WILJAM FLIGHT TRAINING

Instrumentation

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Table of Contents
Section 1 Air Data Instruments
Chapter 1.1 - Air Temperature Measurement
Introduction
Direct Reading Thermometer
Electrical Thermometer
Static Air Temperature Sensor
Total Air Temperature Probe

1.1.1
1.1.2
1.1.2
1.1.3
1.1.4

Chapter 1.2 - Pitot-Static System

Introduction
Pitot Tube
Static Source
Alternate Static Source
Combined Pitot-Static (Pressure) Head
Operating Problems
Pitot/Static System Errors

1.2.1
1.2.1
1.2.1
1.2.2
1.2.4
1.2.4
1.2.4

Chapter 1.3 - Pressure Altimeter

Introduction
Pressure Altitude
Density Altitude
The Simple Altimeter
Datum Sub-scale Settings
The Sensitive Altimeter
Altimeter Displays
Design Errors
Errors due to Calibration
Blockages and Leakages
Servo Altimeters
Operation of a Servo-Altimeter
Servo-Altimeter Power Failure
Altitude Encoding
Advantages of Servo-Altimeters

1.3.1
1.3.1
1.3.1
1.3.1
1.3.2
1.3.3
1.3.4
1.3.6
1.3.6
1.3.7
1.3.8
1.3.9
1.3.10
1.3.10
1.3.10

Chapter 1.4 - Vertical Speed Indicator

Introduction
Principle of Operation
Operation of the VSI
Errors of the VSI
Faults of the VSI
Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator (IVSI)
Operation of the IVSI/ILVSI

1.4.1
1.4.1
1.4.1
1.4.2
1.4.2
1.4.2
1.4.2

Chapter 1.5 - Airspeed Indicator

Introduction
Principle of the Airspeed Indicator (ASI)
Operation of a Simple ASI
Sensitive and Servo Airspeed Indicators
Calibration of the ASI
Colour Coding of the ASI
ASI Errors

1.5.1
1.5.1
1.5.1
1.5.1
1.5.2
1.5.2
1.5.3

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ASI Faults
Calculation of CAS to TAS (up to 300 knots)

1.5.4
1.5.6

Chapter 1.6 - Machmeter

Introduction
Critical Mach Number (MCRIT)
Principle of Operation
Machmeter Construction and Operation
Calibration
Errors
Blockages and leakages
Accuracy
Serviceability Checks

1.6.1
1.6.1
1.6.1
1.6.3
1.6.4
1.6.4
1.6.5
1.6.5
1.6.5

Chapter 1.7 - Mach Airspeed Indicator

Introduction
Display
VMO Pointer
Driven Cursor
Bugs
Linkages
Errors

1.7.1
1.7.1
1.7.1
1.7.1
1.7.1
1.7.2
1.7.2

Chapter 1.8 - Central Air Data Computer

Introduction
The Central Air Data Computer
Conversion of Sensing Pressures
Digital Air Data Computer

1.8.1
1.8.1
1.8.2
1.8.4

Section 2 Magnetism and Aeroplane Compasses

Chapter 2.1 - Basic Magnetism
Introduction
Magnetic Properties
Fundamental Laws of Magnetism
Characteristics of Lines of Magnetic Flux
Magnetic Materials
Permeability
Electromagnetism
An Electromagnet
Magnetic Moments
Period of Oscillation of a Suspended Magnet

2.1.1
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.1.5
2.1.5
2.1.5
2.1.6
2.1.7
2.1.8

Chapter 2.2 - Terrestrial Magnetism

Introduction
Magnetic Dip
Earths Total Magnetic Force
Magnetic Variation

2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.4
2.2.5

Chapter 2.3 - Aeroplane Magnetism

Introduction
Types of Aeroplane Magnetism
Components of Hard Iron Magnetism
Components of Soft Iron Magnetism

2.3.1
2.3.1
2.3.1
2.3.4

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Determination of Deviation Coefficients
Minimum deviation
Maximum Deviation
Joint Airworthiness Requirements (JAR) Limits
Compass Swinging
The Compass Swing procedure
An Example of A Compass Swing
Deviation Compensation Devices

