :
r x2 y2
x r cos( )
tan 1 y / x
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y r sin( )
41
Cartesian and Polar Coordinate Systems

The Cartesian plane (top figure)
has x- and y- axes and the point
is represented as an x and y
coordinate relative to the origin
(0,0).
In this example the point is (5,2).
The Polar plane (below) is
circular and represents points
as a magnitude and angle from
the point.
0
In this example the same point
is given as
.
5.40.12
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EEET2369 Signals and Systems
Example 6.2: Review of Phasors

Use the following diagrams to find the polar and Cartesian
forms of the phasors shown:
1
0.5
0.5
/4
zt r and zt x jy
-0.5
-1
-1
-/2
-0.5
-0.5
0.5
-1
-1
-0.5
0.5
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
0.5
0.5
5/4
-0.5
-0.5
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0.5
-1
-1
-0.5
43
Example 6.2: Review of Phasors

For these four phasors, the polar/Cartesian forms are:
z1 (t ) 1
Polar
4

z1 t cos j sin
4
4
1
1
j
Cartesian
2
2
z2 (t ) 1
Polar
2

z2 t cos
j sin
2
2
0 j Cartesian
5
Polar
4
5
5
z4 t cos j sin
4
4
1
1
j
Cartesian
2
2
z4 (t ) 1
z3 (t ) 1
Polar
z3 t cos j sin
1 j 0 Cartesian
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When used to describe sinusoidal signals, the Cartesian form
of these phasors (i.e. z x jy ) can be interpreted as the
weights for a sinusoid and a cosinusoid.
The real part of the phasor ( x ) can be considered the

amplitude of a cosinusoidal wave.
The imaginary part of the phasor (y) can be considered the
amplitude of a sinusoidal wave.
When added together using phasor addition these will give a
single cosine with the corresponding magnitude and phase
described by the polar form z r .
This is the principle behind generating M-PSK signals using
the quadrature technique.
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Example 6.3: Quadrature Modulation (QPSK)

A QPSK system modulates binary data onto four different
phase carrier waves as follows:
00
cos c
4
10
cos c
01
cos c
11
cos c
Find the in-phase (real), I m and quadrature (imaginary), Qm

components that are used to modulate the two sine/cosine
carriers.
Show how these carriers are added together to form the above
signals.
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Example 6.3: Quadrature Modulation (QPSK)

The waveforms for these four modulated symbols are:
1

00
I1 cos
, Q1 sin
2
4
4
3 1
3
01
I 2 cos
, Q2 sin
2
4
4
s1 t
2
1
s2 t
2
5 1
5 1
10
I 3 cos
, Q3 sin
s3 t
4
4
2
2

7 1
7 1
11
I 4 cos
, Q4 sin
s4 t
2
2
4
4
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1
cos c t
2
1
cos c t
2
1
cos c t
2
1
cos c t
2
1
sin c t
2
1
sin c t
2
1
sin c t
2
1
sin c t
2
47

In general for all phases in an M-PSK system this process is:
m
m
yn (t ) Ac . cos(ct ) cos(2 ) Ac . sin(ct ) sin(2 )
M
M
I m cos(ct ) Qm sin(ct )
Where I m is the In-phase component which alters the
amplitude of the cosine carrier and Qm is the quadrature
component which alters the amplitude of the sine carrier.
The modulated sinusoidal carrier is then subtracted from the
modulated cosinusoidal carrier to give the required signal of
correct amplitude and phase.
This leads to a new way of visualising PSK modulation
schemes; the constellation diagram.
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Constellation Diagrams
Constellation diagrams are a helpful tool when designing a PSK
modulation scheme using quadrature techniques.
These diagrams mark points on an in-phase vs quadrature map
(complex plane).
From these diagrams the magnitude of in-phase (cosine) and
quadrature (sine) carrier can be determined.
For M-PSK these points are distributed in a circular pattern. i.e.
constant amplitude but varying phase.
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Some common constellation diagrams for M-PSK are shown.
The first constellation point is usually offset by:
initial phase ( / M )
BPSK
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QPSK
8-PSK
50
To improve the effectiveness of this method grey coding is also
used instead of natural binary encoding.
Grey coding makes sure there is only a single bit difference
between neighbouring constellation points.
This will ensure if error does occur, an adjacent constellation
point will most likely be decoded, minimising error.
Decimal:
Natural binary: 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111
Grey Code:
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000 001 011 010 110 111 101 100
51
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

Quadrature amplitude modulation is a combination of ASK and
PSK.
Where PSK consists of constant amplitude but varying phase,

QAM assigns both phase and amplitude information to the Qm
and I m components.
QAM is currently one of the most popular methods used in the
modulation of digital data.
Its used in computer modems, mobile communications and is

the initial modulation scheme employed in digital television and
audio broadcasting.
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Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

The general structure of a QAM modulated signal is given as:
yi (t ) Am1. cos(c t m 2 )
Am1 cos(m 2 ) cos(c t ) Am1 sin(m 2 ) sin(c t )
I m cos(ct ) Qm sin(c t ),
m 1,..., M
I i (t ) Qi (t )
Where m1 0,..., M1 and m2 0,..., M 2 are all the possible
amplitude and phase combinations, ( Am1 , m 2) that can be
assigned.
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PSK vs. QAM

