Crack Guid Line

Practical Guideline for
Investigation, Repair and Strengthening

of Cracked Concrete Structures -2013-
Japan Concrete Institute
Practical Guideline for

Investigation, Repair and Strengthening
of Cracked Concrete Structures -2013-
Japan Concrete Institute

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced, transcribed or
used in any form of by any means-graphic, electronic, or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording, typing, Web distribution, or information
storage and/ or systems-without the prior written permission of the Japan
Concrete Institute.
Preface
In spite of numerous efforts to eliminate cracks from concrete structures, there

are still many cracked concrete structures. Some cracks are very harmful and should be
repaired as soon as possible, while other cracks are almost harmless. Therefore, a good
guideline on how to deal with cracks in concrete structures has long been needed. JCI
published Practical Guideline for Investigation and Repair of Concrete Structures in
1980, a second version followed in 1987, and a third version was followed in 2003 and
2009. In this third and fourth version, English edition was also published. A fifth
version was published in Japanese in 2013. This volume, titled Practical Guideline for
Investigation, Repair and Strengthening of Cracked Concrete Structures -2013- is the
English edition of this latest version. It is believed that this guideline will be much use
when cracks are detected in existing concrete structures, both in Japan and overseas.
Contents
Chapter 1 General
1.1 Scope and Objective

1.2 Procedure from Investigation to Repair and Strengthening
1.3 Terms and Definitions
Chapter 2 Investigation
11
2.1 General
2.2 Standard Investigation
2.3 Detailed Investigation
Chapter 3 Cause Estimation
44
3.1 General
3.2 Cause of Cracking
3.3 Cause Estimation Based on Standard Investigation
3.4 Cause Estimation Based on Detailed Investigation
Chapter 4 Evaluation of Cracks
79
4.1 General
4.2 Evaluation-I (Applied for Cracks due to Drying Shrinkage, etc.)
4.3 Evaluation-II (Applied for Cracks due to Carbonation and Chloride Attack, etc.)
4.4 Evaluation-III (Applied for Cracks due to Combined Deterioration, etc.)
Chapter 5 Judgment of Necessity of Repair and Strengthening
96
5.1 General
5.2 Methods of Judgment
Chapter 6 Repair and Strengthening

6.1 General
6.2 Design of Repair and Strengthening
6.3 Repair Methods
6.4 Strengthening Methods
6.5 Repair and Strengthening Materials
6.6 Repair and Strengthening Works
6.7 Inspection
6.8 Records and Interim Observations
101
Practical Guideline for Investigation, Repair and Strengthening of Cracked Concrete Structures -2013-
Chapter 1 General
1.1 Scope and Objective
(1) This Guideline covers the practicable investigations of cracked concrete members or structures,
cause estimation, evaluation, judgment of the necessity of repair or strengthening, selection of the
most effective repair and strengthening method, and the case studies. This Guideline applies mainly
to cast-in-situ concrete structures.
(2) This Guideline covers the cracks generated in a concrete member or structure after casting and
during the service life.
(3) The main users of this guideline are the owners including managers of the concerned structures as
well as engineers who are working for investigation, cause estimation, evaluation, judgment and
repair or strengthening of cracked concrete structures.
[Comments]
(1) and (2)
1) Targeted concrete members or structures
This Guideline mainly covers the common cast-in-situ reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete
structures which include buildings, bridges, pavements, concrete dams, etc. This Guideline does not
cover the precast reinforced concrete structures. However, it can be used for such structures with certain
limitations and restrictions.
2) Targeted cracks
This Guideline covers the cracks which are developed in concrete members or structures after casting of
concrete. Although countermeasures in advance can be adopted during the design stage of concrete
members or structures, this Guideline does not cover the countermeasures. In this Guideline, the
normally recommended items and methods for investigation of cracking, cause estimation, evaluation,
judgment on the necessity for repair and strengthening and appropriate technical methods for repair and
strengthening are explained. The causes of cracking covered by this Guideline are summarized in Table
3.1.
This Guideline does not deal with all conditions such as various types and importance of structures,
exposure conditions, etc. This Guideline can be used as a basic tool to conduct investigation, cause
estimation, evaluation, judgment, selection of repair and strengthening methods for cracked concrete
structures in normal conditions. Therefore, when this Guideline is applied, it is necessary to plan
practical countermeasures taking into consideration of the various conditions of target cracked
structures such as its own unique environment, service loads, etc.
3) Technical contents
The main users of this Guideline are from a beginner to a middle career engineer who is in-charge of a
structure for maintenance and taking actions if there are cracks in the structures or concrete members.
Therefore, this Guideline is prepared in a simple way for easy learning and application of the learned
knowledge in concerned structures. This Guideline systematically describes the process of investigation
(Chapter 2), cause estimation (Chapter 3), evaluation (Chapter 4), judgment (Chapter 5) and repair
and strengthening (Chapter 6). Moreover, examples are compiled in this Guideline that can be used as
useful references by the engineers with a little professional experience in this field.
4) Necessity for re-investigation
Crack widths generally fluctuate with service loads, seasonal change such as temperature and humidity,
etc. and age of the structure. Therefore, judgment may differ based on the time of evaluation. Even if a
structure is judged not to do repair based on the result of investigation of the present condition of the
structure, re-investigation is necessary in the future and appropriate measures may be adopted based on
the future investigation. Therefore, a periodical investigation is to be suggested for the important
concrete members or structures even though any repair actions are not necessary at the present condition.
In such a case, it is wise to suggest re-investigation, evaluation, judgment and selection of a repair and a
strengthening method based on the evaluation and the judgment in future.

(3)
1) The main users of this Guideline
The intended users of this Guideline are owners, managers, and beginner to mid-level engineers who are
assigned for examining the structure or concrete members.
Therefore, this Guideline is prepared in a simple way so that the users can gain the knowledge of the
subject and apply the learned knowledge in practice. If a user cannot understand some parts or has some
doubts, he/she should ask expert engineers for help.
This Guideline assumes that the beginner is a person who does not have practical experiences regarding
crack-related problems of concrete, such as a resident who discovers cracks in concrete members in
his/her apartment building and a municipality official who is just nominated as a maintenance engineer
of concrete structures.
2) Limit of this Guideline
As stated earlier, this Guideline is prepared in a simple and understandable way for a series of acts from
the investigation to the selection of the repair and strengthening of a crack so that the beginner to the
mid-level engineers who are engaged with the maintenance of concrete structures can easily use it. But,
when it is not possible to deal only by this Guideline, the judgment of an expert engineer who has
advanced knowledge and the experience in investigation, repair, and strengthening of concrete
structures is needed.
1.2 Procedure from Investigation to Repair and Strengthening
A flow diagram of the general procedure from investigation to repair and strengthening of concrete
structures with cracks is shown in Fig. 1.2.1.
Identification of crack
Standard investigation for

cause estimation (2.2)
Detailed investigation for

cause estimation (2.3)
Can it be estimated
the cause of cracking?
No
Yes
The cause estimation (3.3)
When detailed investigation was conducted (3.4
Selection of type of estimation (4.1)

Investigation for evaluation
When it is necessary
Evaluation (4.2)(4.3)(4.4)*
Judgement (5)*
Repair and strengthening (6)
Additional investigation for

repair and strengthening 6.2.3
Mainly, investigation such as
construction environment,
amount and range, etc.
Note1) A parenthesis ( ) in the flow means number of

chapter or section.
Note2) An asterisk * in the flow means that the
evaluation and judgment method are different
by the selection of Evaluation-I, Evaluation-II
and Evaluation-III.
Fig. 1.2.1 Procedure from the investigation of cracks to the application of repair or strengthening
[Comments]
The procedure from investigation to repair and strengthening in this Guideline is shown in Fig. 1.2.1.
Strictly, this procedure could not correspond to some cracks while this flow diagram shows a standard
procedure that can correspond to most of the cracks. When cause estimation, evaluation, judgment and
selection of repair and strengthening methods are difficult, it is preferable to receive advice from
professional engineers who have advanced knowledge and experiences.
1) Identification of the crack
A series of repair and strengthening begins upon identification of cracks in a structure. Thus, the
identification of crack shown in Fig. 1.2.1 is defined when some actions are intended to consider against
the crack.
2) Standard investigation and detailed investigation
The investigation is classified into a. investigation for cause estimation as a principal objective of
investigation and b. additional investigation for evaluation and repair/strengthening design. The
methods and the principles of standard investigation and detailed investigation are described in 2.2 and
2.3, respectively.
a. Investigation for cause estimation
After crack identification, standard investigation for cause estimation of the crack is executed first.
Sometimes the cause estimation might be possible only by the result of standard investigation. However,
when the information obtained from standard investigation is insufficient, detailed investigation
including nondestructive tests, minor destructive tests, coring, destructive tests, laboratory test, etc. is
required. When a crack is estimated to be caused by alkali aggregate reaction, frost damage and
chemical attack, detailed investigation for evaluation might become necessary in order to obtain further
information on degradation of a concrete member or structure.
b. Investigation for repair/strengthening design
Sometimes all the information necessary for repair/strengthening design might be able to be covered by
a. However, additional investigation is often needed to specify the environment at site and amounts of
the repair/strengthening.
3) Cause estimation
In this Guideline, first of all, the cause of cracking is estimated from the result of standard investigation.
When it is judged that the information collected by standard investigation is insufficient for cause
estimation, detailed investigation is carried out for adding further information for precise estimation.
When the causes are still unclear, advice from expert engineers may support the estimation.
4) Evaluation
After completing the cause estimation, the influence of cracking on structural performance of a concrete
member or structure is evaluated. That is, the evaluation in this Guideline is objectively conducted
based on the result of investigation and the estimated causes. For this purpose, the evaluation should be
done taking into account the influences of cracks on required performance of a member or structure at
present and in the future. Therefore, in this Guideline, proper methods of evaluation should be selected
based on the estimated causes of cracking. The classification of the evaluation methods is described in
4.1.
5) Judgment
Judgment is conducted in consideration of the result of evaluation, economical conditions, social
importance of structure, etc. When judgment is made according to this Guideline, the owner or the
manager of the structure is required appropriately to specify required performance of the structure or
member at present and in the future, an expected remaining service life by the owner, social importance,
budget allocation for repair and strengthening, etc.
For instance, repair or strengthening is not necessary if the cause of cracking is clearly estimated and the
evaluation results indicate that structural performance might not be degraded over a long period of time
(compared with the expected remaining service life). Conversely, if evaluation results conclude that
structural performance would be degraded below the required levels within a short term (in the near
future from the identification of the crack), repair or strengthening is necessary. In case of budget
restriction, some countermeasures might be selected, such as an increase in frequencies of investigation,
repair for aesthetic purposes, limitation of services, change in use, demolition/removal, etc.
6) Repair and strengthening
Design and execution of repair and strengthening are done in consideration of the estimated cause of
cracking, the evaluation and judgment results, etc. Repair and strengthening methods are preferably
selected based on the life-cycle assessment, asset management as well as the prediction of future
deterioration of concrete member or structure.
1.3 Terms and Definitions
The technical terms used in this Guideline are defined as follows:
(1) Investigation: action to grasp the current state of concrete members (structures) and to collect the
definite data on concrete members (structures) and cracks.
(2) Evaluation: action to objectively grasp the influence of the targeted cracks on the performance of
concrete members (structures) at the present and in the future.
(3) Judgment: action to decide the necessity of repair and strengthening according to the influence of
the targeted cracks on the performance of concrete members (structures) as well as special
limitation, such as importance of structure, which is obtained as the results of evaluation.
(4) Repair: action taken for recovering the performance of degraded (deteriorated and/or damaged)
structures by cracks. The main objectives of repair are to reduce water and air permeability, to
control the rate of corrosion, to improve the aesthetic view, etc. Strengthening of concrete or
structural members is not covered in repair.
(5) Strengthening: improvement of structural performance such as the load carrying capacity etc. to a
desired safe level.
(6) Crack width: opening width on the surface of the structure normal to the direction of the crack.
(7) Initial defect: cracks, honeycomb, cold joint, etc. generated during construction. These are the
construction defects.
(8) Deterioration: changes in material performance with time after hardening of concrete due to the
some changes in concrete itself or by cracks due to corrosion of steel in concrete.
(9) Damage: cracks or spalling generated on the surface of concrete caused by an earthquake or impact
for a short period of time.
(10) Degradation: a term that covers initial defect, damage and deterioration.
(11) Expert engineer: An engineer having advanced knowledge and experience on concrete technology
and diagnosis of damaged concrete structure. In Japan, concrete inspectors and professional
concrete engineers are certified by the Japan Concrete Institute (JCI).
(12) Owner: owner or manager of the structure.
(13) Residual period: residual period that the concrete member or structure could satisfy the required
performance from the time of investigation of the crack, evaluation, judgment, repair and
strengthening.
(14) Remaining service life: residual life to reach the design service life from the time of investigation
of the crack, evaluation, judgment, and repair and strengthening.
(15) Expected remaining service life: residual life which is expected by the owner to use the concrete
member or structure from the time of investigation of the crack, evaluation, judgment or repair and
strengthening.
[Comments]
In this Guideline, the following technical terms are defined. The other technical terms used in a
particular section are defined there accordingly.
(1) In this Guideline, investigation is defined as a technical action and inspection as an
administrative action. That is, investigation includes technical contents, such as what tests should be
performed and what should be measured, etc, while inspection includes administrative and businesslike
contents, such as who is the person in charge and what items should be inspected, etc. Since the
inspection of this Guideline is defined as the action to grasp the current state of concrete members or
structures and generic term of the action to investigate whether there are some defects or not in the
targeted structure, sometimes investigation is included in inspection.
(2) In this Guideline, evaluation is defined as an objective action to grasp the influence of cracking on
the performance of concrete members or structures at the present and in the future by using the results
of investigation and cause estimation in order to perform the technical judgment from the cause
estimation of cracking to the judgment of the necessity of repair and strengthening. Moreover, the
evaluation methods can be classified into the following three types:
1) Evaluation-I (applied for cracks due to drying-shrinkage, etc.)
Evaluation-I is applicable to the cracks that stop spreading within several years after casting, such as
drying-shrinkage cracks and thermal cracks etc. The evaluation can be conducted by investigating the
documents and also investigating the current state of concrete members or structures. In general, this
evaluation is applicable to a case when the structural performance is able to keep over requirements by
repair during the remaining service life or the expected remaining service life by the owner. When
Evaluation-I is applied, a crack width at the time of investigation or repair can be evaluated taking into
account durability against corrosion of steel bar, water tightness and environmental conditions, etc. The
criteria of the crack width for Evaluation-I are specified in 4.2.
2) Evaluation-II (applied for cracks due to chloride attack, carbonation, etc.)
Evaluation-II should be applied for the cracks which progress with time, such as the cracks due to
chloride attack and carbonation. Furthermore, evaluation for these cracks can be conducted with the
results of detailed investigation as well as the investigation of documents and visual observation of the
concrete members or structures.
These kinds of cracks are often discovered at several years or decades after construction. Therefore, it
may possible that the performance degradation has already been induced at the time of investigation or
repair. Moreover, since the mechanisms and the factors of the cracks are different depending on the
causes, these kinds of cracks should be evaluated by understanding the performance degradation at the
time of investigation, repair or strengthening, and considering the remaining service life or the expected
remaining service life by the owner. The standard evaluation criteria are specified in 4.3 according to
the causes of cracking.
3) Evaluation-III (applied for cracks due to combined deterioration, etc.)
Evaluation-III is applied for the cracks when Evaluation-I or Evaluation-II is not applicable because the
cause of crack is due to the combined deterioration or when the verification of structural performance of
concrete member or structures is needed. This evaluation should be conducted by an expert engineer
who has the license for concrete inspection. This evaluation is applied when a long-term (more than 20
years) remaining service life or a long-term expected remaining service life by the owner is required.
Moreover a crack caused by the mechanical reasons such as changes in support or loading condition
should be evaluated by Evaluation-III.
(3) In this Guideline, judgment is conducted by considering the restrictions, such as social importance
of concrete member or structure, budget of the owner and the scenario of maintenance including the
remaining service life or the expected remaining service life, life cycle assessment and asset
management. Therefore, the judgment includes the increase in frequencies of inspection, repair for
aesthetic purpose, limitation of service, change of use, demolition etc.
(4) Cracks in concrete will degrade structural performance such as safety, influences on the third party,
serviceability, durability, etc. Repair is defined as an action to recover and improve the performance
except the load carrying capacity to their required levels (generally at least the level of the performance
without any cracks).
(5) Repair is performed against a crack itself in order to improve the performance such as
waterproofness, while strengthening is performed against the concrete members or the structures. In this
Guideline, strengthening is defined as an action to recover and improve degraded structural performance
caused by the cross-sectional loss of steel bar and degradation of bond between steel bar and concrete
due to corrosion. Structural performance after strengthening should definitely satisfy the required
performance; for example either load carrying capacity against current load actions or load carrying
capacity due to more loads in future. Furthermore, strengthening may enhance structural performance
compared to the originally designed level.
There are two types of members in a concrete structure. One is a member to support loads acting on the
structure, which is called as a structural member, while the other is that to satisfy the non-mechanical
performance, such as fire resistance, heat insulation, water tightness, air tightness, sound insulation, etc.,
which is called as a non-structural member. Since an unexpected crack may cause performance
degradation of a concrete member or structure, examination for repair is necessary for both structural
and non-structural members. Moreover, examination for strengthening is sometimes necessary for a
structural member in addition to that for repair. When strengthening is judged to be necessary, a repair
work may be added depending on the cause of crack and the applied strengthening method. In this
Guideline, when a crack is initiated in structurally unimportant directions even in a structural member,
the same treatment as for a non-structural member may be applied.
(6) A crack width is defined as the surface opening perpendicular to the crack path. Generally, rapid
degradation is observed for a wider crack. Contrary, degradation may not be so significant during the
service life of structure for a narrower crack. Therefore, the width of crack is an important factor for
judgment on the necessity of repair and strengthening as well as selection of a suitable repair and
strengthening method. Additional notes related to the crack width are given below:
(i) The surface crack width generally varies with the depth inside concrete. A larger width is observed
on the surface and it gradually reduces with depth. The surface crack width also greatly depends on the
location of steel bar in concrete. A larger cover depth will lead to increase the crack width on the surface.
Therefore, degradation rate cannot be generalized with respect to the crack width.
(ii) Dimensional change such as shrinkage and expansion of concrete structures occurs with the
variation of temperature as well as moisture content and imposed service load over the structure. It
indicates that the crack width is not necessarily a constant value.
(iii) Multidirectional cracks can be generated on the concrete surface, therefore it may be difficult to fix
a particular direction for measuring the crack width.
(iv) The crack width may vary along the crack path.
For these reasons, it is necessary to specify the time of measurement, position, and the method of
measurement of crack width, which will be utilized to judge the present condition of the structure,
causes of cracking, and possible necessary countermeasures. In addition, the crack width for
Evaluation-I related to steel bar corrosion is the maximum on the surface of concrete at the position of
steel bar.
(7) Defects are generated in a structure during construction as well as after construction of a structure.
Defects that are generated during construction, such as cracks, honeycomb, cold joint, etc. are
particularly called as initial defect.
In addition, a crack caused by "A9: drying shrinkage" presented in Table 3.1 occurs after the removal of
formwork or during curing. There is a case that this kind of crack occurs during construction (several
days to several months) or several years after the start of service. Therefore, in this Guideline, the
former are classified as initial defect because a crack due to drying shrinkage based on the former
tends to generate due to the early removal of formwork and the insufficient curing period.
(8) In this Guideline, deterioration is defined as a process which adversely affects the structural
performance, such as steel corrosion due to chloride attack and carbonation and change in properties of
concrete itself due to alkali aggregate reaction, frost damage, etc.
Moreover, as mentioned in comment (7), the cracks that occur several years after the start of service by
A9: drying shrinkage are classified as deterioration because it tends to generate when the concrete
member or structure is always exposed to drying condition and when the relative humidity around the
structure drastically decreases by weather change.
(9) In this Guideline, degradation that occurs in a short term and does not change with time, such as a
crack or peeling of concrete generated by earthquake, impact, etc. is defined as damage.
(10) Degradation is defined as a general term including initial defect, damage and deterioration.
(11) Judgment on the necessity of repair is comparatively easy when the cause of crack is clear and the
degradation of the structure can be observed with the naked eye, such as water leakage, deformation,
and spoiled appearance. However, a crack generated in a real structure may come in different form and
it may be difficult to find out the exact causes of cracking even after detailed investigation. In some
cases, judgment on the necessity for repair and strengthening is difficult even though degradation is
clearly observed over the surface. Therefore, in this case, judgment as to the cause of crack, the
necessity for repair/strengthening, and repair/strengthening methods, if required, must be made by an
engineer who is familiar with the subject matter and has extensive experiences in this area.
In Japan, a concrete inspector and a professional concrete engineers have been certified by the
Japan Concrete Institute since 2001 and 1971, respectively. Both categories are registered as concrete
experts. The concrete inspector is certified as having advanced engineering ability for investigation,
diagnosis, and selection of repair and strengthening strategies for the deteriorated concrete structures. A
professional concrete engineer is mainly certified as having advanced knowledge in concrete technology
and the ability to supervise the construction by ready-mix concrete and in-situ casting of concrete. Here,
the term expert engineer as used in this Guideline also includes persons with advanced knowledge of
concrete technology. A first-class architect and a building engineer are also included in this category. A
person with engineering knowledge and experience equal to or greater than that of concrete inspector or
professional concrete engineer can also be considered as an expert engineer. An engineer is always
responsible for all his/her judgments related to repair and strengthening, and must keep him/herself up
to date with the present state of the art.
(12) The owner in this Guideline is an owner or a manager of a concerned concrete structure. It is
indicated the person who can actually decide the importance of structure, budget, and necessity of repair
and strengthening. For instance, it corresponds to the management society of an apartment house or the
municipality that manages buildings, RC bridges, and so on. Here, a consulting engineer who is given
the authority of judgment and decision of technical point by the owner is also called as the owner for
descriptive purposes.
(13) Generally, the durable period of a concrete structure is set as the period that maintains the required
performance during the design service life at the planning and design stages. Therefore, it is common
that the design and construction of concrete structure are executed in such a way so that the durable
period is longer than the design service life. However, when a crack occurs due to some causes that
were not considered in the design stage and the performance of the concrete member or structure is
degraded, there is a case that is compelled to evaluate as the durable period shorter than the design
service life even if repair and strengthening is performed.
Therefore, in this Guideline, the technical term as the residual period is defined as the period during
which the required performance of structure can be maintained after the execution of investigation,
evaluation, judgment, and repair and strengthening.
(14) There are three concepts about the service life; one is the design service life that is set based on
how many years the owner wants to use the structure in consideration of the amortization period of the
structure and social importance. The second is the elapsed service life that is the period for which a
structure has been actually used after construction. The third is the remaining service life that is the
period from the present to the design service life.
In this Guideline, the remaining service life is defined based on the judgment of the necessity of repair
or strengthening and the execution of repair or strengthening design considering the residual period
after investigation, evaluation, judgment, and repair and strengthening.
(15) In the other guidelines, the technical terms, such as the design service life and the residual period
are often used. Moreover, there are many descriptions assuming that the service life and the residual
period can be determined easily. However, in many cases, the inhabitants of an apartment or the owner
of a structure which was constructed a long time ago do not know the design service life at the design
stage and therefore cannot set the remaining service life. In addition, there are also cases that an owner
wants to use the structure over a design service life or make an alternation to the structure for a shorter
period than that set at design by the change of the social importance of the structure and economic
circumstances. In other words, it can be concluded that judgment and design of repair and strengthening
are performed based on the owners intention how long he/she wants to use the structure in the future.
Therefore, in this Guideline, the expected remaining service life is newly introduced as the period when
an owner expects to use the structure at the time of investigation of cracking, evaluation, judgment,
repair or strengthening (it is included neither the repair nor the strengthening work). It is described to
perform the judgment of necessity of repair and strengthening and the repair and strengthening based on
the expected remaining service life by the owner.
When the remaining service life can be set by using the design service life at the design stage, in the
judgment and the designing of repair and strengthening, it is necessary to choose either of the expected
remaining service life by the owner or the remaining service life. In this case, it is decided to conduct
the judgment and the design of repair and strengthening based on a period by the judgment of the
owner.
The concepts of repair and strengthening designs are shown in Figs. C.1.3.1 and C.1.3.2, respectively. It
is very important for design of repair and strengthening to define the level of performance, such as
safety, serviceability and durability necessary for the structure, to grasp the performance of the structure
at the time of investigation of crack and adequately to decide the level of performance to recover by
repair and strengthening and the duration of the effects of repair and strengthening. In addition,
considering the lifecycle of the structure, it is important to conduct sufficient examination considering
that it is possible to conduct the reasonable maintenance not only by one time of repair but also by
multiple repair.
The Investigation, evaluation,

