-

k.,,

Experimental Study of Crater Formation in Plastically

Deforming Synthetic Rocks
N.

1?. GARNER

JUNIOR MEMBER AIME

CARL

GATLIN

MEMBER AIME

ABSTRACT
Results oj impulsive wedge penetration tests on two
synthetic, plastically deforming rocks are presented. Basic
dtr;a obtained were force-time,
di.splacetnent-time,
attd
force-displacement
curves for the impacts, plus the craler
geometry.
Wedge geometry and blow freqt4ency were
varied over a citttsideruble range. The synthetic rocks
consisted of wax-sand mixtures; two waxes of different
ductilities were used to provide variable Crockcharacteristics. Conventional
triaxia[ tests showed that these synthetic rocks exhibited force-deformation
ct4rves and Mohr
envelopes quite simi[ar to real rocks, except that strengths
were much lower,
Measured forces from stt4tic penetration tests agreed
closely with theoretical values; however, dynamic force
vah4es were much higher than the ,static. These latter
c[isparities are attributed to the viscous nature of the
waxes. Th14s tile utility of these or similar rock models
must depend on the seeding of rock vi.rcosity, witich i.s
CISyet 14nknowtl for impu[sive loadings at elevated stress
states. it appears, however, that s4mte macroscopic, static
pheitotnena may be studied with wax.sattd rock tnode[,s.

INTRODUCTION
The resistance of solid materials to indentation or perforation by projectiles or other penetrators has been
studied by workers in many areas. Despite these efforts
no universally accepted laws or formulas are available
for describing experimental observations. In the metals
field the force-deformation behavior of impacting bodies
is often analyzed by the Hertz law for elastic collisions,
the Meyer law if plastic deformations occur, or some
com~nation of both. The similarities of these expressions
to empirical drilling formulas of the oil industry are
apparent.
Beginning with the basic contributions of Simon and
co-workers at ,Battelle,* a number of experimental papers
coneerrdng the reaction of rocks to vertical impact have
appeared in the U. S. mining and petroleum literature.:-
Most published data have, to date, been obtained at
atmospheric pressure, although some early high pressure
information was reported by Payne and Chippendale?
.
..

-.

Original manuscript received in Society of Petxolermr Enginetws office

Dec. 14, 1SS2. Revlmd manuscript received June 24, 1966. Paper presented at Texas U.-SPE Drilling and flock Me@hanics Clmferenoe, Jan,
28-24, 1968, irr Austin. Te%.
*Now
rtssocl@ed with Jersey Production. Research. Co,, TUISR, Okhr.
preferences gtven at end of paper,
SEPTEMBER,

1963-

THE U. OF TEXAS
TEX.

AUSTIN,

Maurer has recently utilized available brittle impact data

to develop a drilling rate equation based on the experimentally observed proportionality between crater volume
. and blow energy, His result agreed with earlier efforts
by both Somerton, who used dimensional analysis, and
Outmans~ who used plasticity theory.
It has long been known that rocks exhibit ditfertmt
modes of failure depending on the state of stress, The
literature in this area is considerable; however, ptipers
by Bredthauer~ Handin and Hager,N and Robinson
are adequate to illustrate the point,
Since rocks flow plastically at certain triaxial stress
conditions, the mathematical theory of plasticity has
been used to analyze the rock drilling problen~. Cheatham(
has altered the wedge indentation solution of Prandtl to
rocks, and has developed useful equations for penett%tor
forces under a vwiety of conditions. OuWnans has utilized HNs solution in a similar manner to develop a
drilling rate equation. Both Cheatham and Outsmns used
the linear Mohr-Coulonlb rule to relate rock streng[h
and confining pressure.
The actual stress at the hole bottom is not easily ascertained,, although photoelastic studies by &dle and Wilhoit~ plus the analytical treatment of Cheathttm and
Wilhoit provide some insight. Consequently it is not
clear to what extent the highly idealized theological model
of a perfectly plastic solid can be realistically applied to
the rock drilling problem.
This paper is the first report on a long range experimental study of crater formation in rocks at elevated
stress states. The data presented here are from the first
phase of the project, Data obtained from impulsive wedge
impacts on two synthetic, plastical Iy deforming rocks are
presented,
MODEL ROCKS
Geologists have iong been faced with modelling the
bebavior of the earth and, as a consequence, have studied
scafing problems in some detail, In general, their main
problem is handling the wide disparity between laboratory and geologic time. In our studies the time effects
(blow veIocity or rate of loading, blow duration, etc. )
were essentially tie same for both model and prototype,
as were wedge geometry and tooth penetration, Thus
applfca~on of available scaling laws suggests that sireilaritv is obtained if the stress-strriin curves of model and
prot~fype are similar:i For- this reas~n Hubbert arid WiIIis=r .10s5