2.3.5
2.3.6
2.3.6
2.3.7
2.3.8
2.3.9
2.3.10
2.3.11

Chapter 2.4 - Direct Reading Magnetic Compass

Introduction
Properties of a Direct Reading Compass
E Type Compass
Pre-flight Checks
Principle of a Pendulum
Acceleration Errors
Turning errors

2.4.1
2.4.1
2.4.2
2.4.3
2.4.3
2.4.4
2.4.7

Chapter 2.5 Remote Indicating Compass

Introduction
RIC Architecture
Principle of a Flux Detector Element
Flux Detector unit
Operation of the Remote Indicating Compass System
Gyroscope Element
Heading Indicator
Modes of operation
Synchronising Indicators
Manual Synchronisation
Operation of an RIC in a Turn
Advantages of a Remote Indicating Gyro Magnetic Compass
Disadvantages of a Remote Indicating Gyro Magnetic Compass

2.5.1
2.5.1
2.5.1
2.5.4
2.5.4
2.5.7
2.5.7
2.5.8
2.5.8
2.5.9
2.5.9
2.5.10
2.5.11

Section 3 Gyroscopic Instruments

Chapter 3.1 - Gyroscopic Principles
Introduction
Principle of Construction
Gyroscopic Properties
Types of Gyroscope
Power Sources for Gyroscopes
The Disadvantages and Advantages of Air Driven Gyros
The Disadvantages and Advantages of Electrically Driven Gyros
Gyro Wander
Examples of Gyro Wander

3.1.1
3.1.1
3.1.2
3.1.4
3.1.5
3.1.6
3.1.6
3.1.7
3.1.10

Chapter 3.2 - Direction Indicator

Introduction
Basic Description of the Direction Indicator
Operation of the Direction Indicator
Errors Associated with the Air Driven Direction Indicator
Use of the Direction Indicator
Advanced use of the Direction Indicator
Sample Calculation

3.2.1
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.2.4
3.2.4
3.2.5

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Chapter 3.3 - Artificial Horizon
Introduction
Construction of an Air Driven (Classic) Artificial Horizon
Operation of an Air Driven Artificial Horizon
The Air Driven Artificial Horizon Erection System
Errors Associated with the Air Driven Artificial Horizon
Construction of an Electrically Driven Artificial Horizon
Torque Motor and Levelling Switch System
Electrical Fast Erection
Errors Associated with the Electrically Driven Artificial Horizon
Remote Vertical Gyro
Standby Attitude Indicator

3.3.1
3.3.2
3.3.3
3.3.4
3.3.5
3.3.6
3.3.7
3.3.7
3.3.8
3.3.9
3.3.9

Chapter 3.4 - Turn and Balance Indicator

Introduction
Construction and Principle of Operation of a Turn Indicator
Operation of the Turn Indicator
Errors Associated with the Turn Indicator
Pre-flight Check
Construction and Operation of the Balance Indicator
Limitations and Errors Associated with the Balance Indicator
Pre-flight Check
Electrically Driven Turn and Balance Indicators
Typical Indications on a Turn and Balance Indicator

3.4.1
3.4.1
3.4.2
3.4.3
3.4.3
3.4.3
3.4.4
3.4.4
3.4.4
3.4.5

Chapter 3.5 - Turn Co-ordinator

Introduction
Principle of Operation

3.5.1
3.5.1

Section 4 Flight Navigation Systems

Chapter 4.1 - Inertial Navigation System
Introduction
The Principle and Construction of an Accelerometer
Performance
Operation of a Gyro-Stabilised Platform
Setting-up Procedures
Levelling
Alignment
Levelling and Alignment
Corrections
Acceleration Corrections
Wander Azimuth System
The Schuler Tuned Platform
Errors
The Advantages and Disadvantages of an INS
Mode Selector Panel
Control Display Unit

4.1.1
4.1.1
4.1.3
4.1.3
4.1.6
4.1.6
4.1.7
4.1.7
4.1.7
4.1.8
4.1.9
4.1.9
4.1.11
4.1.12
4.1.12
4.1.14