Except for 4-QAM which is similar to 4-PSK, M-QAM symbols
can be arranged in different geometries.
These geometries will affect the power consumption as
amplitudes will be assigned differently.
The most popular geometry for QAM is the square
constellation.
This type of QAM can be modulated and demodulated using
similar methods to M-PSK modulation and demodulation.
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PSK vs. QAM Constellations

Shown is a contrast of the constellation diagrams for both 16PSK and square 16-QAM.
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QAM Implementation
QAM modulation can be implemented using a similar
quadrature method used in modulating PSK signals.
The main difference will be the in-phase and quadrature
components will add together to change the carrier amplitude
as well as its phase at the output (for QAM orders > 4).
+
-
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QAM Demodulation
QAM demodulation is similar to M-PSK except both magnitude
and phase needs to be compared before a decision can be
made on a transmitted symbol.
A minimum distance measure is used since we are looking at

a vector comparison.
dim [( xi I m ) 2 ( z1 Qm ) 2 ]
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Example 6.4: 4-QAM Modulation

Use 4-QAM to encode the stream: 100110100011
Assume the modulation scheme outputs a signal that follows

the constellation diagram shown below:
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Firstly the signal enters the 1-bit S/P converter which converts
data into two streams:
010001
100110100011
101101
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Next the DAC converts the ones and zeros into voltage levels.
In this system a one is converted to +1 Volt and a zero
becomes -1 Volt:
010001
-1 1 -1 -1 -1 1
101101
1 -1 1 1 -1 1
Finally these voltage levels are used to modulate the quadrature

carriers, for example the first symbol, 11 will be modulated as:
yi t cosct sin ct 2 cos ct

4
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Assume the modulation scheme outputs a signal that follows
the constellation diagram shown below:
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Firstly the signal enters the 2-bit S/P converter which converts
data into two streams:
011011
100110100011
101000
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The DAC converts the symbols into voltage levels:
00 -> -1 Volt, 01 -> +1 Volt, 10 -> -3 Volts and 11->+3 Volts:
011011
1 -3 3
101000
-3 -3 -1
The voltage levels are used to modulate the quadrature carriers.

For example, 0011 would be modulated as:
yi t 3 cosct sinct 10 cosct 0.1
1010 as:
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yi t 3 cosct 3 sin ct 18 cos ct

4
63
Finally
In this lecture we have looked at digital modulation techniques.
We started by looking as ASK, FSK and PSK which are basic
digital modulation techniques.
We looked at how these schemes can be implemented.
Next lecture we will look at constellation mapping and how we
can use this technique to design a M-PSK or M-QAM modulation
scheme.
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EEET2465 Lecture 6

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EEET2465 Communication Engineering

Digital modulation is commonly used in applications such as

EEET2465 Communication Engineering

EEET2465 Communication Engineering

Baseband Modulation Mapping

EEET2465 Communication Engineering

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

In the on-off keying case (OOK, shown below) a zero is given

EEET2465 Communication Engineering

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Morse Code (OOK)

EEET2465 Communication Engineering

This is when multiple bits are encoded using a single voltage

EEET2465 Communication Engineering

EEET2465 Communication Engineering

EEET2465 Communication Engineering

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

EEET2465 Communication Engineering

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

EEET2465 Communication Engineering

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

EEET2465 Communication Engineering

Or for greater frequency/phase continuity M-FSK can be

EEET2465 Communication Engineering

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Sample AFSK modem signal at 1200 bps:

EEET2465 Communication Engineering

Where B is the message bandwidth, which is the first-null

For raised-cosine shaped pulses this would be:

EEET2465 Communication Engineering

Example 6.1: Bandwidth in FSK

Assume the initial binary data was encoded at a bit rate of

EEET2465 Communication Engineering

Example 6.1: Bandwidth in FSK

f max 2200 1700 500 Hz

EEET2465 Communication Engineering

Example 6.1: Bandwidth in FSK

W 2 f max 2Rb 3400 Hz

f1=1200 fc=1700 f0=2200

EEET2465 Communication Engineering

EEET2465 Communication Engineering

EEET2465 Communication Engineering

EEET2465 Communication Engineering

Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

Shown is the binary version of PSK (a.k.a. BPSK).

EEET2465 Communication Engineering

Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

Then the general formula for a PSK signal is given as:

is the total number of phases that can be used to

is the encoded signals level

EEET2465 Communication Engineering

EEET2465 Communication Engineering

Bandwidth of BPSK Signals

For raised-cosine shaped pulses this would be:

EEET2465 Communication Engineering

Bandwidth of BPSK Signals

For a polar NRZ line-coded signal, this would give the

EEET2465 Communication Engineering

Bandwidth of PSK Signals

EEET2465 Communication Engineering

Using DSB/SC to Implement BPSK

This method also allows for demodulation using a

EEET2465 Communication Engineering

Using PM Techniques to Implement PSK