judgment or execution of repair
Service start
Design service life
Remaining service life
Elapsed service life
Expected remaining service life
Residual period on serviceability etc.

when a repair is executed.
Repair*
Serviceability etc.
When a repair is
executed one time
When crack occurs

and repair is not
executed.
Required level of
performance
Residual period on
serviceability etc.
when a repair is not
executed.
Elapsed year
Residual period on the safety performance when

repair is executed.
Safety performance
Required level of
performance
Repair*
When a repair is
executed one time
When crack occurs

and repair is not
executed.
Residual period on the
safety performance
when a repair is not
executed.
Elapsed year
* When repair is executed, the performance such as waterproof or the aesthetic can be recovered or
improved, while the safety performance such as the load carrying capacity cannot be recovered or
improved. However, the period that the concrete member could satisfy the various performances can be
extended (the durability is recovered or improved).
Fig. C.1.3.1 Concepts of design for repair (only one repair during a life time)
Service start
The Investigation, evaluation,

judgment or execution of
strengthening (repair)
Design service life
Remaining service life
Elapsed service life
Expected remaining service life

Residual period on serviceability etc.
when a strengthening (including repair)
is executed.
Strengthening*
When a strengthening
(including repair) is
executed one time.
Serviceability
etc.
Required level of
performance
When crack occurs

and strengthening (or
repair) is not
executed.
Residual period on
serviceability, etc when a
strengthening (or repair)
is not executed.
Elapsed year
Residual period on the safety performance

when strengthening (including repair) is
executed.
Strengthening*
Safety performance
Required level of
performance
When a strengthening
(including repair) is
executed one time.
When crack occurs

and strengthening (or
repair) is not
executed.
Residual period on the
safety performance when a
strengthening (or repair) is
not executed.
Elapsed year
* When strengthening is executed, the mechanical performance such as load carrying capacity can
be recovered or improved, and the performance such as water tightness, the aesthetic can be also
recovered or improved by a combination with suitable repair. Besides, the period which the concrete
member could satisfy the various performances can be extended (the durability can be recovered or
improved).
Fig. C.1.3.2 Concepts of design for strengthening
10
Chapter 2 Investigation
2.1 General
(1) The main objective of investigation is to collect data for the estimation of the causes of cracking of a
structure or its members. These data are also necessary for subsequent evaluation of cracks,
judgment of the necessity of repair and strengthening.
(2) There are two types of investigation, such as standard investigation and detailed investigation.
[Comments]
(1) Investigation described in this chapter is the beginning step for cause estimation, evaluation of
cracks and a selection of repair and strengthening. Information based on the appropriate investigation
enables not only to predict the causes of cracking but also to select suitable methods of repair and
strengthening. This Guideline recommends identifying the causes of cracking before selection of a
repair and strengthening method. Hence, cause estimation of cracking plays a significant role in this
Guideline. Furthermore, the investigations proposed in this chapter are useful for evaluation of cause of
cracks, repair and strengthening.
(2) In this chapter, "investigation" is divided into two steps, such as "standard investigation" and
"detailed investigation." Standard investigation must be carried out as the preliminary investigation. The
detailed investigation should be carried out in the case that cause estimation of cracking, repair and
strengthening cannot be performed based on the standard investigation. Table C.2.1.1 shows a list of
investigation methods proposed in this Guideline. The applicable grades of each testing method are
classified as , and for the cause estimation, evaluation of cracks, repair and strengthening.
2.2 Standard Investigation
(1) Standard investigation is carried out by investigating the documents and visual inspection of
structures.
(2) Investigations of documents and observation of structures should include the following items:
1) Investigation of documents
a. Engineering drawings, design reports and specifications (drawings, steel bar arrangement,
structural calculation results, etc.)
b. Construction record such as materials used, mixture proportion, placing, curing method,
construction schedule, sub-soil investigation report, formwork, weather condition during
placement of concrete
c. History of the past investigation, repair and strengthening (maintenance record of structure,
records of repair and strengthening, renovation, claim, etc.)
d. Service load condition (conditions at design and at present)
e. Climate condition (temperature, relative humidity, wind velocity, wind direction, height of
wave, direction of wave, air pressure, etc.)
f. Geological condition (distance from the sea, existence of harmful agents, such as de-icing
agents, snow melting agents, etc.)
g. Ground condition (vertical distance to the adjacent structures, conditions of retaining wall,
foundation, etc.)
2) Visual observation of structures
a. Investigation of the condition of the cracks (such as crack width, crack length, crack area,
crack pattern, existence of penetrating crack, etc.)
b. Investigation of other phenomena occurred due to the cracks (peeling of concrete cover and
finishing materials, honeycomb, pop out, efflorescence, etc.)
c. Investigation of inconveniences due to cracks (moisture leakage, corrosion of steel bars,
deflection of structural members, appearance, etc.)
d. Investigation of unusual vibration (at driving and at walking)
11
Table2.1.1 Items for investigationpart.1

Chapter
Chap.3 Cause estimation of cracks

Chap.4 Evaluation
Chap.2 Investigation
Way to use of results2
Type of evaluation1
Items of inspection
Type of investigation
S
t
a
n
d
a
r
d
I
n
v
e
s
t
i
g
a
t
i
o
n
D
o
c
u
m
e
n
t
r
e
s
e
a
r
c
h
Collection of
records,
confirmation of site
and hearing
Evaluation EvaluationII EvaluationIII

Repair and strengthnening
(Carbonation, (Stractural
Drying
Estimation
Cause
salt damage,
shrinkage
crack),(extre
Selection
Judgment for
ASR frost
estimation, necessity of Examination of material of repair
me defect,
damage,
and
composite
evaluation repair and of execution
and
chemical
date
strengthne
strengthening
deterioration
method
corrosion etc.
ning
etc.
Document to be researched
Data of materials (cement, aggregate,

mineral and chemical additives mixing
watermixture proportionscasting,
Constructio
curing, plan, quality control data,
n records
condition of soiul, environmental
condition at casting, weather condition,
etc
Cinfirmation of ducument
Investigation,
Past investigation, repair and
history of
strengthening, renovation, dakage,
repair and
strengthening claim, records at finding of crack
Confirmation that present load condition

Condition of
does ont exeed the load condition at
Cinfirmation of ducument, visual inspection, hearing
service load
design
Weather,
condition of
sea,
environment
and
foundation
Temperature, himidity, CO2

consentration, swoop salinity, chemical
component, distance from sea, existence Cinfirmation of ducument, map, visual inspection,
feeling, hearing
of de-icing agent, snow melting agent,
cold area nor not, spring area or not,
vibration,soft ground or not
Evaluation
Items of inspection
State of
ctacks
Visual inspection of
structure
Note
Drwings, re-bar arrangement, structural

Engineering
calculation, test results of materials
drawings
used, specifications, etc.