.
*

have, for example, used gelatin models in hydraulic frac-,

turing studies.
An addhional cot. . ,~tion attendant to any impulsive
or impact blow experiment is the scaling of strain rate
effects. Strict similitude requires, in our case, that these
be the same for model and rock, Unfortunately, the general role of strain rate in short term rock deformation
is not well established; hence, we ignore this factor at
thk time.
Macroscopic similarity of the distortion patterns around
, an !mbedded wedge requires that any characteristic failure
angles of the prototype be preserved in the model. This
is equivalent to requiring that the envelopes to the respective Mohr circles at failure be parallel. No attempts were
made to include pore pressure control, since the models
were non-porous,
MODEL SELECTION

AND PREPARATION

Se~eral investigators of brittle fracture have used synthetic rocks for experimental purposes quite successfully.
Typical materials have been concrete, sand-plaster and
sand-plastic aggregates. Following these leads, and after
considerable lack of success with other materials, wax
was chosen as a suitable matrix material. Wax has been
used by others as a satisfactory model for studying crater
formation in metals? Waxes are readily available in a
wide range of ductilities; two types, which have been
used, are listed in Table 1.
Graded Ottawa sand (60-1 00 mesh) was used as aggregate to furnish some type of granular texture, and hence
inrertsul friction, in the models. Thus the synthetic, duclile
rocks consisted of a wax-sand aggregate. Variation of
wa~ type gave models of different ductility.
All test samples were prepared as follows:
1. The wax was melted in a mold and maintained at
10-20 above its melting point.
2. Sand at equal temperature was slowly added to the
melted wax. Early samples had visible beterogeneities,
which were eliminated by sample vibration during sand
addition. This was furnished by attaching a small vibrator
to the mold,
3. The mixture was allowed to COOIat room temperature,
4. After cooling, sample surfaces were smoothed according to the test purposes,
For the impulsive blow tests the samples were prepared in cylindrical pans, made of 7-in, diameter pipe,
1% in. deep, with a welded plate bottom. This pan was
placed directly under the wedge penetrator for impact
tests. Samples for compressive tests were molded in
smooth, %-in. diameter aluminum tubes.
TRIAXIAL

~OMFRESSION

stimple strength and contining pressures were lower by

a factor of approximately 10. At confining pressures above.
200 to 300 psi, both, samples exhibited very nearly the
ideal plastic behavior; the inaterial flowed at near constant stress above the yield point. The appearance of
the deformed samples also resembled published photographs of real rocks, At confining pressures above 100
psi neither sample actually broke, but flowed into the
classic barrel shape, At atmospheric pressure the samples
tictuall y broke into two or more pieces.
Figs. 1 and 2 show Mohr failure envelopes for both
rocks at O, 250, 500, and 750 psi confining pressure, The
values are lower than those generally reported for real
rocks, as was expected from the greater ductility of the
material. Some flattening is evident for the Be Square
data at 750 psi; however, both envelopes are essentially
linear over the range tested. From two to four tests were
run at each confining pressure.
EXPERIMENTAL