Chapter 4.2 - Inertial Reference System

Introduction
Description of the Strap-Down System
Solid State Gyros

4.2.1
4.2.1
4.2.2

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Advantages and Disadvantages of RLGs
Alignment of the Inertial Reference System
Performance
The Control, Display and Output from an IRS
Description of a Typical IRS
IRS Transfer Switch
IRS Alignment
Loss of Alignment in Flight

4.2.3
4.2.3
4.2.4
4.2.4
4.2.5
4.2.7
4.2.7
4.2.7

Section 5 Electronic Flight Systems

Chapter 5.1 - Radio Altimeter
Introduction
The Radio Altimeter System
Principle of Operation of a Radio Altimeter
Performance and Accuracy of a Radio Altimeter
Errors Associated with a Radio Altimeter
The Advantages of a Radio Altimeter

5.1.1
5.1.1
5.1.2
5.1.3
5.1.3
5.1.4

Chapter 5.2 - Electronic Flight Instrument System

Introduction
EFIS Architecture
Attitude Director Indicator (ADI)
The Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI)
EFIS/IRS Interface
Heading Reference Switch
HSI Symbology

5.2.1
5.2.1
5.2.3
5.2.5
5.2.8
5.2.9
5.2.10

Chapter 5.3 - Flight Management System

Introduction
The Flight Management Computer System
Command Display Unit
Control Panels
CDU and FMC Terminology
The Flight Management Computer Memory
General FMS Operation
Pre-Flight
En-Route
Lateral Navigation (LNAV)
Vertical Navigation (VNAV)
Operational Notes
Fuel Monitoring
Flight Control and Management Summary

5.3.1
5.3.2
5.3.4
5.3.5
5.3.6
5.3.8
5.3.10
5.3.11
5.3.12
5.3.12
5.3.12
5.3.14
5.3.15
5.3.15

Section 6 Automatic Flight Systems

Chapter 6.1 - Flight Director System
Introduction
Flight Director Architecture
Flight Director Control Inputs
Flight Director Computer
Mode Control Unit
Flight Director Displays

6.1.1
6.1.1
6.1.2
6.1.2
6.1.3
6.1.3

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Flight Director Modes of Operation
Mode Annunciator
Operation of the Attitude Director Indicator
The Horizontal Situation Indicator Flight Director Commands

6.1.4
6.1.10
6.1.10
6.1.11

Chapter 6.2 - Automatic Flight Control Systems

Introduction
Classification of an AFCS
Control Channels
Inner Loop Control (Stabilisation)
Operation of an Inner Loop Pitch Stabilisation System
Outer Loop Control (Stabilisation)
Roll Modes
Pitch Modes
Combined Roll and Pitch Modes
Attitude Sensing
The AFCS Computer (Signal Processor)
Servomotor Actuators
Autopilot Terminology
Cross Coupling
ILS Coupling
VOR Coupling
Stability Problems
Yaw Damper
Mach Trim System
Automatic Pitch Trim Control
Interlocks
Synchronisation
Instinctive Cut-Out

6.2.1
6.2.1
6.2.2
6.2.2
6.2.3
6.2.3
6.2.4
6.2.6
6.2.6
6.2.7
6.2.8
6.2.9
6.2.10
6.2.11
6.2.11
6.2.13
6.2.13
6.2.13
6.2.15
6.2.15
6.2.17
6.2.18
6.2.18

Chapter 6.3 - Automatic Landing system

Introduction
Basic Requirements for an Automatic Landing System
Automatic Landing System Terminology
Automatic Landing System Equipment Requirements
Automatic Approach, Flare and Landing Sequence
Weather minima
ICAO Categorisation for Low Visibility Landing Capabilities
The Fundamental Landing Requirement
System Reliability and Integrity

6.3.1
6.3.1
6.3.1
6.3.2
6.3.3
6.3.5
6.3.5
6.3.6
6.3.7

Chapter 6.4 - Thrust Management Systems

Introduction
Determining the Thrust Required
Calculation of Climb and Cruise Thrust
Cruising Methods
Electronic Engine Control (EEC)
Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC)
Auto-throttle (A/T)
Thrust Lever Operation
Thrust Management via the Auto-throttle
Thrust Management Computer (TMC)
Thrust Mode Select Panel (TMSP)