Type of evaluation1
I
n
s
p
e
c
t
i
o
n
Chap.3Cause estimation of cracks

Chap.4 Evaluation
Chap.5Judgment for necessity of
repair and strengthening

Chap.6 Repair and stregnthening
Drying
shrinkage
Test methods, equipments
EvaluationII
(Carbonation,
salt damage,
ASR frost
damage,
chemical
corrosion etc.
EvaluationIII
(Stractural
Estimation
Cause
crack),(extre
Selection
Judgment for
me defect,
and
composite
and
date
strengthne
deterioration
strengthening
method
ning
etc.
Width
Visual inspection, scale, crack scale and microscope
Length, total length
Visual inspection, scale, digital camera
Position, area
Visual inspection, scale, digital camera
Pattern
Visual inspection, digital camera
Difference in level
Visual inspection, scale
Penetration
peeling and
flaking
Position and area of peeling of concrete

coverand finishing
Visual inspection, test hammmer, scale
Hunycomb
Position and area
Water leakage
Position and area

Visual inspection
Change of
Position and area
color,
Depositionio Color
n cold joint
Popout
Position and area
Unusual sound, inconvenience,
vibration at driving and walking,
Unusual
inconvenience of fittings
feeling
Position
Feeling,phone,visual inspection, scale
Note
Classification based on fihure of crack pattern

Rekation to environmental condition and ground
condition
Comarison with crack width limit
Criteria of judgement for necesstity of repai and
strengthening
Classification based o
Judgement for necesstity of repai and strengthening

Rekation to environmental condition and ground
condition
Judgement for necesstity of repai and strengthening

Rekation to environmental condition, servicebility
performance and ground condition
Feeling,phone,visual inspection, scale
1Special needs for investigation. In the case of extreme deterioration and composite deterioration in Evaluation III,there will be needs for investigation.
2 in order of importance for investigation.
12

Chapter

Chap.4 Evaluation
Type of evaluation1
Evaluation
Items of inspection
Visual inspection, crack scale, microscope, -type

dispacement gauge, contact type gauge, degital camera,
acoustic emission, laser method
Position, depth and area of peeling and

flaking of concrete cover and finishings
Sampling of core and thermographic method
Estimation of strength
D
e
t
a
i
l
e
d
i
n
v
e
s
t
i
g
a
t
i
o
n
Degree of quality
Homogeneity
Size and thickness of member
Internal crack and voids
Crack depth
Cover thickness
Steel bar
O
n
s
i
t
e
i
n
v
e
s
t
i
g
a
t
i
o
n
Investigat
ion of
innrr
part/quali
ty of
structure
Destruct
ive test
Position of steel bar, bar arrangement and bar diameter
Others
Environmental
Environment
condition of structure
foundation condition of Foundation
structure
Investigation of
vibration of structure
Structure,
member
Comparison to design strength
Comparison to standard criteria

Relation to immerging velocity of aggressive component
Comparison to design value

Judgment for necessity of repair and strengthening
Confirmation of existence
Comparison to cover thickness

Comparison to engineering drawings and construction
record. Comparison to carbonation depth
Comparison to engineering drawings and construction
record.
Classfiying with corrosion rate, judgment for necessity of
Classfiying on corrosion velocity
Position and amount of insufficient grouting
Exisitence, amount and route of leakage
Classification to corrosion rate, judgment for necessity

of repair and strengthening
Corrosion rate of steel
Diameter of steel bar

Types of steel bar (round type, deformed
type)
Spoacing of steel bar
Condition of bended zone
Cover thickness
Carbonation depths and Margin from cover
depth to carbonation depth
Crack depth
Deposition
Scale and micro scale

Visual inspection
Scale
Visual inspection, inspection mirror, R-type gauge
Visual inspection and scale

Visual inspection
Chemical corrosion
Visual inspection and phenolphthalein method

Visual inspection
Visual inspection
Visual inspection
Visual inspection
Visual inspection
Visual inspection
Measurement of temperature and R.H., consentration of
CO2,swoop salinity and other chemical component
Settlement of foundation, differential

settlement
Visual inspection by excavation, surveying, surface wave,

electro magnetic wave method and elastic wave method
Eccentric earth pressure
Stiffness
Influence of load at driving and usage of
vehicle
Influence of earthquqke
Degree of reduction of stiffness of structure
Visual inspection by excavation, surveying, surface wave,

electro magnetic wave method and elastic wave method
isual inspection by excavation and surveying
Inveswtigation of live load, traffic, cargo handling, load
test(oil pressure jack and actual live load), stress
frequency
Test by actual dynamic vibration
Vibration with shaking machine and with impact load using
falling weight
Vibration with shaking machine and with impact load using
falling weight
Judgment for necessity of repair and strengthening

Relation with environmental and ground conditions
Side displacement
Investigation of
structural capacity and Structure,
member
deformation
polarization resistance
X-ray transmission method, impact elastic wave method,
CCD camera
Tracer method,thermographic method (visual inspection is
impossible
Type of aggregate (river stone, crushed

stone etc.
exsistence of shell(exsistence of sea sand
Maximum size
Existence of reaction rim
Existence of crack of coarse aggregate
Existence of water leakage
Existence of impurities
Environmental condition which affect
deterioration around structure
Note
Corosion velocity
Water leakage
EvaluationIII
(Stractural
Estimation
Cause
crack),(extre
Selection
Judgment for
me defect,
and
composite
and
date
strengthne
deterioration
strengthening
method
ning
etc.
Others
Aggregate
ultrasonic method, impact elastic wave method,

thermographic method, test hammmer
Sampling of core and ultra sonic method
Radar method, impact elastic wave method and ultrasonic
method
Radar method, electro magnetic reasonance method,
ulutrasonic method,X-ray transmission method

half-cell potential
Insufficient grouting
Concrete
Strength test by rebound hammmer method, ultrasonic

method, pull-out method, impact elastic wave method and
with small core
ultrasonic method, impact elastic wave method
Thermographic method and ultra sonic method
impact elastic wave method , radar method and ultra sonic
method
(Carbonation,
salt damage,
ASR frost
damage,
chemical
corrosion etc.
Corrosion rate
PC tendon
Steel bar
Crack progress
Concrete
Nondestructive
, minor
destructive
test and
test with
core
specimen
Drying
shrinkage
EvaluationII

Chap.4 Evaluation

Comparison to engineering drawings and construction record.

Comparison to specified value, comparison of crack and failure
Comparison to engineering drawing and carbonation

depth
Comparison to cover thickness, estimation carbonation progress

and confirmation of consentration of chloride ion in concrete
Confirmation of existence, amount and route

Comfirmation of existence and impurities
Comparison between design value and estimated value

Confirmation of existence of Deposition
Comparison to cover thicknesscomparison between
member thickness of sound area and design thickness
Comparison to construction record.
Sign of ASR
Relation between the differential settlement,eccentric

earth pressure and side displacement and the foundation
Stability of structure as a whole
Comparison between design value and estimated value,
deflection and deformation of member, strain of concrete
and steel, settlement and slant and displacement of
foundation
Confirmation of stress frequency and Judgment based
onspecific frequency anddecay constant
13

Chapter

Chap.4 Evaluation
Type of evaluation1
t
e
s
t
c
l
a
s
s
i
f
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
Analysis of
chemical
composition
a
c
c
o
r
d
i
n
g
t
o
Microstructural
analysis
t
e
s
t
m
e
t
h
o
d
s
Note
Elastic modulus
Strain measurement with wire strain gauge and

diplacement meter meted(JIS A 1149)
Comparison to value of sound concrete and

standard value
Poisson's ratio

diplacement meter meted

standard value
Carbonation depth
Phenolphthalein methodJIS A 1152)differential

thermal analysisa Powder X-ray Diffractometer and
EPMA

Comparison to estimated value of carbonation
progress
Migration of chloride ion due to carbonation
Potential difference titrationwith electro node of

silver chloride, Mercury() thiocyanate
absorptiometry, silver nitrate titrationmethod, ion
chromatographmethod(JIS A 1154,JCI-SC4,JCI-SC5)
andEPMA

Chloride consentration at steel bar
Chemical corrosion depth
EPMA
Regulation of JIS A 5308, comparison to steel

corrosion criteria
Judgment based in chloride consentration at

concrete cover and distribution
Migration of chloride

andEPMA
Alkaline content
Atomic spectrophotometry of extracted liquid
Possibility of expansion due to ASR
Analysis of Deposition
Chemical composition analysis, a Powder X-ray

diffractometer, SEM-EDX, fluorescent X-ray
method, differential thermal analysis andacetic acid
uranyl fluorescent method(3)
Detection of composition of Deposition
Estimation of expansion due to ASR
Quantification of OH - in concrete
Judgment based on OH - consentration in pore

solution
Estimation of mixture proportion

water, w/c, unit content of cement, content of
additive, unit content of aggregate and impurities
Method by JCACo-oparative test of mixture

proportion of herdened concrete(F18
Test of cement content in hardenedconcrete with
Sodium gluconateNDIS3422-2002
Comparison to engineering drawings and

construction record
Air-void spacing factors
Linear traverse method
Air content
Pore size distribution
Mercury intrusion porosimetry
Erosion depth from surface
Visual inspection andEPMA plane analysis
Judgment based on content, spacing and diameter

of air void
Classification of corrosion rate
progress
Comparison to estimated value of chloride
percolation
Carbonation progress velosity
Accelerated carbonation test (JIS A 1153)
Immerging velosity of chloride
Rapid chloride migration method
Remaining expansion ratioASR
Storage method at more than 40 andR.H.95

(JCI-DD2)Immerging method at 801mol/l
NaOHCanadamethodImmerging method at 50
andsaturated NaClDenmark method
Comparison between remaining expasive ratio and

criteria
Investigation of used aggregate type and reactive

mineral
Visual inspection, polarized light microscopy,a

Powder X-ray diffractometer(JCI-DD3)
Comfirmation of exisitence of risk of reactive

minaral
Acceleration test
Petrology test
Evaluation EvaluationII EvaluationIII

(Carbonation, (Stractural
Drying
Estimation
Cause
salt damage,
shrinkage
crack),(extre
Selection
Judgment for
ASR frost
me defect,
damage,
and
composite
and
chemical
date
strengthne
deterioration
strengthening
method
corrosion etc.
ning
etc.
Compressive strength test(JIS A 1107,1108)
Content of chloride
i
n
v
e
s
t
i
g
a
t
i
o
n
Phisical test

Compressive strength
D
e
t
a
i
l
e
d
L
a
b
o
r
a
t
o
r
y
Items of inspection

Chap.4 Evaluation

3acetic acid uranyl fluorescent method tre
14

Chapter

Chap.4 Evaluation
Type of evaluation1
Evaluation
t
e
s
t
c
l
a
s
s
i
f
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
Carbonation
c
a
u
s
e
Alkaline silica
reaction
Elastic modulus

diplacement meter meted(JIS A 1149)

standard value
Poisson's ratio

diplacement meter meted

standard value
Estimation of mixture proportion

water, w/c, unit content of cement, content of
additive, unit content of aggregate and impurities
Method by JCACo-oparative test of mixture

proportion of herdened concrete(F18
Test of cement content in hardenedconcrete with
Sodium gluconateNDIS3422-2002
Comparison to engineering drawings and

construction record
Carbonation depth
Phenolphthalein methodJIS A 1152)differential

thermal analysisa Powder X-ray Diffractometer and
EPMA

progress
Carbonation progress velosity
Accelerated carbonation test (JIS A 1153)

progress
Comparison to remaining mergine of carbonation

and OH- consentrationat syeel bar
Regulation of JIS A 5308, comparison to steel

corrosion criteria
Judgment based in chloride consentration at

concrete cover and distributio
Immerging velosity of chloride

andEPMA
andEPMA
Rapid chloride migration method
Erosion depth from surface
Visual inspection andEPMA
Air-void spacing factors
Air content
Pore size distribution
Mercury intrusion porosimetry
Remaining expansion ratioASR
Storage method at more than 40 andR.H.95

(JCI-DD2)Immerging method at 801mol/l
NaOHCanadamethodImmerging method at 50
andsaturated NaClDenmark method
Comparison between remaining expasive ratio and

criteria
Estimation of expansion
Quantification of OH - in concrete
Judgment based on OH- consentration in pore

solution
Alkaline content
Atomic spectrophotometry of extracted liquid
Analysis of Deposition (silica gel)

Investigation of used aggregate type and reactive

mineral
Visual inspection, polarized light microscopy,a

Powder X-ray diffractometer(JCI-DD3)
Comfirmation of exisitence of risk of reactive

minaral
EPMA
o
f
c
r
a
c
k
Chemical corrosion
Note
Migration of chloride
t
o
(Stractural
Estimation
Cause
crack),(extre
Selection
Judgment for
me defect,
and
composite
and
date
strengthne
deterioration
strengthening
method
ning
etc.
Salt damage
Frost damage
(Carbonation,
salt damage,
ASR frost
damage,
chemical
corrosion etc.
Content of chloride
a
c
c
o
r
d
i
n
g
Drying
shrinkage
Compressive strength test(JIS A 1107,1108)
i
n
v
e
s
t
i
g
a
t
i
o
n
Quality of concrete

EvaluationIII
Compressive strength
D
e
t
a
i
l
e
d
L
a
b
o
r
a
t
o
r
y
Items of inspection
EvaluationII

Chap.4 Evaluation

Analysis of Deposition
Comparison to estimated value of chloride

percolation
Classification of corrosion rate
Judgment based on content, spacing and diameter
of air void
Possibility of expansion due to ASR

Detection of composition of Deposition

3acetic acid uranyl fluorescent method tre
15
[Comments]
(1) Standard investigation is carried out in the preliminary stage before estimating the causes of
cracking followed by the repair and strengthening plan, as outlined in the flow diagram related to the
approach to the investigation, repair and strengthening in Fig. C.1.2.1. The standard investigation
includes investigation of documents and observation of the structures. The investigation of documents is
carried out to estimate the cause of cracking of the member (structures) by collecting the information of
the structures, geological condition and ground condition with naked eye and/or using simple tools. The
standard investigation is limited to basic investigations that can be done very quickly without any
experiments or long-term observation. In some cases, drying shrinkage cracks will be estimated by the
standard investigation. In this case, drying shrinkage cracks can be evaluated as Evaluation-I defined in
4.1, which can be followed by an easy judgment of repair and strengthening.
(2) The investigation of documents includes the investigation of engineering drawings, design report
and specification, construction record, history of past investigation, repair and strengthening, service
load condition, climate condition, geographical condition, ground condition, etc.. The observation of
structures includes the investigation of the situation of cracks, inconvenience due to cracks, other
phenomenon such as peeling of concrete, unusual vibration, etc.
1) Investigation of documents
Investigation of documents is carried out to collect the information of the structures through reviewing
engineering drawings, design report and specification, construction record, history of past investigation,
history of past repair and strengthening, service load condition, climate condition, geographical
condition, and ground condition. The investigation items from a. to g. are introduced as follows. It is
recommended to record the data on a general construction plan, ground plan, stereoscopic plan, etc.
(refer to Table C.2.2.1).
a. Engineering drawings, design report and specification
Engineering drawings includes all structural drawings, design reports, steel bar arrangement, etc. An
engineering drawing provides very basic information about the structure and is necessary to grasp the
general scale and shape of the targeted structure. The steel bar layout drawing is necessary to examine
the relation between the direction of cracks with the direction of steel bars, the relation between the
interval of cracks with the interval of steel bars, etc. The design report is necessary to examine the stress
of the concrete and steel bar at the cross section where cracks are generated. Furthermore, the
construction specification provides important information that cannot be found in engineering drawings
and is useful to understand the actual conditions and sequence of construction.
b. Construction record
It is very difficult to get construction records of the structure whose age exceeds 10 years. However,
recent standards of ISO 9000 series etc. promote contractor and/or owner to storage the construction
records for a while (5 to 10 years). Some ready-mixed concrete plants permanently store the test results
of aggregate of ASR. These records are useful to estimate the cause of cracks.
(i) Materials used
The details of this investigation are given in Table C.2.2.2
16
TableC 2.2.1 (a) Example of Fill Up Papers for Standard Investigation (Building)
1. General Information
1.1 Date of Investigation:
1.2 Name of Organization in Charge:
1.3 Address of Organization:
1.4 Telephone Number and
3. Environment of Structure
3.1 Location
Mailing Address
-mail
1.5 Name of Person in Charge:
3.2 Vibration
ColdMildSubtropical
CountrySuburbUrbanIndustrial Area
Spa Mountainous AreaMarine Environment
Yes,
NoUnclear
3.3 Chemical Substance

3.4 Heat (High or Low Temperature Environment)
Yes,
NoUnclear
Yes, NoUnclear
3.5 Distance from the Sea
001000.11
110more than 10 inland
3.6 Surface facing the Sea

3.7 Annual Main Wind Direction
3.8 Average Wind Velocity
EastSouthWestNorth
6.Materials Used
6.1 Concrete
OrdinaryLightOthers
6.2 Cement
OrdinaryEarly HardeningOthers
6.3 Coarse Aggregate River GravelCrushed StoneRock Type
Others
River SandMountain SandSea SandCrushed Sand
Others
6.5 Mineral AdmixturesYesNoUnclear
6.6 Chemical Admixtur YesNoUnclear
6.4 Fine Aggregate
6.7 Design Strength

6.8 Type of Concrete
/
6.9 Casting Season
2.Outline of Structure
2.1 Name
2.2 Location
2.3 Application
2.4 Date of Completion
2.5 Age of Structure

2.6 Stories
2.7 Building Area
Basement(s), Floor(s),Tower(s)
2
2.8 Total Floor Space
2.9 Construction Type
Others
4.Book Record
4.1 General Drawings
4.2 Construction Plan
4.3 Structural Calculation Book
4.4 Construction Record
YesNoPartialUnclear
YesNoPartialUnclear
YesNoPartialUnclear
YesNoPartialUnclear
4.5 Specification
4.6 Previous Investigation Data
YesNoPartialUnclear
YesNoPartialUnclear
Number of Column Span:

Numbers of Column Span:
5.1 Application Change

5.2 Extension and Reconstruction
5.3 Repair
YesNoUnclear
YesNoUnclear
YesNoUnclear
2.13 Foundation
Mat FoundationIndependent Foundation
5.4 Reinforcement
YesNoUnclear
Others
5.5 Disaster
5.6 Claim
YesNoUnclear
YesNoUnclear
2.14 Designer
2.15 Supervisor
2.16 Construction Company
Unclear
Unclear
2.17 Maintenance Company
Unclear
17
Unclear
6.10 Finishing Material Outdoor
(mainly)
Indoor
7.Special Matters Related to Maintenace and Management