APPARATUS

AND PROCEDURE

All impact studies have utilized the chipper, which

was originally designed and built by Jersey Production
Research Co. Briefly, it permits the striking of single
blows on a rock surface at various frequencies, Blow
motion is controlled by cam design, such that he displacement-time curve of the chisel is sinusoids ;.:oviding the rock suspension system is sufficiently rigid at the
blow magnitudes being used. This latter point is discussed by Appl and Gatley/ since in their tests the impact forces were so high that flexure of the chipper frame
appreciably altered the relative displacement-time curve
between chisel and rocks. This problem has been avoided
by redesigning the system to remove the load from the
chipper frame. The table, which holds the sample, is
now suspended from the upper base plate by four 1%in. diameter steel rods (Fig. 3). The lower base plate is
also heavily braced. This system is exceedingly rigid, and
undergoes no appreciable displacements at the encountered loads. The velocity transducer is mounted on the
cam follower, since cam motion and relative motion
between rock and chisel are now essential y identicul.

M!

CC6SW5SION

/:

/.

20C0

J \

\\
o

lcoo7so mom

NW!

r
\ TENSION

NORMAL
STR=S,PSI
FIG.

lMosrasENVELOPE FOR BE SQUARESAMPLES AT CONFIMN

Pmssums OF 0, 2-50,500 AND 750 PSI, T = C + u TAN d,
~ =

TESTS

]75

24.

PSI, # =

Conventional triaxia[ tests were performed on cylinders, % in. diameter by 1M in. long, of both model
rocks. A pressure vessel identical to Robinsons was
used. The test cylinders were encased in either thin rubber or plastic jackets to exclude the hydraulic oil used
to exert the contlning pressure, The force-deformation
curves obtained were qualitatively similar to those obtained by Robinson for Indiana limestone, except that
TASLE 1BARECO MICROCRYSTALLINE

Ultrdlw,
Be Square 1S0/1 S5
10S6

WAXES

(Patrollte Corp,, $areco Wax Ce, Div., Tulsa,

wax TYPS

.Iwogj
w
800 m
E

ccf4PREssto4
2000

Okla.)
API
?enatral[ on,
77 F

MdtingFPoInt,
.145.

J 80

30.
II

500

1200

SW

400

0 TENSION

t41JRMALSTRESS, PSI
I%

.7MOITRS
. .. .... . .ENVELOPE
. ------- FOR ULTRAFLEX SAMPLE AT

- -- pnESSuR~soF G,fil), 500 AND750 PSI,

c =. IOOPSI,+ =

T =

17.

CONFINING

C + U TAN ~,

ULTRAFLEX

Ftc.

3MODIFIED ROCK Cmrrm.

This alteration was necessary for later work on real rocks,

since the transducer could not be placed inside the pressure chamber.
A short, hollow shaft connects the chisel point to the
chipper mechanism, and serves as a dynamometer. Strain
gauges, mounted on this shaft, transmit force signals to
a Tektronix Model 533A, oscilloscope, SimultaneousIy,
the velocity transducer with integrating circuit transmits
the displacement signal to the scope. Both variables are
displayed as functions of time and are photographed
from the first scope display with a polaroid camera, A
second oscilloscope cross plots the two signals to give
a force-displacement record, which is also photographed.
Thus the basic data dbtained for each blow are the
above three curves from the two scopes, plus the crater
geometry,
All impact tests on models were conducted at atmospheric pressure, with the molds containing the wax-sand
mixture secured by clamps on the lower table of the
chipper. The chisel point was positioned just above the
sample surface, to give a series of tests at constant tooth
penetration of approximately 0.209 in., except for the
1209 wedge impacting the Be Square model, in which
case the penetration was 0,100 in, Chipper speeds of
450, 600, 750, and 900 rpm were used in the Be Square
tests; the 450 rpm tests were not run on the Ultraflex,
Wedges angles for 30, 60, 900 and 120 were used
at each speed. All wedges had a 0,05-in. flat; however,
an additional test series was performed using a sharp 60
wedge. In addition, static penetration tests were run
using a conventional compression machine with forcepenetration curves bking recorded by an x-y plotter.

