WILJAM FLIGHT TRAINING

Chapter 1.6
Machmeter
Introduction
During flight, aeroplanes emit pressure disturbances (sound waves), which radiate in all
directions at the speed of sound. As the speed of an aeroplane increases, it gets progressively
closer to the waves ahead of it until, at the speed of sound, the pressure waves combine into a
shock wave and attach themselves to the aeroplane. The effect of the shock wave is to greatly
increase the drag forces associated with the aeroplane, and to significantly alter its stability and
control characteristics. It is therefore extremely important for the flight crew to know how close
to the speed of sound the aeroplane is. The instrument used to indicate this is the Machmeter,
which measures the ratio of the aeroplanes airspeed (TAS) to the local speed of sound, and
displays it as a Mach number.
Mach No. = V/A (Where V = TAS and A = Local Speed of Sound)
Critical Mach Number (Mcrit)
This is the speed of an aeroplane that is defined in terms of the speed of the free stream airflow.
In practice the speed of the local airflow at any point around the structure varies considerably
and the local airflow may reach the speed of sound when the free stream speed is much lower.
The free stream speed at which any element of the local airflow reaches the speed of sound will
result in local shockwaves forming on the structure. The free stream Mach number then
becomes the Critical Mach Number (Mcrit). Unless specifically designed for that purpose, an
aeroplane should not be flown beyond Mcrit and the value of Mcrit is highlighted by an index mark
on the face of the Machmeter.
CRITICAL
MACH
INDEX

.8

.7

MACH

.9

.6
.5

1.0

In commercial operations, it is common practice to set a lower limit known as the Maximum
Operating Mach number (Mmo)
Principle of Operation
The Speed of Sound varies only with temperature. As the temperature increases so the local
speed of sound increases and vice versa. The precise relationship is that the speed of sound
(A) varies with the square root of the absolute temperature ( Kelvin - K) of the environment.
This can be written as New A/ Old A = New K/ Old K.. Using the known values of the speed of sound
at ISA mean sea level of 661.7knots where the temperature (in degrees Kelvin) is 288, this can
be re-written as:
A = 38.94 temperature in Kelvin.

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or [644 + 1.2t] where t = OAT in C (estimation only).
N.B: ISA temp = 15 - (pressure altitude x 2 per 1000 feet)
Since Mach number is the ratio of TAS to local speed of sound, it may also be rewritten in terms
of pitot and static pressures.
TAS (V) is a function of the dynamic pressure and the local density. Dynamic pressure is, of
course, the difference between pitot (P) and static (S) pressures, ie. P-S (airspeed capsule)
The local speed of sound (A) is also a function of temperature. According to basic gas physics,
temperature is also a function of static pressure (S) and density (altitude capsule).
Since Mach No. = V/A we can rewrite this in a simplified form so that:
V q/
P-S /

AK
S/

is common to both so that:

Mach No. = V/A and is a function of P-S / S
The Machmeter is thus designed to measure the ratio of pitot excess pressure (the difference
between pitot and static) and static pressure.
A relationship also exists between CAS, TAS and Mach Number under ISA conditions. With
increasing altitude the following graphs depict what will occur if one value remains constant:

This is summarised in the following tabular format, including the affect of increasing altitude on
the Local Speed of Sound (LSS).
CAS / IAS

TAS

MACH

LSS

constant

increases

increases

decreases

decreases

constant

increases

decreases

decreases

decreases

constant

decreases

The opposite will occur with decreasing altitude under ISA conditions.
Even if the CAS or MN is unaltered on purpose the MN may change due to a change in the
OAT, eg. high temperature to low temperature, the LSS will decrease, thus to maintain a

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constant MN the TAS must decrease. For example if two aeroplanes are travelling at the same
MN, but at different flight levels the aeroplane at the lower flight level will have a higher TAS.
If an aeroplane climbs or descends through an Isothermal Layer the graphs on the next page
depict what will happen to the other airspeeds, if one of them remains constant. At a constant
Mach number the LSS will remain constant so the TAS will also remain constant, although the
CAS will reduce during a climb, but will increase during a descent, due to the density error.
Conversely at a constant CAS the TAS and Mach number will both increase during a climb, but
will both reduce during a descent.

If an aeroplane climbs or descends through an Inversion Layer the graphs below depict what
will happen to the other airspeeds, if one of them remains constant.

During a climb at a constant Mach number the LSS will increase due to the warmer air so the
TAS will increase, but the CAS will reduce due to the reduction in density. If the aeroplane
climbs at a constant TAS both the Mach number and the CAS will reduce. Conversely if the
aeroplane climbs at a constant CAS the Mach number and the TAS will both increase. During a
descent the reverse will occur, because the LSS will decrease due to the colder air, whilst the
density will increase.
Machmeter Construction and Operation
A typical Machmeter, as shown below, consists of a sealed case containing two capsule
assemblies placed at 90 to each other, and a series of mechanical linkages.

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The first capsule unit is an airspeed capsule, and is connected to the pitot pressure pipeline,
while the interior of the instrument case is fed with static pressure. The second capsule unit is
an aneroid capsule, which responds to changes in static pressure. The airspeed capsule
measures the difference between pitot and static pressure and expands or contracts in
response to air speed changes. The airspeed linkage transfers movement of the capsule to the
main shaft, and causes the shaft to rotate, thus moving a pivoted ratio arm in the direction A-B.
The altitude (aneroid) capsule expands or contracts, and responds to changes in altitude.
Movement of the capsule is transferred to the ratio arm via a spring and pin, thus causing it to
move in the direction C-D.
The position of the ratio arm is therefore dependent on both pitot excess and static pressure.
Movement of the ratio arm controls the ranging arm which, through the linkage and gearing.
This turns the pointer, and displays the Mach Number corresponding to the ratio of pitot excess
pressure and static pressure. Any increase in altitude and/or airspeed will result in a higher
Mach number. The Critical Mach number is indicated by a specially shaped lubber mark, which
is located over the Machmeter dial. It is adjustable so that the critical Mach Number for the
particular type of aeroplane may be displayed.
Calibration
Machmeters are calibrated to a formula relating Mach number to atmospheric conditions of
pressure and density.
Errors
As Mach number is a function of the ratio of pitot excess pressure to static pressure, only those
errors in the measurement of this ratio will affect the Machmeter reading. The errors are:Instrument Errors. Like all instruments, Machmeters are subject to manufacturing
tolerances, although these are extremely small.
Pressure Errors. These errors are small at the altitudes and speed ranges where
Machmeters are used.

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Density, temperature and compressibility errors. These errors are eliminated
because density changes do not alter the dynamic pressure / static pressure ratio.
Blockages and Leakages
Blockages and leaks have the same affect as they do on the ASI, but the effects may be
increased due to the 2 capsules; a blockage in the static system will cause the Machmeter to
over-read during a descent and under-read during a climb.
Accuracy
The accuracy of the Machmeter is within +/- 0.01M during its normal operating range, but
increases to +/- 0.02 M at the limits of that range.
Serviceability Checks
The instrument should read zero when the aeroplane is stationary and a rough check of
IAS/TAS against Mach number should be carried out using the CRP5 computer.
The TAS can be calculated using the CRP5 by setting the OAT against the mach index and
reading off the TAS on the outer scale against a set Mach Number (MN). The LSS can also be
determined by reading the speed on the outer scale, which relates to Mach 1.0 on the inner
scale.

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Intentionally Left Blank

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