Date of Conpletion
5.History of Structure
2.10 Span Length

2.11 Girder Length
2.12 Height
Unclear
Unclear
kgf/cm N/mm Unclear

Ready-Mixed ConcreteCast-in-Place Concrete
Factory ProductUnclear
SpringLocationSummerLocation
AutumnLocationWinterLocation
8.Others
Age
Table C2.2.1 Example of Fill Up Papers for Standard InvestigationCivil Engineering Structure
1. General Information
1.1 Date of Investigation:
1.2 Name of Organization in Charge:
1.3 Address of Organization:
1.4 Telephone Number and
Mailing Address
-mail
1.5 Name of Person in Charge:
3. Environment of Structure
3.1 Location
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
Vibration
Chemical Substance
Heat (High or Low Temperature Environment)
Distance from the Sea
3.6 Surface Facing the Sea

3.7 Annual Main Wind Direction
3.8 Average Wind Velocity
2.Outline of Structure
2.1 Name
2.2 Location
2.3 Application
2.4 Date of Completion
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
Age
Structural Type
Geometries
Foundation
2.9 Designer
2.10 Supervisor
2.11 Construction Company
2.12 Maintenance Company
Year(s)
Others
ColdMildSubtropical
CountrySuburbUrbanIndustrial Area
Spa Mountainous AreaMarine Environment
Yes,
NoUnclear
Yes,
NoUnclear
Yes, NoUnclear
001000.11
110more than 10 inland
EastSouthWestNorth
/
4.Book Record
4.1 General Drawing
4.2 Engineering Drawing
4.3 Design Calculation Book
4.4 Construction Record
YesNoPartiallyUnclear
4.5 Specification
4.6 Previous Instivation Data
6.Materials Used
6.1 Concrete
OrdinaryLightOthers
6.2 Cement
OrdinaryEarly HardeningOthers
6.3 Coarse Aggregate River GravelCrushed StoneRock Type
Others
6.4 Fine Aggregate
River SandMountain SandSea SandCrushed Sand
Others
6.5 Mineral AdmixturesYesNoUnclear
6.6 Chemical Admixtur YesNoUnclear
6.7 Design Strength
kgf/cm2N/mm2Unclear
6.8 Concrete Type
Ready-Mixed ConcreteCast-in-Place Concrete
Factory ProductUnclear
6.9 Casting Season
SpringLocationSummerLocation
AutumnLocationWinterLocation
Unclear
6.10 Finishing Material Outdoor
(mainly)
Indoor
7.Special Matters Related to Maintenace and Management

Date of Completion
Direct FoundationPile Foundation

Independent FoundationOthers
Unclear
Unclear
Unclear
Unclear
Unclear
5.History of Structure
5.1 Application Change
5.2 Extension and Reconstruction
5.3 Repair
5.4 Reinforcement
5.5 Disaster
YesNoUnclear
YesNoUnclear
YesNoUnclear
YesNoUnclear
YesNoUnclear
18
8.Others
Age
Table C.2.2.2 Investigation on Used Materials
Materials
Cement
Example of Investigated Items

Type, Brand, Quality, Physical Properties ,Chemical Composition
Aggregate
Type, Rock Type, Maximum Size, Quality, Grading Distribution, Density,

Absorption, etc, Impurities (Amount of Clay, Amount of Particulates,
Organic Impurities, Chloride Amount, etc), , Alkali-Aggregate Reactivity,
etc
Admixture
Type (Classification), Brand, Dosage, Quality,
Water
Type, Quality
(ii) Mixture proportions of concrete

Investigate the designed mixture proportions with the actual mixture proportions at the site.
(iii) Placing and curing
Investigate the mixing time of the concrete, transportation time, waiting time, placing time, placing
quantity, placing method, placing direction, placing order, compaction method, finishing method, curing
method, and so on. It is recommended to investigate not only the placing order of concrete of one block
in a day but also the nearby blocks are to be considered in the whole process to identify the causes of
cracking. Furthermore, it is advisable to obtain the records on other factors that affect the quality of the
concrete, such as whether the mixture proportions were adjusted at the site or not, the occurrence of rain
or snow, freezing, curing temperature, water tightness of the formworks, etc.
(iv) Experimental data of quality control
Investigate the experimental data on quality control, such as slump, air content, compressive strength,
etc. For strength, it is necessary to take into account the relation between the curing condition of
specimens and the environmental condition of the actual structure.
(v) Ground condition
It is necessary to examine settlement of support, differential settlement, and displacement of a structure.
For an underground structure, the back filling period and changes in the ground water level are points of
concern.
(vi) Types of formworks
Records of formworks, supports, type and interval of spacers, deformation due to the weight of concrete
during placing of concrete, and heat of hydration must be investigated.
(vii) Environmental conditions
Records of weather, temperature and humidity during placing of the concrete at the site must be
investigated. In special cases, it is also necessary to investigate wind speed, wind direction, amount of
rain and snow, etc.
c. History of past investigation
Items a. and b. are carried out to collect the information of design and construction of member
(structure). This section deals with the investigation of maintenance records of the structures on service.
The maintenance record includes daily inspection and routine inspection. The daily inspection may
includes the information on the date of crack occurrence, the crack propagation, claim from resident, etc.
The routine inspection may include the information on initial detect, deterioration and damage of
19
concrete which are difficult to obtain by the daily inspection. This information is useful to estimate the
cause of cracking. History of the past inspection is very valuable for this purpose. Some old structures
may experience repair, strengthening and renovation and, of course, this information will contribute the
effective investigation. Also, records on experienced disasters (earthquake and fire damage) are
important.
d. Service load condition

The design load on structure and its effect on structural behavior can be found in the design report. The
design load must be compared with the service load. If the service load is higher than the design load,
there is a possibility of cracking due to overload.
e. Climate condition
Investigation of the climate condition includes investigations of temperature and relative humidity,
wind velocity and directions and wave height, directions and atmospheric pressure. The information
can be obtained from meteorological agencies and/or oceanographic observatories. Furthermore, a visit
to the site and asking questions to the people on the required data are useful for this investigation.
Although, the amounts of CO2 and chloride are very important information to estimate the cause of
cracks, the standard investigation only covers the collection of past records as well as the past detailed
investigation which are described later.
f. Geological condition
There exists a strong correlation between geological condition and cause of cracking. For example, a
structure which locates near to sea shore will suffer chloride induced steel bar corrosion. Structure
which locates at cold region will suffer frost damage as well as de-icing agent, snow melting agent
induced steel bar corrosion. A structure which locates near to the spring area and acid river may suffer
chemical attack induced steel bar corrosion. The structures constructed for sewerage facilities, chemical
plant, and food processing plant may also suffer chemical corrosion. It should be noticed that the
geological condition provides us the significant information for cause estimation of cracking. The
investigation items should include the information of the distance from sea, existence of de-icing agent,
snow melting agent in winter, and existence of other chemical agents. The methods of investigation
include investigation of drawings, maps, observation with naked eyes, hearing from the third party, etc.
g. Ground condition
Ground condition may cause crack in the structure. In the case that the structure locates near to the
hillside or to sea bank or with an elevation compared to the nearby structures, conditions of retaining
wall should be investigated. In the case that the influences of eccentric earth pressure or differential
settlements are significant, type of foundations and investigation records of foundation should be
collected. These information will be covered within the investigation of the documents described in a.
2) Visual inspection of structures
This section deals with the items of visual inspection of structures.
a. Situation of crack
Crack widths, crack lengths, location of crack, area of crack, crack pattern, existence of penetrating
crack, etc. are carried out on the targeted cracks. The locations of the tips of cracks are essential to
estimate the state of stress in concrete. Therefore, it is necessary to perform visual observation until the
tips of cracks can no longer be observed and recording of the observed data accordingly. Making lattice
marks on the surface of the structure and writing on the engineering drawing in correspondence to these
marks is useful for improving the accuracy (Fig. C.2.2.1). Recently, technology has been developed to
automatically trace crack patterns on the concrete surface from the digital Photographs of the surface of
the structure.
20
(b) Example of cracks on floors of building
Fig. C.2.2.1 Example of sketch of cracks (Part1)
21
Fig. C.2.2.1 Example of sketch of cracks (Part2)
Method with microscope
Measured crack width 0.1mm
Crack scale
22
Photo. C.2.2.1 Methods for measurement of crack width

a-1 Crack width
The crack width is a parameter closely related to the effect of cracks on the structure. Fluctuation in
crack widths is also an essential criterion for the estimation of the causes of cracking and the selection
of repair and strengthening methods. Therefore, it is recommended to carry out the investigation of
crack widths and fluctuation of crack widths carefully.
The crack width is defined in 1.3 (6) as the width measured on the surface of the structure perpendicular
to the direction of the crack.
Normally the width of a continuous crack varies over the path of the crack. This raises the issue of how
to define and indicate the width of a crack. If the crack width is used as a data for judging the necessity
of repair and strengthening, recording of the maximum crack width is sufficient. However, in the crack
path, if the length of the maximum crack width is very short compared to the total length of the crack, or
if the concrete at the edge of the crack is partially chipped and making the crack width of that part
abnormally wide compared to the other parts, in such cases recording of the maximum crack width will
lead to an excessive repair work. Therefore, it is necessary not only to record the maximum crack width
but also to record the crack width at several locations on the crack path.
Measurement of crack width as explained in Photo. C.2.2.1 is carried out using a crack scale and a
magnifying lens. Fluctuation in crack width can be measured by using a pi-type displacement gage or an
electric dial gage. Such fluctuation can also be measured using a contact gage between gage marks. To
investigate fluctuation in crack widths at a particular location, it is necessary to record the crack widths
at a particular interval of time at the targeted location using the methods explained earlier. The recorded
initial crack width is compared with the crack width measured at other times.
In this Guideline, crack width is defined as the width perpendicular to the direction of the crack path.
However, it is necessary to note that crack width is strongly influenced by the presence of steel bars as
well as the bar diameter, spacing of the bars, cover concrete, etc.
a-2 Crack length
Generally, length of a crack is not directly related to the evaluation and judgment of cracks. However,
the length of a crack indicates whether that crack has been generated by a local cause or a widespread
cause. The length of a crack is important for understanding the scale of repair and strengthening and
also to calculate the construction cost. The repair of cracks is considered when the crack width exceeds
0.05 mm, as noted in Table C.4.2.2. Therefore, it is at least necessary to measure and record the length
of cracks having widths exceeding 0.05 mm. The repair and non-repair parts of a crack must also be
defined. It is recommended to measure as many crack widths and crack paths as possible through visual
observation.
The length of a crack is measured along the crack using an ordinary scale. It is not necessary to measure
precisely along the curvature of a crack. Considering the amount of work required for actual
measurement and repair work, it is recommended to measure the crack length by adding up direct
distances measured at adequately selected intervals.
a-3 Location of crack
Location of cracks is closely related to the cause of cracking. For example, diagonal crack at the corner
of an opening and cracks around pipe are often caused by the drying shrinkage of concrete. Crack under
a parapet wall of building is caused by the expansion due to temperature rise of protective concrete
layer under water proofing. Hence, the location of crack provides important information for the cause of
cracking. Locations of crack and steel bar will be an indicator of the cause of cracking. Hence,
investigation of the crack location based on the location of steel bar (same position to steel bar, parallel
to steel bar or perpendicular to steel bar) is also significant.
a-4 Area of crack
Area of crack, whether the crack occurs at a local or in a wide area, provides information for the cause
estimation of cracking. Length and width of the area of crack is significant for the cause estimation of
cracking.
23
a-5 Crack pattern

The crack pattern (refer to Fig. C.3.3.1) is closely related to the cause of cracking. Therefore, it is
necessary to carry out the investigation of crack patterns very carefully. For example, for RC wall with
openings, diagonal cracks at the corner of the openings is typical crack due to drying shrinkage of
concrete (refer to Fig. C.2.2.2). Shrinkage cracks, expansion cracks, as well as cracks due to the
alkali-silica reaction, corrosion of steel bars in concrete, etc. also follows a particular pattern. Therefore,
crack patterns must be recorded accurately.
Fig. C.2.2.2 Typical crack pattern due to drying shrinkage

a-6 Existence of penetrating crack
Cracks that penetrate through a structural member are closely related to the degree of serviceability
failure (inconvenience) due to cracks. Therefore, during investigation, it is necessary to confirm whether
cracks penetrate throughout the members of the structure. Water and air can easily pass through
penetrating cracks. Therefore, the existence of this kind of cracks can be judged by observing water and
air permeability. It is also possible to observe a similar crack path on the opposite surface of a member
in the case of a penetrating crack.
ASR often causes a difference in level between the cracks due to the expansion of concrete. In this case,
information of the difference in levels is also useful for the cause estimation.
b. Investigation of other phenomena induced by cracks
Peeling of concrete cover and finishing materials, honeycomb, pop out, efflorescence, etc. will be
included in this section. This information is significant for the judgment and selection of repair and
strengthening. In the case that peeling of concrete was found, steel bar corrosion may progress seriously.
Peeling of finishing materials closely relates the carbonation progress of concrete. Honeycomb due to
poor construction results in the defect of concrete which may a cause of cracking. The moisture
condition (dry or wet) of the surface not only indicates the generation of cracks due to drying shrinkage,
alkali aggregate reaction, etc., but is also closely related to the selection of the repair method. Therefore,
it is necessary to carefully investigate and record the moisture condition at the vicinity of cracks.
Further, it is desirable to investigate and record rust, efflorescence, deposit on the concrete surface, and
discoloration of the concrete at the vicinity of cracks. Fouling of the concrete surface is not only related
to the appearance of the structure but also indicates micro cracking in the surface region, which can be
easily overlooked during the investigation of cracks by visual observation. Therefore, it is recommended
to pay careful attention to this matter.
Visual observation and use of a test hammer will be useful to detect the peeling of concrete and
finishing.
c. Investigation of inconvenience due to cracks
Investigation of serviceability failures (inconveniences), such as water leakage, exposure of steel bar,
excessive deflection, etc., is carried out by visual observation. All serviceability failures
(inconveniences) are to be recorded on the drawing. In the case of serviceability failure (inconvenience)
related to appearance, careful attention should be paid to micro-cracks, rust, and efflorescence, and the
24
information is to be recorded on the drawing.