BE SQUARE 180/ 185

Fm

4PHOTOGII,WIIIS OF TYPIC.M. CniTms FoRmD

OF 9(I WEIIIJ:.

nY IMPACT

of the lip were greatly weakened, and the material could

be easily broken off and removed. In neither case, however, was there any extra chipping or scabbing of the
type associated with brittle failure, The craters were in
all cases a near perfect impression of the tooth, except
for the fake wedge, below the fl~t. The false wedge
definitely existed in all cases, and often adhered to the
tooth and was withdrawn from the crater,
Figs, 5 and 6 show the oscilloscope records for typical
blows, The curves for each sample are, from top to
bottom: displacement-time, force-time and force-displacement. Sweep speed was 2 milliseconds/cn~ in both
cases with time increasing from left to right. Displacement-time is essentially sinusoidal, being closely approx-

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Two distirictly different crater formations were observed, as shown in Fig. 4, The craters in the Ultraflex
sample have the classic, raised lip around the depression,
and conform in general appearance with the Hill-Outmans solution to wedge indentation, The dkplaced mate-.
rial has flowed without 10SSof cohesion and exists as
an extruded mass, The lip material was not easily removed, and appeared to have lost little strength as a
result of its displacement.
-The craters in the Be Square sample indicated a somewhat ditYerent faiIure mode. The displaced material was
not confined to a smooth lip, but had a. ragged, featherIike appearance. The appafent laminations of the lip
material suggest that failure occurred in. finite steps rather
than by. continuous flow, In this case the ragged edges
SEPTEMBER,

1963
,---

where x = vertical dkplacement of wedge,

A = amplitude, or maximum vertical wedge
travel,
t = time from start of wedge travel, and
T = period for complete blow cycle; this is
related to chipper rpm as follows:
rpm
450
600
750
900

T, millisec.
11.1
8.33
,6.67
5.56

The small vifwitions. (middle curves) occurring about

.4 miflissxonds before the main force wave me cms?d.

FIG. 5TYPICAL OSCILLOSCOPERECORDS FOR BE SQUARE MODEL.

CHWPSR SPEED= 450 RPM, WEDGEANGLE = 60, FLAT WIDTII =
0.05 IN., BLOW PENETRATION= 0.209 m.

h.
6-~YPICAL OSCILLOSCOPE RECORDS FOR ULTRAFI,H ~hmm
CHIPPER SPEED.= 450 tuw, WEDGE ANGLE = 60, FLAT WIDTN =
0.05 IN., BLOW pHW~I\ATtOS
= 0,209
IX,
).

7 and 8 show the maximum forces as functions

of wedge angte and chlppei speed for the conditions
noted, Also shown are static values measured with the
testing machine. While no measurable effect of blow
frequency is apparent from 450 to 900 chipper rpm,
the static values are much lower in all. cases. The experimental points are an average of three tests, Figs. 9
and 10 show similar trends with blow energy.
Because of experimental difficulties, wedges of essentially two lengths, V4 and 11A in., were used for various
tests, In the case of the 90 wedge, both widths were
used, Inspection of the forces and blow energies on a
per-inch-of-chisel-width basis indicated that end effects
were appreciable; i.e., the problem could not be considered purely two-dimensional. In the 90 wedge tests,
end effects consumed approximately 40 per cent of the
blow energy. for the s%-in., and 28 per cent for the 1%in. wedges. Similarly, about 20 and 13 per cent, respectively, of the measured forces were attributable to the
end effects. Consequently, agreement between two-dimensional analytical formulas and experimental results may
be adversely affected for chisels of this width. This
phenomenon was not considered in detail, but is a pertinent scaling prob[em. The results plotted in Figs. 7 to
10 are the measured forces divided by chisel length and
therefore reflect some end effects. Actual chisel lengths
are listed on the figures,
One series of tests for each wax was run with a 60
sharp wedge, i.e., no 0,05-in. flat. Tooth penetration
was the same as for the flat case. Blow energy per unit
volume of displaced material (or unit volume of imbedded wedge) was approximately 10 pei cent lower
for the dull tooth in both cases. Effective crater volumes
for the flat teeth, included the false wedge volume ahead
of the actual tooth. The, peak forces for the 60 sharp
Figs.