6.4.1
6.4.1
6.4.2
6.4.2
6.4.2
6.4.3
6.4.6
6.4.7
6.4.7
6.4.8
6.4.8

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Section 7 Warning and Recording Systems
Chapter 7.1 - Central Warning System
Introduction
Central Warning System Annunciator Panel
Aural Warnings

7.1.1
7.1.1
7.1.2

Chapter 7.2 - Altitude Alerting System

Introduction
Altitude Alerting System Operation

7.2.1
7.2.1

Chapter 7.3 - Ground Proximity Warning System

Introduction
GPWS Architecture
GPWS Modes
Warning System
GPWS Control Panel
Discretionary Response
Warning Inhibition
The Reporting of GPWS Events
Operation of the GPWS
Joint Aviation Requirements

7.3.1
7.3.1
7.3.2
7.3.3
7.3.4
7.3.5
7.3.5
7.3.5
7.3.5
7.3.11

Chapter 7.4 - Traffic Collision Avoidance System

Introduction
Aeroplane Installation
Operation of TCAS II
TCAS Aural Warnings
Information Display
Resolution Advisory / Vertical Speed Indicator (RA / VSI)
TCAS Control Panel
Operating Restrictions

7.4.1
7.4.2
7.4.3
7.4.5
7.4.6
7.4.6
7.4.7
7.4.7

Chapter 7.5 - Mach/Airspeed Warning System

Introduction
System Architecture and Operation
Maximum Operating Airspeed schedule

7.5.1
7.5.1
7.5.1

Chapter 7.6 - Stall Warning

Introduction
Light Aeroplane Stall Warning Device
Transport Category Aeroplane Stall Warning Device

7.6.1
7.6.1
7.6.1

Chapter 7.7 - Recording devices

Introduction
Flight Data Recorder (FDR) Requirements
FDR Design
Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR) Requirements
CVR Design

7.7.1
7.7.1
7.7.2
7.7.3
7.7.3

Section 8 Engine and System Instrumentation

Chapter 8.1 - General Engine Instrumentation
Introduction

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Piston Engines
Turbo Propeller Engines
Gas turbine Engines

8.1.1
8.1.1
8.1.2

Chapter 8.2 - Pressure and Temperature Sensors

Introduction
Pressure Measurement
Temperature Measurement

8.2.1
8.2.1
8.2.3

Chapter 8.3 - Pressure and Temperature Indicators

Introduction
Pressure Indicators
Temperature Indicators

8.3.1
8.3.1
8.3.3

Chapter 8.4 - RPM Indicators & Propeller Synchroniser Systems

Introduction
Tachometers
Propeller Auxiliary Systems
Synchronisation System
Synchrophasing System
Operation of a Synchrophasing System

8.4.1
8.4.1
8.4.5
8.4.5
8.4.6
8.4.6

Chapter 8.5 - Engine Torque measurement

Introduction
Torque Meter
Negative Torque Sensing

8.5.1
8.5.1
8.5.2

Chapter 8.6 - Vibration Monitoring

Introduction
Vibration Monitoring System

8.6.1
8.6.1

Chapter 8.7 - Fuel Gauging

Introduction
Measurement of Fuel Quantity
Fuel Totaliser
Fuel Flow

8.7.1
8.7.1
8.7.4
8.7.4

Chapter 8.8 - EICAS

Introduction
EICAS Architecture
Engine Displays
Crew Alerting
Master Warning/Caution Light
Inhibits
Display Messages
Status
Maintenance
EICAS Failure Modes

8.8.1
8.8.1
8.8.2
8.8.3
8.8.4
8.8.4
8.8.4
8.8.5
8.8.6
8.8.7

Chapter 8.9 - ECAM

Introduction
Engine / Warning (E/W) CRT Display
The System / Status (S/S) CRT Display
ECAM System Architecture
ECAM Control Panel (ECP)
Attention Getters

8.9.1
8.9.1
8.9.2
8.9.3
8.9.4
8.9.5

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Display Colour Coding
ECAM System Failure
Failure Categorisation
System Operation

8.9.5
8.9.5
8.9.5
8.9.6

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Intentionally Left Blank

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