d. Investigation of unusual vibration
Deflection, inclination, vibration and other unusual problems of fittings such as sliding doors of
architectural buildings. Unusual sound and vibration are observed in civil structures if there are some
problems at joint of viaduct during passing a car or a train over it. In this case, the location and area
should be investigated.
2.3 Detailed Investigation
(1) Detailed investigation is carried out in cases when the estimation of the causes of cracking is not
possible within the scope of standard investigation.
(2) The detailed investigation is divided into on-site investigation and laboratory test. The items of
investigation are as follows:
1) The items of on-site investigation
a. Investigation of materials used in the structure
a-1. Non-destructive, minor destructive test and test with core specimen
(i) Investigation of concrete (progress of cracks, location of peeling of concrete cover and
finishing, depth of defect, area of defect, evaluation of strength, quality and homogeneity of
concrete, size and thickness of member, internal crack, existence of void, crack depth, etc.)
(ii) Investigation of steel bars (cover thickness, location and arrangement of bars, diameter, state
of corrosion, corrosion rate, etc)
(iii) Investigation of PC tendon (grouting)
(iv) Other investigations (water leakage)
a-2. Destructive test
(i) Investigation of steel bars (corrosion rate, diameter, types of steel bars, condition of bend
locations of the steel bars, cover thickness, etc.)
(ii) Investigation of concrete (carbonation depth, margin from cover depth to carbonation depth,
crack depth, deposition, depth of chemical corrosion, etc.)
(iii) Investigation of aggregate (types of aggregate, existence of shell, maximum size, reaction
rim, crack in aggregate, etc.)
(iv) Other investigations (water leakage, ingredient)
b. Investigation of loading and environmental conditions of structure
c. Investigation of subsurface conditions
d. Investigation of structural performance and deformation
e. Investigation of vibration of structure
2) The items of laboratory test
a. Investigation according to test methods
(i) Physical test
(ii) Chemical composition analysis
(iii) Analysis of microstructure
(iv) Accelerated test
(v) Petrology test
b. Investigation according to types of deteriorations
(i) Quality of concrete
(ii) Carbonation
(iii)Chloride attack
(iv) Frost damage
(v) Alkali-aggregate reaction
(vi) Chemical attack
[Comments]
25
(1) Detailed investigation should be carried out according to the flow chart shown in Fig. C.1.2.1 in the
case that the cause of cracking is difficult to estimate based on the results of the standard investigation.
The detailed investigation is performed with special equipment while the standard investigation is done
by simple tools. The detailed investigation is more expensive and needs longer period than the standard
investigation. Hence, the purpose of the detailed investigation must be fixed before planning the
detailed investigation and also the number of the specimens is to be tested must be fixed as per the
budget and also time constraint.
(2) Detailed investigation is divided into on-site investigation and laboratory investigation. On-site
investigation includes investigations of materials used in the structure, loadings on the structure,
environmental conditions of the structure, foundation condition, structural performance, deformation
and vibration of the structure. On the other hand, laboratory investigation is performed based on the
symptoms of deterioration. The detailed investigation should be carried out on some selected items and
hence will not be covered all items described in this section. The results of laboratory investigation will
contribute significantly to the judgment of an expert engineer. Hence, the items to be investigated in the
laboratory should be discussed with an expert engineer prior to the laboratory investigation. The items
of investigations are as follows:
1) The items of on-site investigation
a. Investigation of materials used in the structure
The materials used in a structure are investigated by non-destructive test, minor destructive test, test of
cored concrete samples, and destructive test. The overall quality of concrete, details of crack, types and
quality of steel bar, state of deterioration and arrangement of the steel bar can be understood from
non-destructive or minor destructive tests. These tests need special equipments and the results must be
analyzed by an expert engineer.
By the destructive test, direct observation of the condition of the concrete and steel bars is made by
removal of the concrete cover locally. Although this test damages the structure, it helps the general
engineer to easily grasp the useful information and also to take the samples for laboratory test at the
same time.
a-1 Non-destructive, minor destructive test, and test of core concrete specimen
By these tests, concrete, steel bar, and PC tendon are investigated. Table C.2.3.1 shows items of
investigation and the methods (equipments) of investigation. Testing of the representative specimens
through proper sampling is very important to get the accurate results. If the sampling of the specimen is
not appropriate, it may mislead the cause estimation of cracking. Basic requirements for the sampling
are as follows:
Obtain representative sample
Take equal number of samples from each member. Take samples from appropriate location taking into
account the direction as well as the height of the structure.
Avoid factors affecting the test results
In the case of core drilling for the compressive strength test of concrete, defective areas, such cold joint,
cracks, etc. should be avoided. In the case of core drilling from a vertical member, samples should be
collected from the same height (say 1.3 to 1.5 m) of the member to avoid variation of strength with
respect to the height. Wet core boring is often adopted to obtain the concrete samples to measure
chloride content of concrete for simplicity compared to the dry core drilling in spite of washing out of
some chlorides from the sample. Therefore, careful analysis of data is necessary based on the method of
collecting samples.
Number and amount of samples
In the case of core strength test, the number of core specimens should be 3 or more for each storey of
architectural structure while 3 for 1 pear of a bridge structure. In the case of chemical analysis, the
amount of weight of sample taken should be 4 to 8 times of the amount of sample necessary for testing.
It should be noted that too much quantity of sample is not reasonable from the view point of economy
26
as well as structural safety.

Time between sample collection and testing of samples at laboratory
Cored concrete specimens will be carbonated if it is stored in air. If the samples are not tested rapidly
after collection of the samples, prevention against carbonation of the samples should be needed. Rapid
completion of the laboratory test or storage of the samples in an airtight container is needed due to the
loss of moisture and chloride from the samples by evaporation.
Take samples not only from the cracked area but also from the sound zone
Based on the purpose of the investigation, the samples are to be collected from a cracked zone or a
sound zone. However, it is recommended to take samples from the both zones to grasp the progress of
deterioration and to judge whether the deterioration is occurred locally or not. The destructive test
results of the same area are to be compared with the results of non-destructive and minor destructive
test.
The main items of investigation, the method of investigation and the equipment to be used for the
investigation are explained below:
Table C.2.3.1 Test items and methods with Non-destructive, minor destructive test and test with core
specimen
Types
Items
Test methods (Equipment)

Visual inspection, crack scale, microscope, -type displacement
gauge, contact type gauge, digital camera, acoustic emission, laser
method
Concrete
Crack progress
Position, depth and area of
peeling and flaking of concrete
cover and finishings
Estimation
strength
of
quality
and
Sampling of core and thermographic method

Strength test by rebound hammer method, ultrasonic method,
pull-out method, impact elastic wave method and with small core
ultrasonic method, impact elastic wave method
Thermographic method and ultra sonic method
Crack depth
impact elastic wave method , radar method and ultra sonic method
ultrasonic method, impact elastic wave method, thermographic
method, test hammer
Sampling of core and ultra sonic method
Cover thickness
Position of steel bar, bar
arrangement and bar diameter
Corrosion rate
Radar method, impact elastic wave method and ultrasonic method

Radar method, electro magnetic reasonance method, ulutrasonic
method,X-ray transmission method
half-cell potential
Corosion velocity
polarization resistance
X-ray transmission method, impact elastic wave method, CCD
camera
Tracer method, thermographic method (visual inspection is
impossible
Internal crack and voids
Steel
PC tendon
Others
Insufficient grouting
Water leakage
(i) Investigation of concrete

Progress of crack
Whether new cracks are developed after detection of the cracks, and whether there are any fluctuations
in crack width over time are very important factors for cause estimation and the selection of repair and
strengthening methods. The tracking methods are shown in Fig. C.2.3.1, (a) a method by inserting a
tapered pin into the crack, (b) a method by recording the tips of cracks, (c) a method by inserting a thin
layer of paste, and (d) a method by which the changes in crack width are measured using a pi-type
displacement gage, etc. Recently, technology to investigate the progress of cracks based on the
Photographs taken with a digital camera at periodic intervals was also developed. It is desirable to carry
27
out these measurements for 1 month or more, if possible. Recording of the deformation of the structure,
the loading conditions, the environmental conditions, etc., are to be recorded together for accurate
judgment.
Crack widths vary according to the temperature and humidity. Therefore, to measure fluctuation in
crack width, it is desirable to perform measurements under the same temperature and humidity
conditions as close as possible. Since the temperature varies with the time of a day, measurements
should be carried out at the same time as close as possible. Since the temperature at 10 am corresponds
roughly to the mean temperature of a day, it is recommended to measure crack widths at around 10 am.
In the case of structures, such as walls, roof floors, etc., which are directly exposed to rain, it is
recommended to perform measurements at least 3 days after the last rain.
If the crack width of a crack fluctuates due to a cyclic load or a moving load, it is hard to confirm it by
visual observation, however, it may possible to detect the fluctuation of a crack width by placing fingers
on the crack plane. It is also possible to monitor the crack location and crack progress by using acoustic
emission (AE) method1), which measures the elastic wave produced due to the generation of a crack or
crack movement.
For the investigation of cracks, a digital camera or a laser is also used in addition to the usual visual
inspection. For example, in the method using a laser2), cracks are detected by measuring variations in
the reflection intensity of the laser applied to the concrete surface (Photo C.2.3.1). It is possible to
record information on cracks by a digital data. The analysis of crack patterns can be done easily by
image processing after the investigation.
(d)
Fig. C.2.3.1 Methods of measurement of crack progress
28
Photo. C.2.3.1 Examples of measurement of crack with laser

Location of peeling of concrete cover and finishing
Progress of steel corrosion induced cracks often causes peeling of concrete and finishing. Location of
peeling of concrete cover and finishing, depth and area are useful information for the estimation of
cause of crack, judgment of repair and strengthening and finally the selection of a method for repair or
strengthening. Although visual inspection is possible for the case of peeling, but it will not be possible
for the case of flaking of concrete and finishing. It is possible to roughly estimate the range of flaking
by listening to the sound from the surface of the concrete while hitting it softly by a hammer. By
thermographic method3) it is also possible to estimate the area of flaking from the temperature
distribution of the surface of concrete. A high temperature is generally found in the flaking area. The
advantage of this method is that it is possible to efficiently investigate a wide range without any contact
with the structure. This method is suiTable for rough estimation of the existence of flaking. However,
depth of peeling and flaking is difficult to be detected by non-destructive or minor destructive test
methods, and hence, core sampling should be needed in this case.
Photo C.2.3.2 shows an example of investigation of flaking of the external wall of a building. The red
zone in the Figure represents a high-temperature area, which is considered to be the location of flaking.
Steel bar corrosion will progress seriously in the case of peeling and flaking of concrete and finishing.
Hence, detail investigation of area of peeling and steel bar should be needed. In the case that the peeling
and flaking of concrete and finishing are dangerous to the third parties, immediate counter measures
must be needed.
flaking
Visual image
Thermographic image
29
Photo C.2.3.2 Investigation of flaking of external wall with thermographic method

Estimation of concrete strength
Strength of concrete is the most basic information for cause estimation of cracking, judgment of
necessity of repair and strengthening and selection of repair and strengthening. Hence, accurate
investigation on concrete strength in a wide area is required. Non-destructive and minor destructive test
methods are useful to grasp the variation of concrete strength in a wide area. Tests used for the
evaluation of concrete strength are as follows:
Rebound hammer method4)5)
Rebound hammer is used to estimate the strength of concrete by counting the number of vibration after
hitting by the Rebound hammer on the surface of concrete. The strength is varied based on the hardness
of concrete surface. This test method is useful to estimate the variation of concrete strength in a wide
area. A relationship between rebound number and compressive strength is to be established prior to the
test.
Ultrasonic method6)7)
The velocity of the elastic wave is measured in ultrasonic method. The elastic wave is created by an
oscillator having wave frequency over 20 kHz and the wave is received by a receptor. The travel time
from the oscillator to the receptor is recorded. The strength of concrete can be estimated using arrival
time, shape, frequency, and phase of the wave.
Impact elastic wave method8)
The principle of impact elastic wave is similar to the ultrasonic method. In this method, the elastic wave
is created by a hammer. The impact of a hammer produces a wave having frequency lower than 20 kHz.
Concrete strength, member thickness, internal defect and distance to the defect from the surface can be
detected by analyzing reflected echo, frequency, and phase.
Pull out method4)
A steel disk is adhered on the surface of concrete and a tensile load is applied to the disk until the failure
of concrete. Compressive strength of concrete is estimated based on the maximum load at failure.
Broken off specimens by splitting (BOSS) test9) and strength test using small core specimens10) from 25
to 50 mm in diameter are also used.
Generally, correlations between measured compressive strength and in-situ compressive strength are
used in non-destructive and minor destructive tests. Hence, to improve the accuracy, correlation
equation or calibration coefficient should be obtained based on the type and quality of concrete.
Verification by using core specimen is also preferable prior to these investigations. Pull-out test is
classified as a minor destructive test.
Quality and homogeneity of concrete
The purpose of this investigation is to grasp the variation of quality of concrete in a wide area. It can be
done by the ultrasonic method or the impact elastic wave. A thermographic method can be used to
investigate the homogeneity of concrete.
Verification of size and thickness of member is very important for cause estimation of cracking,
judgment of repair and strengthening and selection of repair and strengthening. In some cases, it is
possible to measure the size and thickness of a member directly, but in many cases, it is difficult to
measure them directly. Non-destructive method such as the impact elastic wave method and radar
method can be used for these cases.
Internal crack
The purpose of this investigation is to grasp the existence of internal crack and voids due to peeling and
flaking. It is possible to roughly estimate the range of flaking or peeling by listening to the sound from
the surface of the concrete while hitting it softly with a hammer.
Further, it is possible to detect the location of flaking or peeling more precisely by using the following
30
non-destructive test methods:
Impact-echo method11) by microphone measurement

Ultrasonic wave method12)
Impact elastic wave method13)
Thermographic method14)
In impact-echo method by microphone measurement, flaking or peeling and their level are evaluated by
the characteristic values (amplitude, frequency distribution) of the wave of the impact-echo captured by
the microphone. It is an easier method compared to the method using the human auditory sense.
Moreover, using this method, quantitative evaluation is possible (Fig. C.2.3.2).
In ultrasonic wave method, it is possible to estimate the depth from the surface of the concrete to the
flaking position, using the time to receive the reflected ultrasonic wave from the flaking position (Fig.
C.2.3.3).
By the impact elastic wave method, it is possible to estimate the depth from the surface of the concrete
to the flaking position by measuring the resonant frequency of the elastic wave generated by the impact,
which reflects repeatedly between the surface of the concrete and the flaking plane (Fig. C.2.3.4).
In the thermographic method, it is possible to estimate flaking and its range from the temperature
distribution of the surface of the concrete. A flaking area shows a higher temperature. By this method it
is possible to efficiently investigate a wide range of area without any contact with the structure.
Fig. C.2.3.2 Outline of impact method with measurement with microphone
Fig. C.2.3.3 Outline of ultrasonic method
31
Fig. C.2.3.4 Outline of impact elastic wave method

Crack depth
The depth of a crack can be estimated by using the following methods:
Ultrasonic wave method14)
Core drilling
To estimate the crack depth quantitatively, ultrasonic wave method can be used. The method is
described in Fig. C.2.3.5, where 2a is the distance between the receiver and the transmitter. The crack is
placed at the middle location between the transmitter and receiver. In this method, the propagation time
of the ultrasonic wave diffracted at the tip of the crack is measured. Using this time, the crack depth can
be calculated. If tc is the propagation time in cracked concrete and to is the propagation time in sound
concrete, crack depth d (cm) can be calculated by using the following equation:
d a tc t0 1
2
12
Investigation of the surface of cored samples can be used to confirm the depth of crack. It is
recommended to inject red ink into the cracks before investigation.
In some cases, it is possible to estimate the types of stress applied at the fractured surface of the
concrete by careful observation of cracks, which is useful for the evaluation of the causes of cracking.
In the case of direct tensile stress or flexural tensile stress, bond failure often occurs at the interface
between the coarse aggregate and mortar. On the other hand, in the case of shearing stress, some cracks
penetrate through coarse aggregates. Cracks generated by shear stress are shown in Fig. C.2.3.6, (a)
shows a crack generated due to the shearing deformation, and (b) shows a crack generated outside the
shearing face. In case (b), it is possible to find out the slippage between the two sides separated by the
crack by placing fingers on the crack plane.
32
Fig. C.2.3.5
Fig. C.2.3.6
Ultrasonioc method (TC.T0)
Example of crack due to shear deformation
(ii) Investigation of steel bar

The cover thickness and the position of the steel bars can be determined using a device called cover
meter15). The possibility of corrosion can be judged by the natural potential (half-cell potential) of the
steel bars16). However, careful attention is needed because the reliability of these tests varies depending
on various conditions. Although, in the case of thin concrete cover, correct measurement is possible, in
the case of thick cover or rough surface, it is difficult to measure the depths correctly. An example is
shown in Fig. C.2.3.7.
There are many standards for evaluating the corrosion conditions of steel bars based on the
measurement of half-cell potential. The Japan Society of Civil Engineers proposes JSCE-E 601-2000,
"Test method of half-cell potentials of uncoated steel bars in concrete structures." An example of
measurement of half-cell potential is shown in Photo C.2.3.3. Generally, the probability of corrosion is
judged based on ASTM C 876, as explained in Fig. C.2.3.8 and Fig. C.2.3.9. Theoretical background of
this method is not explained here but can be obtained from a book of electrochemistry.
Measured value
electro magnetic wave method
electro magnetic reasonance
method
x Ultrasonic method
--- 5mm
Cover thickness
Fig. C.2.3.7
Example of measurements of cover thickness with various equipment
33
Ag/Cl
Unit mV
Counter of half-cell potential
Expression as absolute
value
Photo C.2.3.3 Example of measurement of half-cell potential

Ecorr(Cu/CuSO4)*
>-0.20V
-0.35 to -0.20V
<-0.35V
Corrosion probability
Not corroded probability
over 90%
Unknown
Corrosion probability over
90%
Type of referred
electrode
Saturated copper
sulfate
calomel
AgCl
Lead
*Half-cell potential based on saturated copper sulfate
Notation
Potential*
CSE
0 0.9t25
SCE
Ag/AgCl
PRE
740.66t25
1201.1t25
7990.24t25
Ex.)Transmission of value from lead electrode of +300Mv (vsPREat 5C to that of saturated copper
sulfate (vsCSE) at 25 C
1.Compensation of temperature to 25 C; +300(vsPRE-0.24x(5-25)=+304.8mV(vsPRE
2.Compensation of electrode to Saturated copper sulfate;+304.8mV(vsPRE-799=-494.2mV(vsCSE
Lead
Lead
(5C 0.24(5-25)
+300
Saturated copper sulfate
4.8 (25 C
+304.8
1. Lead Potential of steel of 300mV at 5 C is

Equal to +304.8 mV at 25C
799 (25 C
-494.2
2. Lead potential of steel of +304.8mV at 25C

is equal to saturated copper sulfate of -494.2 mV
Main girder
Main girder
Support girder
Notation of A, B, C, D follows of notations of Table C.2.3.3(absolute values)
Fig. C.2.3.8
Half-cell distribution of slab
34
Measured value at beam