by the cam striking the follower to drive the chisel downward, and are nearly damped by the time the chisel impacts the rock. The initia[ position of the chisel was
about 0,010 in. above the sample surface. A second
vib~ation of this type occurs at chisel impact; however, this is also quickly damped. In both curves the
forces undergo a sharp initial increase. After this the
slopes decrease gradually and approach zero as maximum
tooth displacement is approached. The noticeable difference between the curves for the two rocks is the greater
rounding at the top of the force curve for the U1traflex
sample.
The phenomena are better observed from the forcepenetration curves. The force has a rapid initial build-up
caused by the 0.05.in. flat. The Be Square sample exhibits this to a penetration of 0.005 in. This portion of
the Ultraflex curve is less linear, however, and tooth
penetration is about 0.010 in. before the force curve
flattens. Both curves then exhibit reasonable linearity
until about O,16-in. tooth penetration. Beyond thk, the
Ultrafiex sample indicates continued penetration at constant force, out to 0,20 in, Thk is believed due to strain
rate or viscous effects, since wedge velocity is decreasing
in this part of the blow, Also note that prior to maximum tooth penetration the force drops slightly. The
Be Square sample (more brittte) does not show this
degree of strain rate sensitivity; its force curve remains
linear until penetration is nearly complete. Note, however, that force again drops prior to maximum penetration, although not so sharply. Some elastic recovery (rebound) is apparent in both samples, since neither curye
drops vertically to zero load when &e wedge stirts upward. These are, real effects, well within the accuracy
--range of the recordhlg system,
1028
.
.

JOURNAL

OF PETROLEOM

TECHNOLOGY

.,
wedge are also shown in Figs. 7 and 8 ( 60S), and may
be compared with dull tooth values at the same penetration; this is not at the same crater volume, however.
Theoretical values of maximum forces were calculated
from Cheathams formulasfl using the Mohr envelope
constan~ from Figs, 1 and 2, and are compared with
experimental values in Figs. 11 and 12. RIe Be Square
static data fall within the rough and smooth tooth cases;
however, static forces for the Ultratlex are slightly above
the rough tooth case. As pointed out by Cheatham, the
force contribution of the flat is not easy to calculate for
the rough tooth, since the pseudo wedge angle y of the
false wedge is not well defined. The value used herein
was from the Terzaghi
assumption,
y = T/2 @
Dynamic forces are also shown on Figs. 11 and 12,
clearly indicating the considerable disparity between static
penetration and dyuamic impact for the model rocks. The
dynamic values do, however, follow the theoretical trends.
Fig. 13 compares typical force-displacement curves.
Note that the static case is close to that of the theoretical
rough tooth, but that the dynamic is quite different. It is
therefore clew that the model rocks exhibit a viscous
effect at appreciable blow velocities. Consequently the
utility of these models for dynamic tests must depend on
whether or not rocks in the plastic state exhibit similar
behavior. Single blow impact tests on real rocks at skulated borehole stress state are in progress, using the
same basic apparatus. Preliminary results on limestone
show no appreciable viscosity effects; hence, the use of
these model rocks for dynamic tests is dubious.

this paper. For this the interested reader is referred to

the original work.
CONCLUSIONS
Experimental data indicate the following macroscopic
possibilities for the use of model rocks composed of wax
and sand.
1. The materials used exhibit static faihsre envelopes
similar to real rocks,
2. Wtqes of different types can be used to impart
different degrees of ductility to the models,
3. Marked strain rate effects exist in the models; hence,
force-displacement data from dynamic tests using waxsand models may not be representative of real rock tests.
4, Static force-penetration data compare reasonably well
with Cheathams formulas, and hence fit the mathemat icaI
model used in that work.
Many interesting possibilities for devising various rheoIogical models to simulate real rocks are apparent. Other
basic studies of sand grain geometq effects, and/or the
use of other matrix materials are ODViOUS extensions of
this approach, and should yield valuable insight into the
mechanics of rock failure.
PEN

WIDTH
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450
CHIPPER, RPM
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ULTiMFLEX SAIUPLES.
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......