Measured value at slab
- mV vs. CSE
Potential (mV vs CSE)
500
400
ASTM
-350mV vs. CSE
300
ASTM
-200mV vs. CSE
200
100
00
1
2
3
4
-2.6
Note)
Classification of corrosion rate by visual inspection (see Table C.2.3.3)
Fig. C.2.3.9
Half cell potential and corrosion distribution of steel bar
(iii) PC tendon
Insufficient grouting between concrete and PC tendon is a major concern in prestressed concrete. The
role of grouting is to provide a bond between PC tendon and concrete member and to prevent corrosion
of the PC tendon. Insufficient grouting causes corrosion of the PC tendon. Especially, moisture or
chloride in the insufficient grouting zone causes the corrosion of PC tendon which results in the
reduction of pre-stressing or failure of the PC tendon.
Hence, it is necessary to investigate the existence and area of insufficient grouting and to take counter
measures, such as re-grouting. The radiological method can detect the insufficient grouting area and
impact elastic wave method can detect the existence and the area of insufficient grouting zone.
(iv) Others
Existence of water leakage and its routes are included in this investigation. It is necessary to precisely
locate water leakage routes if repair against waterproofing applied. In the case of building, water
leakage from the roof or around windows is often observed. Water leakage routes may be difficult to
identify by visual observation from the outside due to the presence of finishing materials, sealing
materials and other foreign materials.
There are some direct tracking methods for investigating the route of water leakage. For example, a
colored liquid can be poured into a location suspected as a route of leakage and visual observation can
be made at the other faces of the surface. It can also be done by injecting a specific gas at the expected
leakage location and then detecting the gas at the vicinity of the opposite surface. It is also possible to
find out the route of water leakage from the temperature distribution of the structure by thermography.
a-2 Destructive test
Destructive test enables visual investigation and investigation with simple tools to observe and measure
internal conditions of concrete, types of steel bars, cover thickness, steel bar arrangement, and corrosion
rate. The main targets of this investigation are steel bars, concrete and aggregate etc., as listed in Table
C.2.3.2. This test does not need special equipment and hence, general engineers who have knowledge
on concrete can easily obtain useful information through this test.
The selection of test point is very important in the destructive test. Generally, cracked area will be
selected in order to detect the cause of cracking. However, in order to compare the degree of
deterioration and to judge whether the cause of cracking spreads widely or not, sound area also be
35
investigated. It should be noticed that the destructive test may affect the structural performance of
structure if the test points are increased. The test area and the number of the test should be considered
along with the purpose of the investigation. Combination with non-destructive and minor destructive
test will be beneficial to perform the reasonable investigation. Items of destructive tests are listed in
Table C.2.3.2.
Table C.2.3.2 Test items and methods with Destructive test
Types
Steel bar
Concrete
Aggregate
Others
Items
Corrosion rate of steel
Test methods (Equipment)

Diameter of steel bar

Types of steel bar (round type,
deformed type)
Spacing of steel bar
Scale and micro scale

Visual inspection
Scale
Condition of bended zone
Visual inspection, inspection mirror, R-type gauge
Cover thickness
Carbonation depths and Margin from
cover depth to carbonation depth
Crack depth
Deposit
Visual inspection

Type of aggregate (river stone,
crushed stone etc.
existence of shell(existence of sea
sand
Maximum size
Visual inspection

Visual inspection
Visual inspection
Existence of water leakage
Visual inspection
Existence of impurities
Visual inspection
(i) Investigation of steel

Corrosion rate of steel bar
Corrosion of steel bar is affected by carbonation of concrete, amount of chloride ion in internal concrete
and amount of chloride ingress into concrete from an external source, existence of crack, etc. However,
it is possible in many cases to detect the cause of cracking based on the corrosion rate of the steel bars.
The rate of carbonation induced steel corrosion is moderate and the corrosion progresses uniformly. On
the other hand, chloride induced corrosion is aggressive and causes local loss of steel bar section. Some
of the evaluations for the corrosion of steel bar are listed in Table C.2.3.3. The method of evaluation
should be selected based on these Tables. The rate of steel corrosion is important not only for the
judgment of necessity of repair and strengthening but also the selection of a repair method.
Table C.2.3.3 Classification of Corrosion Level of Steel Bar by Visual Observation
a) Classification defined by Japan Institute of

Construction Engineering
Corrosion Level
State of Corrosion
No
No Corrosion
A
Surfacial corrosion at some
locations
B
Surfacial corrosion over the
whole steel bar
C
Slight loss of cross section of
steel bar
Remarkable
section
loss
of
b) Classification defined by Japan Concrete Institute

Corrosion Level
0
I
II
III
cross
IV
36
State of Corrosion
No corrosion
Partial and slight corrosion
Surfacial corrosion over the whole
steel bar
Loss of cross section of steel bar
Loss of cross of 1/2 to 2/3

section
Corrosion level:
No or 0
Corrosion level: A or I
Corrosion level: B or II
Corrosion level: D or IV
Photo C.2.3.4
Corrosion level: C or III
Reference of corrosion level of steel bar
Diameter and spacing of steel bar

Diameter and spacing of steel bar affect the structural performance of the structure. The diameter and
spacing should be measured with a scale and to be compared with engineering drawings and
construction records in standard investigation.
Types of steel bar
Types of steel bars whether it is round or deformed type is detected with visual inspection. Bond
between steel and concrete has a close relationship with crack spacing and crack width. Generally, crack
spacing becomes smaller and crack width becomes narrower if the deformed bar is used.
Condition of bend locations
Bend of a steel bar with a small diameter often causes crack and failure, particularly in the case that the
member is subjected to a fatigue load and an expansion due to ASR. Hence, standard bend radius for
steel bars is recommended in codes and standards. The diameter at bend location of steel bar can be
measured with a R type gauge shown in Photo C.2.3.5. As shown in the Photo, it is easy to measure the
crack in the case that the steel bar is removed from the structure. However, it should be noticed that the
direct measurement is difficult in structure by destructive test, because the steel bars are arranged in two
directions. Although, direct observation of cracks and existence of failure will be possible at bend
locations, mirror for inspection can be used to observe the inner part of a crack as shown in Photo
C.2.3.6.
37
Photo C.2.3.5 Measurement with R-gauge
Photo C.2.3.6 Observation with mirror inspection
Cover thickness
Cover thickness is closely related to steel bar corrosion and crack occurrence. Therefore, it is an
important factor for cause estimation of crack. The cover thickness can be measured with a scale and its
variation of a wide area to be recorded. The cover thickness is to be measured at a constant spacing and
the minimum thickness is to be grasped.
(ii) Investigation of concrete
Carbonation
The measurement of carbonation depth is carried out as per JIS A 1152-2002, "Method of test for
carbonation depth of concrete" by spraying 1% phenolphthalein solution on a freshly broken or cut
plane of concrete. The carbonated region remains colorless and the uncarbonated zone shows pink color.
The solution can be sprayed over a concrete core specimen or after peeling of concrete locally up to the
location of the steel bar. For investigation of carbonation depth at a cracked portion or its vicinity, it is
desirable to measure carbonation depth by peeling of concrete locally. Carbonation often progresses
along the crack with a wide width as illustrated in Fig. C.2.3.10. Therefore, carbonation can progress
along the steel bars under the crack path. This will lead to corrosion of steel bars even though the
carbonation front does not reach the steel bar through the sound cover concrete. Further, for
investigating the distribution of carbonation depth in a large area of the structure, carbonation
measurement method4) is proposed. In this method, powdered concrete samples are collected by using a
small-diameter drill. The number of samples is decided based on the scale of the structure,
environmental conditions, number of cracks, etc. As explain earlier, using phenolphthalein solution, it is
possible to judge the carbonated depth of concrete. This method locates the carbonated region of
concrete in which the range of pH is 8.2-10 but steel corrosion starts under a pH value of 11.0. Hence, if
the potential risk of steel corrosion is judged in terms of carbonation of concrete, it should be noted that
the risk of steel corrosion is at the inner part of the identified carbonated zone by phenolphthalein
solution.
Fig. C.2.3.10
Carbonation progress due to crack
38
Margin from cover depth to carbonation depth

The previous experiments and on-site investigation of steel corrosion in concrete due to carbonation
showed that the potential risk of steel corrosion exists at the inner part of the identified carbonated zone
by phenolphthalein solution spray. To start corrosion of steel bars, an uncarbonated depth (cover
thickness minus carbonated depth) of 10 mm or less is necessary to start corrosion over the steel bars
under normal condition. In the case of the presence of chloride, the uncarbonated depth is to be 10 to 25
mm or less to start corrosion over the steel bars.
Crack depth
Crack depth can be measured by chipping of concrete in the region of crack. A pigment, such as red ink
can be injected through the crack before chipping of concrete for clear understanding of crack depth.
Prior to chipping of cracked concrete, measurement of crack depth by ultrasonic method is preferable.
The accuracy of the estimation can be improved by using the correlation between the estimated depth by
ultrasonic method and actual depths obtained by chipping.
Deposition of substance
Investigation of deposition on the concrete surface confirms the extracted soluble component from inner
part of concrete. The deposition on the surface of concrete is generally called efflorescence. The
efflorescence does not affect the structural performance of a member. However, cold joint, crack
propagation and steel corrosion is closely related to the area of efflorescence because the efflorescence
is closely related to the moisture movement. Also, the efflorescence is found with ASR gel. Hence, the
existence of ASR gel and change of color concrete due to production of gel are to be investigated as
shown in Fig. C.3.3.1 (Part 2).
Depth of chemical corrosion
Chemical corrosion induced cracks occur for the structure which are located near to spring area and acid
river. Structures used in sewerage facilities, chemical plant, food processing plant, etc. may also suffer
chemical corrosion induced corrosion. In this case, depth of chemical corrosion is to be measured. The
depth of chemical corrosion can be measured with phenolphthalein solution. In the case of scaling due
to chemical corrosion, the depth and area of scaling are to measured.
(iii) Investigation of aggregate
Type of aggregate, existence of shell, and maximum size of aggregate
The purpose of this investigation is to confirm whether materials and concrete are used as per design.
The design mixture proportion is compared with construction records. If there are any differences in the
standard investigation, the cause should be verified by detailed investigation. Quality of concrete and
aggregate are to be tested by using samples collected from the structure. Investigation of the existence
of shell is carried out to confirm the use of sea sand.
However, present test methods (chemical method and mortar bar method) against alkali-silica reaction
of aggregates cannot be applied for all types of aggregate. Reducing of the total alkalinity of concrete
may decrease the protection of steel bars against corrosion and lead to cracking of concrete due to the
corrosion of steel bars. This process will also help ASR to initiate. Combined deterioration may
accelerate ASR. In many cases, ASR gel and reaction rim are found around aggregate. Not only the
existence of ASR gel and reaction rim but also the micro cracks around aggregate are to be carefully
investigated, if the standard investigation indicates a possibility of risk of ASR. In this case, the degree
of reaction and the remaining expansion are to be measured using the samples collected from the
structure.
(iv) Others
Other items of investigations include existence of water leakage and impurities. As described previously,
in the case of investigation of the water leakage route, there are some direct tracking methods, such as
pouring a colored liquid into a location suspected as a route of moisture leakage and performing visual
observation at the other faces of the suspected location. The impurities are often the pieces of metal and
wood used during construction as well as pre-installed metal fittings which were not specified in the
design drawings.
39
b. Investigation of loading and environmental conditions of structures

It is necessary to carry out investigation of loading and environmental conditions around structures to
evaluate the causes of cracking and predict deterioration progress.
(i) Loading Conditions
The design load considered in the design stage can be obtained from the design drawings of the
structures. The live load may increase due to the change of weight of equipment, type of use of the
structures, change in load of vehicles over time, etc. Cracks may generate in the structures due to the
change in live load. The assumed load during the design and applied load in the structure in service are
to be compared. Cracks may also generate due to the unexpected temporary loads, such as an
earthquake, impact, blast, etc., which were not considered in design loads. These loads are difficult to
estimate. The presence of the following loads is to be carefully examined in addition to dead load and
live load:
Stress due to the variation of temperature, autogenous shrinkage, drying shrinkage and volume
change due to chemical reaction, absorption and expansion.
Stress due to temporary load, such as earthquake, impact, etc.
Stress due to external degrading force, such as fire, frost damage, and chemical attack.
Unusual vibration due to resonance and stress due to fatigue load
The relation between the stress of a steel bar and the crack width of a reinforced concrete member under
bending by static load is shown in Fig. C.2.3.11.
Stress of steel bar (kgf/cm2)
AHigh tensile strength round bar

BJIS type deformed bar
C,D,E High tensile strength
deformed bar
Maximum crack width (mm)
Fig. C.2.3.11 Relation between calculated stress of steel bar and maximum surface crack width
(ii) Environmental condition
The items of investigation include temperature, relative humidity, concentration of CO2, air-borne
chloride, existence of chemical substance, etc.
Temperature and relative humidity
The variation of temperature and relative humidity can be obtained from the data collected in the
standard investigation. The progress of carbonation and corrosion of steel in concrete are significantly
affected by temperature and relative humidity in addition to other factors, such as concrete resistance,
water content, rainfall frequency, wet and dry cycles, etc. In the case of marine exposure, investigation
is to be carried out on seawater, swoop salinity, wave height, sea level, and anchoring time of ships
(related to protection against waves).
40
Concentration of CO2
Concentration of CO2 strongly affects the carbonation of concrete. It is rare that the concentration of
CO2 differs with the variation of geological conditions. The concentration of CO2 may increase in the
case apartment and other special buildings. Hence, the concentration of CO2 should be measured
considering the usage of structure.
Air-borne chloride
Air-borne chloride may cause corrosion of steel bars in concrete structures located near the sea. For
these structures, the items, such as distance from the seashore, wind direction, concentration of
air-borne salt, etc. are to be recorded. In the cold regions, de-icing agent and snow melting agents are
used. Air-borne chlorides from these agents are also to be measured.
Chemical substance
It is rare that chemical corrosion causes cracks in normal condition. However, structure which are
located near to spring area and acid river may suffer from chemical attack induced steel bar corrosion.
Structures used for sewerage facilities, chemical plants, food processing plants, etc. may also suffer
chemical corrosion. The existence of chemical substance should be confirmed considering not only the
local environmental condition but also the usage of structure.
c. Subsurface conditions (settlement, displacement, etc.)
The possibility of cracking of a structure caused by differential settlement of the foundation, earth load,
lateral displacement, etc., is to be investigated. Normally for such cases, it is necessary to ascertain the
safety of the structure immediately by the temporary treatments. Rechecking of the safety of the whole
structure by the temporary treatment is also necessary in this stage of investigation.
The future behavior of the foundation is to be studied. If there is any possibility of extension of the
structure in future, the influence of the imposed extra load resulting from the extension work is to be
carefully studied.
d. Investigation of structural performance and deformation
A loading test should be conducted when the durability or deformation of the structure is judged to be
problematic. The following loading tests are generally used:
Oil pressure jack
Heavy weight (concrete block, steel, water, etc.)
Moving vehicles (train, truck, etc.)
By using oil pressure jack and heavy weight, it is possible to accurately grasp the behavior of the
structure under a static load. On the other hand, using moving vehicles, it is possible to judge the
dynamic behavior (maximum deflection, natural frequency of the structure, etc.) due to the moving
loads. The following items are generally measured during loading tests:
d-1 Deflection and deformation of members
Deflection and deformation of members are measured during loading tests. Comparing the loading test
results with the calculated results, it is possible to estimate the deterioration of the rigidity of the
members. Based on these results, limitation of traffic volume and the necessity of repair and
strengthening can be determined. The measurement of the vertical deflection of a girder is normally
carried out at the middle of the span. Settlement of the supports must also be measured if there is any
possibility of settlement.
The calculated deflection values often disagree with the measured deflection values. For accurate
calculation of deflection, in addition to the cross section of the main girder, it is necessary to consider
the loading conditions of the sidewalk, handrail, etc. as well as reduction in rigidity of the girder due to
cracks. It is useful to compare the deflection of deteriorated girders with the deflection of sound girders.
d-2 Strain of concrete and steel bar
The strain on the surface of the concrete or the steel bars is generally measured by the increased value
of strain due to the imposed load on the structure. The strain due to dead load can be measured using the
amount of strain release by a strain gage after cutting the steel bar. This method will identify the weak
locations in the structure. Adequate treatments are to be implemented soon after the measurement to
ensure the safety of the structures.
41
d-3 Settlement, inclination and movement of foundation

In some cases, excessive stress is generated in the structure due to the settlement of its foundation. This
will cause the generation of cracks in the structure. In continuous structures such as multi-span viaducts,
the settlement behavior of the foundation or pier is very complex. Careful measurement of the
settlement of each individual pier should be carefully performed and this data are to be studied to ensure
the safety of the whole structure.
Strain or deformation is measured by a strain gage, an optical fiber, a contact or non-contact (by laser,
etc.) type displacement gage, etc. The measured values are compared with the calculated results.
e. Investigation of vibration of structure
The objectives of this test are as follows:
To evaluate the influence of moving loads or machine loads during the service life of the
structure,
To evaluate the influence of earthquakes, and
To evaluate the level of deterioration of the rigidity of the structure.
For , the actual live load is applied on the structure. For and , vibration using a vibrator or an
impact load by a heavy weight is often applied. In these tests, the time history response is recorded by
using a displacement meter, accelerometer, etc. Using these records, the damping ratio of the structure
as well as the natural frequency, and mode shape of the structure are evaluated. The test method is
illustrated in Fig. C.2.3.12. If there is a record of response immediately after completion of the structure,
it is possible to estimate the soundness of the structure in its present condition based on the change in
natural frequency due to the occurrence of cracks or change in material properties.
Fig.C.2.3.12 Measurement system of vibration test

2) Laboratory investigations
In this Guideline, laboratory investigations are divided according to the test methods and types of
deteriorations. It is recommended that the scope of the laboratory investigations is to be set by an expert
engineer as additional tests based on the results of standard investigation and on-site investigation of
detailed investigation.
The laboratory investigations are listed in Table C.2.1.1.
References
1) M. Otsu: Characteristics and Theory of Acoustic Emission, Morikita Shuppan, 1988.
2) Japan Highway Public Corporation: Laser Crack Investigation Method Manual for Tunnel Lining
Concrete, Testing Laboratory Technology Data No. 355, September 1997.
3) T. Komiyama, Y. Nakano, Y. Tanigawa: Experimental Research on Application Limit of Peeling
Detection of External Wall Finishing Material by Thermography Method, Architectural Institute of
Japan Structural Proceedings, No.484, pp.13-20, June 1996.
4) Japan Concrete Inst. Edition: Research Council Report of Non-Destructive Testing Method of
42
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
13)
14)
15)
16)
17)
18)
19)
20)
21)
22)
23)
24)
Concrete, March 1992.