SEPTEMBER,

1969

.,$
3400.
F
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5

d300
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STATIC, DULL TOOTH

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30
60
90
WEOGE ANGLE, DE6REES

FIC. 11COMPARISON or CALCULATEDAND EXPERIMENTALFORCE,

BE SQU.4RE MODEL. WEDGE PENETRATION= 0.208 IN. ROUGH AND
SMOOTH CLRVESCALCULATEDFnobr CHEATHAM FORMULAS,

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was sponsored by the API as part of Project 67E. The authors express their gratitude to API for
its financial support and for permission to publish these
results. In addjtion, the material contributions and other
assistance from Jersey Production Research Co., and
the Production Research Div. of the Humble Oil &
Refining Co. are also acknowledged, as is the advice
and counsel recejved from the Research Engineering
Dept,, Hughes Tool Co. The laboratory assistance of
P, D. Friemel and .4, Podio is also gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
1. Goldsmith,

W.:

London (1960),

Impact, hdwnrd Arnold Publishers, Ltd.,

2, Collected Reports: Drilling Research, Inc. (1949.54).

.,3 Hartman, H, L.: Basic Studies of Percussion Drilling,
Mining ,??ngbwwring(Jan., 1959) 68.
4, Appl, F, C, and Gatley, W, S,: Rate of Loading Effects in
Chisel Impact, Sot, Pet, Eng. Jour. (June, 1962) 105.
5. Vansant, B. W,: Dynamic Rock Penetration Tests at Atatos
pheric Pressure, Proc,, 5th Rock Mechanics Symposium,
U. of Mhnesotsr, Pergamon

15.

Press (May, 1962),

6. Gnirk, P. F. and Fairhurst, C,: Investigation of the Indexing

Phenomenon

for Static Single.Tooth

Penetration

in Indians

Limestone, API Prtgresa Report, Proj. 67A (Aug., 1962).

16.

i. Somerton, W. H, arid f3mur, A.: Stress Behavior of Rock

Under Drilling Loading Conditions, Paper SPE.166, presented at the 36th Annual Fall Meeting, Society of Petroleum
Engineers, Dallas (Oct., 1961 ).

8. Payne, L, L. and Chippendale, W.: Hard Rock Drilling,

Drill, Contr, (June, 1953).
9, Maurer, W, C.: The Perfect-C1eaning Theory of Rotary
Drilling, .Iour. Pet, lec~ (Nov., 1962) 1,270,
io.

Somerton, W. H.: A Laboratory St~:dyof Rock Breakage by

Rotary Drilling, Trans., AIME (1959) 216,92,

IL

Orrtrnans, H, D.: The Effect of Some Drilling Variables on

the Instantaneous Rate of Penetration, ?rans, AIME (1960)

12.

219, 1,
Bredthauer, R, O.: Strength Characteristicsof Rock Samples
?J$$, Hydrostatic Pressure, M. S. Thesis, Rice Institute

13, Handin, J. and Hager, R, V,, Jr.: ExperirnerrtalDeformation

of Sedimentary Rocks Under Confining Pressure: Tests at
Room Temperature on Dry Samples, BNU., AAPG (1957)
41* 1.
14.

Robhreon, L. H.: The Mechaniee of Rock Failure, C~lorado

School O/ Mines Qg2y. (JuIy, 1959) 54, -No, 3; 177.

17.

18.

19,
-20.
21.
22,

23,
24,