Japan Society of Civil Engineers: Concrete Standard Specifications (Standard Edition) JSCE
G-504-2007 (Testing Method of Testing Hammer Strength of Hardened Concrete).
Architectural Institute of Japan Edition: Non-Destructive Testing Method Manual for Concrete
Strength Estimation, March 1983.
Public Works Research InstituteMethod of Ultrasonic Test (PWRI Method) for Compressive
Strength of Concrete in Newly Built Structures (Draft)
S. Iwano: Estimation of Compressive Strength of Concrete by Impact Elastic Wave Method,
Proceedings of the Japan Concrete Institute, Vol.23, No.1, pp.1835-1840, 2006.
The Japanese Society of Non-Destructive Inspection Standard: NDIS 3424: 2005 (Method of
Making and Testing for Compressive Strength of BOSS Specimens)
K. Morihama et. Al: Application of Non-destructive Testing to Inspection of RC Structures,
Proceedings of the Japan Concrete Institute, Vol.27, No.1, pp.1825-1830, 2005.
T. Kamata, M. Asano, M. Kunieda, K. Rokugo: Application of Impact-Echo Method in
Quantitative Non-Destructive Inspection of Defects of Concrete Surface Layer, No. 704, V-55, pp.
65-79, May 2002.
S. Nagataki, N. Otsuki, T. Kamata, Y. Maeda: Research on Peeling Detection Method of
Construction Joint of Concrete by Ultrasonic Wave, Proceedings of the 19th JUCC Congress on
Cement and Concrete, pp.1-4, 1992
S. Iwano: Estimating a Defect in Concrete by Impact Elastic Wave Method, Proceedings of the
Japan Concrete Institute, Vol.24, No.1, pp.1521-1526, 2002.
K. Akashi, S. Ozaki: Present State and Tendency of Non-Destructive Testing Method of Concrete,
Concrete Engineering, Vol.23, No.12, 1985.
T. Uomoto, K. Kato, S. Hirono: Non-Destructive Inspection of Concrete StructureDurability
Diagnosis of Concrete Structure Series 5- (K. Kobayashi Edition), Morikita Shuppan, 1990.
K. Takewaka: Non-Destructive Inspection Corrosion of Steel, Concrete Engineering, Vol. 33, No.
3, pp. 123-127, 1995.
Y.Igase: Towards an effective inspection for quality of concrete A novel approach of JH Co.,Ltd.
Monthly Construction, p.27-29, 2000.7
A. Fujishima et al,: Electrochemical Measurements Methods, Gihoudou Publishing Company of
Japan, 1984.
Committee data by K.Amino.
Kokudo Kaihatsu Center, Committee of Durability Improvement of Building and Technology
Popularization Edition: Durability Improvement of Building Series Building Construction
Edition I-Durability Improvement of Reinforced Concrete Building and Technology
Popularization, Gihodo Shuppan, June 1986.
Japan Concrete Institute: Protection against Steel Corrosion of Concrete Structures in Marine
Environment, 1983.
The Japanese Society of Non-Destructive Inspection Standard: NDIS 3419: 1999 (Carbonation
Depth Testing Method of Concrete Structure Using Drilled Powder).
Japan Society of Civil Engineers: Concrete Standard Specifications for Concrete Structures
(Design), 2007.
Y. Matsumoto, H. Okamura et.al.: Flexural Properties of Large-scaled Reinforced Concrete Beams
Used with Various Kinds of High-strength Deformed Bars, Concrete Library, No.14pp.21-48
1965.12
43
Chapter 3 Cause Estimation

3.1 General
(1) Cause estimation shall be carried out accurately before evaluation of cracks, judgment of the
necessity for repair and strengthening and their selection.
(2) Cause estimation shall be carried out based on standard investigation and/or detailed investigation.
[Comments]
(1) As described in Chapter 1, this Guideline evaluates the crack based on its cause, followed by
judgment of necessity for repair and strengthening and their selection. The cause estimation of crack is
a starting point of this flow. This chapter proposes a method to estimate the cause of crack and to
obtain data for evaluation of crack, judgment of the necessity for repair and strengthening and their
selection.
(2) The causes of cracks are determined based on the standard investigation as explained in 2.2.
However, if the results of standard investigation are insufficient to judge the causes of cracking,
detailed investigation is carried out according to the detailed investigation described in 3.4.
3.2 Cause of crack
Causes of cracking are listed in Table 3.1.
[Comments]
There are many causes of cracking. Those that are generally observed in practice are listed and
described in Table 3.1.
As an appendix of Table 3.1, long-term load refers to dead load, fixed load, carrying load, live load,
and other types of loads that are applied to the structure for the long term. Cracks are generated due to
the fatigue caused by the cyclic loading applied over a long term, such as by trains and other vehicles
passing over a bridge, and creep strain due to the continuous loading over the structure. Cracks due to
the fatigue in railway bridges and road bridges are designated as D1 and D2, respectively (Table 3.1).
Short-term load refers to earthquake load, impact load, live load, and other types of load that are
applied to a structure for a short term. The causes of cracking due to these loads are categorized as
earthquakes, impacts, excessive loads, etc.
Structural design of RC and PC allow crack width of 0.2 to 0.3 mm due to bending load.
44
Table 3.1 Causes of Cracking

Major
A Materials
B Construction
Sub Classification Sub-Sub Classification Number

A1
Cement
A2
A3
Used Materials
A4
Aggregate
A5
A6
A7
A8
Concrete
A9
A10
B1
Mixing
B2
B3
Transport and Placing
B4
B5
Concrete
B6
Compaction
B7
Curing
B8
B9
B10
ConstructionJoint
B11
Steel
Arrangement of Steel
B12
B13
Formwork
B14
Formwork
B15
B16
Support
B17
Cold Joint
Others
B18
PC Grout
C1
Physical
Temperature and
Humidity
C Environment
Chemical
Chemical Reaction
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7
C8
Long-Term Load
Load
Short-Term Load
D Structure and
External Force
D1
D2
D3
D4
D5
Structural Design
D6
D7
Support Condition
E Others
Cause
False Setting of Cement
Heat of Hydraation of Cement
Abnormal Expansion of Cement
Clay inclusion in Aggregate
Low Quality Aggregate
Reactive Aggregate (Alkali-Aggregate
Chloride in Concrete
Settlement and Bleeding of Concrete
Drying Shrinkage of Concrete
Autogeneous Shrinkage of Concrete
Non-uniform Dispersion of Admixture
Long-Time Mixing
Inappropiate Change of Proportion at Pumping
Inappropriate Placing Sequence

Rapid Placing
Inappropriate Compaction
Loading or Vibration before Hardening
Rapid Drying during Initial Curing
Early Age Frost Damage
Inappropriate Joint Treatment
Inappropriate Placement of Reinforcement
Lack of Cover
Deformation of Formwork
Water Leakage from formwork
Early Removal of Formwork
Settlement of Support
Inappropriate Joint or Discontinuity
Insufficient Grouting
Change of Environmental Temperature
and/or Humidity
Difference inTemperatures and Humidity
between front and back side of member
Repeated Cycles of Freezing and Thawing
Fire Damage
Surface Heating
Chemical Reaction of Acid and/or Salt
Corrosion of Embedded Steel due to
Carbonation
Corrosion of Embedded Steel due to
Chloride Attack
Long-Term Load within Design load
Long-Term Load over Design Load
Short-Term Load within Design Load
Short-Term Load over Design Load
Insufficient Cross Sectionla Area or
Quantity of Steel
Differential Settlement of Structure
Freezing Heave
Others
3.3 Cause Estimation based on Standard Investigation

(1) Cause estimation is performed by comparing the results of the standard investigation with Table
3.1.
(2) If it is difficult to evaluate the cause from the results of the standard investigation, cause
estimation is performed as per 3.4.
45
[Comments]
(1) Standard investigation described in Chapter 2 mainly consists of visual observation of cracks, and
investigations of previous records and failures.
There are many cases for which the cause can be estimated by standard investigation. For example, in
many cases, the cause estimation will fall under the major classification materials described in Table
3.1. In some cases, it may not be possible to evaluate the exact cause from the results of the standard
investigation, but some rough evaluations may be made from the standard investigations that can be
useful during detailed investigation.
1) Crack appearance
The typical crack patterns for different causes listed in Table 3.1 are shown in Fig. C.3.3.1.
A1. False setting of cement: Short and irregular cracks occur at a
comparatively early age.(Right)
A2. Heat of hydration of cement: Cracks occur in the restrained
wall members of members with a large cross section. The
cracks appear in various formations, such as penetrating cracks
and surface cracks based on the external and/or internal
restraining conditions.
Fig. C.3.3.1 Example of cracks (Part.1)
46
A4. Clay inclusion in aggregate: Irregular and reticular cracks occur

when concrete becomes dry.(Right)
A5. Low quality aggregate: cracks occur as pop-outs.
A6. Reactive aggregate (alkali-aggregate reaction): In structures such as columns, and beams,
cracks occur along the steel in the axial direction (orthogonal, parallel to the restrained steel).
Reticular cracks occur in walls, retaining walls, etc., and are often accompanied by the
deposition of alkali-silica gel.
47
Depositionof Silica Gel
Silica Gel
Rim of Reaction Product
A8. Settlement and bleeding of concrete: Cracks occur in the upper part (along the steel bar) and
lower part (below separator, etc.) of embedded steel or along the joint plane. These cracks
occur during the period from placing and hardening of concrete.
Inhomogeneity of settlement due to the restraint provided by the

spacers and embedded metal fittings (Wall Structure)
Shrinkage cracks due to the plastic settlement

of each layer of placement (due to insufficient compaction)
Crack due to settlement by restraint of separator
Restraint by steel bar (Slab)

48
A9. Drying shrinkage of concrete: The conditions under which cracks occur vary widely
depending on the restraint conditions. In some cases, internal restraint develops when the
surface of the concrete becomes dry and shrinks, causing the generation of minute cracks in
the surface layer.
Tunnel Lining Concrete
Example Case of Shrinkage Crack of Lining
Example of drying shrinkage crack of external wall
Example of crack at handrail of road
Example of Minute Crack at Surface Region

Due to Shrinkage
Stress concentration within the periphery of windows,

embedded material, etc.
49
A10. Autogenouse shrinkage: Autogenouse shrinkage cracks occurs in high strength concrete.
Autogenouse shrinkage cracking in high strength concrete column

B1. Non-uniform dispersion of admixture: There are expansion cracks and shrinkage cracks
which occur locally.
Example: Expansion Crack
B2. Long-time mixing: Cracks occur when the

transportation time is too long. Such cracks
become reticular in the whole surface.
50
B5. Rapid placing: Cracks occur due to the settlement of the concrete.
Congested layout of steel bar
This portion settles

This portion settles
Cracks generate at the location where height of the

section are changed
Congested layout of steel bar
Cracks generate in the locations where the restraint degrees of formwork and/or
arrangement of steel bar are different, of the thickness of members is different
B6. Inappropriate compaction: Segregation occurs due to excessive compaction.
Example of cracks due to insufficient compaction
Segregation due to excessive compaction
51
B8. Rapid drying during initial curing: Irregular and reticular cracks form due to rapid drying.
B10. Inappropriate joint treatment

Water leakage
Water
leakage
Joint
treatment
under
a haunch
Cracks at the construction joint
Water leakage at construction joint

B13. Deformation of formwork
B16.
Settlement of support
52
B17. Inappropriate joint or discontinuity: A cold joint forms.
Concrete Lining in the Tunnel
Example of cold joint
Cold joint (Light )
Cold joint (Significant)
Cold joint (Significant)
53
B18. Insufficient grouting: Cracks occur due to the freezing of accumulated water in the
insufficiently grouted part of the duct used for prestressing tendons. The cracks occur along
the axial direction in the web or under the bottom face of the lower flange.
Example of cracks generated at the position with insufficient grouting in PC members
C1. Changes in environmental temperature and/or humidity: Patterns of cracks in outer wall:
Deformation occurs in the outer wall because of drying shrinkage due to changes in humidity,
and/or changes in temperature due to heat isolation. The diagonal cracks and its reverse form
occur in the upper and bottom edges of the outer wall. Such cracks also run in the upper and
lower corners of the openings across the beams. Vertical cracks also occur in the middle part
of the structure due to the restraint provided by the great beams.
ADiagonal
crack at the crack
top floor similar to the shape of
Japanese number eight
Cracks at the openings
Diagonal
crack
A crack
dividing the beam
Vertical cracks in
the A
crack similar
to the reverse shape of
middle part
Japanese number eight in the edge span
54
C2. Difference in temperatures and humidity between two surfaces of a member: If the
temperature and/or high humidity at the outer surface are high while the temperature and/or
drying at the inner surface are low, cracks occur around the middle of two restrained members,
or in the vicinity of the joint of the restrained members at the side with low temperature
and/or drying. The cracks do not penetrate in the early stage, but after repeated cycles of
environmental changes, they often penetrate across the members as time passes.
Column
Column
Outer Surface
Inner Surface
Example of cracks in a chimney (the difference of temperatures inside and outside

the outside of the chimney is large, and cracks generate easily due to this effect)
C3. Repeated cycles of freezing and thawing: Diagonal

cracks in the corner or cracks along the long
direction or at the horizontal joint are generally
formed due to repeated cycles of freezing and
thawing. Scaling is a common feature related to
cracking caused by freezing and thawing action.
Example of cracks in the structure damage by freezing and thawing action
55
C4. Fire damage

C5. Surface heating: Due to rapid increases in temperature and drying,
reticular minute cracks occur together with relatively wider cracks
with uniform crack spacing in beams and/or columns. The concrete
may also explode and peel off partially.
Example of cracks in the structure damaged by fire
C6. Chemical reaction of acid and/or salt: The concrete surface is eroded due to a chemical
reaction. Most of the cracks occur along the steel bars, and some parts of the concrete may
peel off.
Degradation of the structure damaged by chemical erosion
56
C7. Corrosion of rebar due to carbonation

B12. Lack of Cover: Cracks occur along the steel bar.
From Reference 1
Lack of cover at the location of the stirrup
Cracks due to carbonation induced corrosion of steel bars

(bottom surface of the building)
C8. Corrosion of rebar due to chloride attack

A7. Chloride in concrete: Rust spills out from the cracks and it often stains the concrete surface.
In the case of severe corrosion of steel bars, peeling of the concrete may occur. The corrosion
of exposed steel is always severe.
Degradation situation and crack pattern due to chloride attack
57
D1.
D2.
D3.
D4.
Long-term load within design load

Long-term load over design Load
Short-term load within design load
Short-term load over design load: Cracks generally occur in the RC member due to the
bending moment. However, in the case of a crack width over 0.3mm due to shearing force, it
is necessary to examine the situation in detail.
(1):::
Bending crack, (2) Shearing crack, (3) Excessive local stress on the
:
support,
and (4) Effects of insufficient prestressing or settlement of the support
D4. Short-term load over design load
Before the application of the road

bridge specifications in 1980
After the application of the road

bridge specifications in 1980
The cracks generated due to the horizontal force caused by earthquake
58
D2. Long-term load over design load: In RC floor slabs of road bridges whose thickness is thin
compared to the effective span length, a hexagonal crack pattern as shown in the following
figures occurs due to the fatigue caused by the repetition of loads caused by the travel of
large-size vehicles on the bridge. Generally, in the early stage of deterioration, cracks occur in
the direction perpendicular to the axis of the bridge where the distribution of steel bars is
lesser. The crack pattern becomes two-directional with time, and gradually becomes finer and
finer until it finally causes push-out shearing fracture. Efflorescence occurs due to the
penetration of cracks, and sometimes this is followed by rusting.
Pictures (a) and (b)
Picture ( c ) Picture (d) Picture (e)
Collapse
Main girder direction
Unidirectional
cracks
Bi-directional
Cracks with Subsidence and/or
cracks
hexagonal
collapse
Progress of cracks in a floor slab
pattern
due to fatigue
Example of progress of cracks in a floor slab
59
D5. Insufficient cross sectional area or quantity of rebar: The cracks shown in the following figure
sometimes occur due to an insufficient number of steel bars. The formation of cracks due to
insufficient cross section or quantity of steel is the same as that described in D2 and D4. It is
necessary to examine from the drawings and the specifications whether it is due to the load or
it is due to the insufficient cross section and/or quantity of steel. In PC members, the same
type of cracks occurs due to the excessive tension of the PC members.
D6. Differential settlement of structure: In statically indeterminate structures, such as rigid frame,
the cracks such as the ones shown in the following figures sometimes occur due to the
differential settlement of the support.
Support
Settlement
Settlement
Example of cracks in a rigid frame pier due

to differential settlement
D7
settlement).
Displacement
Displacement
Freezing heave: Formation of heaves due to freezing (opposite phenomenon to
Freezing heave
60
Efflorescence left: external wall with tile
right: Mortal finishing on concrete block
Cracks on concrete substrate (many of cracks occur only in

mortal. Concrete crack in diagonal crack on the corner of
window)
Concrete crack due to corrosion of aluminum support
Water leakage at cold joint

Surface cracks due to early age drying
61
2) Procedure for cause estimation of crack

Procedure for cause estimation of crack shall be carried out according to the procedure a. to c.
a. Classification of crack causes
The following four categories (i) to (iv) must be systematically followed to identify the probable
causes of crack. In category (i), the cause is roughly estimated based on the major classifications A to
D described in Table 3.1. Taking into consideration the crack patterns (generation period, regularity,
extent), deformation associated with the structure, limit of structure affecting the deformation, mixture
proportions, and environmental conditions, the causes of cracking are further classified as A1 to A10,
B1 to B18, C1 to C8 and D1 to D7 in each of steps (ii) to (iv) (Tables C.3.3.1 to C.3.3.4).
(i) Major classifications of causes (Table 3.1)

Materials (A)
Construction (B)
Service environment (C)
Structure and external force (D)
(ii) Classification based on generation period, regularity, and extent of cracks (Table C.3.3.1)
Generation period (several hours to one day, a few days, several 10s of days)
Regularity (Yes or no)
Extent (reticular, surface layer, and penetration)
The extent of cracks is defined as reticular for mesh type cracking; as surface layer if the depth
of the cracks is limited to the surface region of the structure; and as penetration if the cracks
continue through the section.
(iii) Classification based on deformation and limit of consideration (Table C.3.3.2)
Deformation of concrete (drying shrinkage, expansion, settlement, bending, and shearing)
Limit of consideration (materials, member, and structure)
If the deformation is associated with the material of the structure, then the limit of consideration
is defined as materials; if it is associated with a particular member of the structure, then the
limit of consideration is defined as member; and if it is associated with the whole structure, then
the limit of consideration is defined as structure.
(iv) Classifications based on mixture proportions and weather conditions (Tables C.3.3.3 and C.3.3.4)
Mixture proportion (rich and poor)
Weather conditions during placing of concrete (high or low temperature, and low humidity)
b. Detection of common cause
The common causes of cracking are identified by comparing the results of the investigations
summarized in Steps (i) to (iv). The non-matching causes of steps (i) to (iv) are excluded for simplicity.
c. Cause estimation based on 3.4 (if the cause is not clear)
Cause estimation should be performed based on the results of the detailed investigation explained in
3.4 if cause estimation cannot be performed based on the results of the standard investigation.
The unit content of cement is taken into account in the mixture proportions in a.(iv). There is a high
possibility of temperature cracks for a rich mixture proportion caused by the large amount of heat of
hydration. In such a case, the possibility of cracking due to drying shrinkage and autogenous
shrinkage is also high. Furthermore, in the case of a rich mixture proportion, the total quantity of
alkali per unit volume of concrete will be high, which may lead to an alkali-aggregate reaction in the
concrete. On the other hand, in the case of a poor mixture proportion, the workability of the fresh
concrete will be poor and water bleeding will be high. In such a case, the structure can easily become
degraded due to the lack of resistance of the hardened concrete against carbonation and chloride attack.
The temperature during placing of the concrete is taken into consideration because in the case of a
high temperature of the concrete or a high atmospheric temperature, slump loss may occur during
transportation or placing, which possibly will be the representative failure caused by the formation of
a cold joint. Furthermore, high temperature is harmful from the viewpoint of temperature cracks.
Generally, concrete placed at a daily mean temperature over 25C is defined as hot weather concrete
62
and special treatment is necessary for such concrete2).

In the case of a low ambient temperature, there is a possibility of early age frost damage, and an
increase in bleeding due to the retardation of the hydration reaction. Special treatment for cold
weather concrete is necessary when the daily mean temperature is lower than 4C per the regulations
of the Japan Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE)2), and when the accumulated temperature until the
concrete gains its required strength is less than 370 C.day (standard temperature: -10C) per the
regulations of the Architectural Institute of Japan (AIJ)3). The accumulated temperature of 370C day
is equal to or lower than a mean daily temperature of 3.2C.
The effect of a dry atmospheric condition during placing of concrete is remarkable especially with
regard to the generation of plastic shrinkage cracks. Plastic shrinkage is also affected by temperature,
wind velocity, etc. It can be considered that cracks may occur due to rapid drying at an early age when
the relative humidity is lower than 60%4)5).
Pattern of Cracks
Generation Period
Regularity
Cause Estimation
Extent
Reticular
B2, B3
Yes
Surface layer
A8, B2, B3, B5, B14, B16, B17
Penetration
B2, B3, B4, B10, B16, B17
Few hours to one day
Reticular
B8
No
Surface layer
A1, B5, B7, B8, B13, B17
Penetration
B4, B10, B17
Reticular
Yes
Surface layer
A2, A10, B15, D5
Penetration
A2, A10, B16
Few days
Reticular
A4, B9
No
Surface layer
B7, B9
Penetration
Reticular
A6, A9, B2, B3, D2
Yes
Surface layer
A6, A7, A9, A10, B2, B3, B11, B12, C1, C2, C7, C8, D1, D3
Penetration
A9, A10, B2, B3, B4, B10, B18, C1, D2, D4, D5, D6
More than several ten days *,**
Reticular
A3, A4, A6, B1, B9, C3, C4, C5, C6
No
Surface layer
A3, A4, A5, A6, B9, C3, C4, C5, C6, D7
Penetration
B4, B10, B18, D6
* Cracks form after development of required strength.
* If fatigue is the cause of cracking (D1 and D2), the generating period must be at least from few years to multiple of few ten-ye
Table C.3.3.1 Classifications Based on the Generation Period, Regularity, and Extent of Cracks
Table C.3.3.2 Classifications Based on the Deformation and Limit of Consideration
Deformation Factors of Concrete
Shrinkage*1)
Expansion*2)
Settlement, bending and shearing
Limit of Consideration*3)
Cause Estimation
Material
A1, A2, A4, A9, A10, B1, C1, C3, C4, C5
Member
A2, A9, A10, B2, B3, B8, B14, B15, B17, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5
Structure
A9, B2, B3, B8, B15, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5
Material
A3, A5, A6, B1, C1, C3, C4, C5, C6
Member
A7, B1, B12, B18, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C7, C8
Structure
A7, C1, C4, C5
Material
A5, A6, C1
Member
A8, B4, B5, B6, B7, B9, B10, B11, B12, B13, B16, B17, C1, C2, D1, D2, D3, D4, D5, D6, D7
Structure
B6, C1, D1, D2, D3, D4, D6, D7
Remarks: *1) The cracked region shows the occurrence of shrinkage

*2) The crack region shows the occurrence of expansion
*3) Material: it is required to investigate materials for cause estimation (mainly concrete)
Member: It is required to investigate members, such as beam, column, wall, slab, etc. for cause easimation
Structure: It is required to investigate the whole structure (including roof and foundation) for cause estimation
63
Table C.3.3.2 Classifications Based on Mixture Proportion

Mixture Proportion
Cause Estimation
Rich
A2, A6, A9, A10
Cement content per unit volume of concrete is more than 350 kg/m3.
Standard
Poor
A8, C3, C6, C7, C8
Cement content per unit volume of concrete is less than 270 kg/m .
Table C.3.3.4 Classification Based on Weather Condition During Placing of Concrete

Weather Condition at the Placing of Concrete
High temperature
Low temperature
Low humidity
Cause Estimation
Standard
The daily mean temperature during placing is higher than 25, and
A2, B2, B8, B17
the ambient temperature at placement is higher than 25.
A8, B7, B9, B13, B16, D7 The daily mean temperature at placing is lower than 4.
A4, A9, B8, B17
The humidity is lower than 60%.
3) Examples of cause estimation

Examples of cause estimation in 2) based on the standard investigation are described.
Example 1: Cracks on the surface of a wall
Investigated Results:
Cracks were found on the surface of a wall as shown in Fig. C.3.3.2 during removal of the formwork
(7 days after placing). The crack width is random. Water leakage occurs over time through the cracks
and efflorescence is also observed.
Fig.C.3.3.2 Cracks on the surface of a wall
Cause Estimation:
(i) Major classifications of causes
Considering that cracks have already been found during removal of the formwork, major causes C
(Service Environment) and D (Structure and External Force) in Table 3.1 can be excluded. The causes
seem to be related to A (Materials) or B (Construction).
(ii) Classification based on generation period, regularity, and extent of cracks
The cracks occurred before removal of the formwork. Therefore, it is judged that the generation period
will be either a few hours to one day or a few days. No regularity is found in the cracks. Since
efflorescence is found, it is assumed that the cracks deeply penetrate in the concrete to form channels
for leakage. The extent of the cracks is classified as penetration.
(iii) Classification based on deformation and limit of consideration
It can be considered that the deformation of concrete is not related to shrinkage or expansion. The
limit of consideration related to the deformation is considered as member level.
(iv) Classification Based on Mixture Proportion and Weather Conditions
Ordinary mixture proportion was used. Therefore, the causes related to the rich and poor mixture
proportions are excluded. Since the construction of the structure was carried out at a high atmospheric
temperature (higher than 25C during placing), the possibility of slump loss is considered.
64
The probable causes of cracking based on the results of Steps (i) to (iv) are listed in Table C.3.3.5.
Performing a comparison with the results of Table C.3.3.5, it becomes clear that the common cause of
cracking is B17. Therefore, the main cause of cracking is considered to be the formation of a cold joint.
Table C.3.3.5 Summary of the Results of Investigations
Classification
Cause Estimation
()
A, B
()
B4, B10, B17
()
A8, B4, B5, B6, B7, B9, B10, B11, B12, B13, B16, B17, C1, C2, D1, D2, D3, D4, D5, D6, D7
()
A2, B2, B8, B17
Example 2: Cracks in the slab of an elevated bridge

Investigation Results:
Cracks occurred in the slab of a RC elevated bridge are shown in Fig. C.3.3.3. The crack width on the
top surface of the slab varies between 0.1 to 0.2 mm, and the cracks were found one-day after placing
of the concrete. The crack width on the bottom surface of the slab varies from 0.1 to 0.3 mm and
efflorescence was detected approximately 2 months after placing of the concrete. Placing of the
concrete was carried out in the middle of December, and it took about 20 minutes for transporting the
ready-mixed concrete from the factory to the bridge site. The following data about concrete are
available: Cement content = 325 kg/m3, slump = 12 cm, Compressive strength at one-week age = 19.0
N/mm2, compressive strength at 4-week age = 32.6 N/mm2.
According to the construction record, the weather on the day of construction was sunny, the
temperature ranged from 8 to 10C, relative humidity was 60%, and wind velocity ranged from 2 to 3
m/s.
Fig. C.3.3.3 Cracks in slab of RC elevated bridge
Cause Estimation:
(i) Major Classifications of Causes
As the cracks occurred at an early age, major causes C (Service Environment) and D (Structure and
External Force) of Table 3.1 can be excluded for the top surface of the slab.
(ii) Classification Based on Generation Period, Regularity, and Extent of Cracks
On the top surface of the slab, the cracks are generated within a few hours to 1 day. The time of crack
generation at the bottom surface of the slab is not clear, but is estimated at approximately 2 months.
65
However, looking at the formation of efflorescence on the bottom surface as well as the condition of
the cracks, there is a possibility that the cracks were generated earlier than 2 months. Finally, crack
generation on the bottom surface is judged to have occurred from a few hours to 1 day to several 10s
of days.
Judging the regularity of the cracks, it is found that the cracks at the center of the top surface of the
slab are rectilinear and their locations are approximately related to the location of the steel bars.
Furthermore, there is some regularity among the cracks on the top surface. The radial cracks on the
bottom surface also show the presence of regularity. These observations indicate that there is
regularity among the cracks on the top and bottom surfaces of the slab.
The depth of the cracks is judged to be within the surface layer for the top surface. For the bottom
surface of the slab, the cracks are judged as penetration due to the formation of efflorescence on the
bottom surface of the slab.
Deformation of the structure is judged due to shrinkage, and settlement, bending, and shearing for
both the top and bottom surfaces of the slab. Expansion is excluded.
The limit of consideration related to deformation is judged to be materials and members for both
surfaces of the slab.
(iv) Classification based on mixture proportion and weather conditions
No particular problem related to the mixture proportion of concrete is found. Investigating the weather
conditions during placing, it is judged that low atmospheric temperature during placing may have
some influence.
The results of the investigations are summarized in Table C.3.3.6.
From Table C.3.3.6, the common causes in Steps (i) to (iii) for top and bottom surfaces are listed
below.
For top surface: A8 (Settlement and Bleeding of Concrete), B2 (Long-Time Mixing), B3 (Change in
Mix Proportion at Pumping), B5 (Rapid Placing), B14 (Water Leakage), B16 (Settlement of Support)
and B17 (Cold Joint).
For the bottom surface: A2 (Heat of Hydration of Cement), A9 (Drying Shrinkage of Concrete), A10
(Autogenous Shrinkage of Concrete), B2, B3, B4 (Inappropriate Placing Sequence), B10
(Inappropriate Joint Treatment), B16 (Settlement of Support), B17 (Cold Joint), C1 (Changes in
Environmental Temperature and/or Humidity), D2 (Long-Term Load over Design Load), D4 (ShortTerm Load over Design Load), D5 (Insufficient Cross Section or Quantity of Steel) and D6
(Differential Settlement of Structure).
Among the above-mentioned causes, it is difficult to consider A2, A10, B2, B3, B4, B5, B10 and B17
as the main causes of cracking; because the cracking occurred at an early age of the structure, it is
judged not to yet be affected by C1 (Change in Environmental Temperature and/or Humidity);
furthermore, it becomes clear that D2, D4, D5 and D6 are not the main causes of the cracks based on
the investigation of the earthquake records and loading conditions. Therefore, the causes of cracking
are judged to be A8 and B16 for the top surface and B16 for the bottom surface.
A9 is not judged as the main cause but there is a possibility that it may have promoted the other
expected causes.
Location
Top Surface
Bottom Surface
Classification
Cause Estimation
()
A, B
()
A8, B2, B3, B5, B14, B16, B17
A1, A2, A4, A5, A6, A8, A9, A10, B1, B2, B3, B4, B5, B6, B7, B9, B10, B1
()
B13, B14, B15, B16, B17, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, D1, D2, D3, D4, D5, D7
()
(A8, B7, B9, B13, B16, D7)
()
A, B, C, D
()
A2, A9, A10, B2, B3, B4, B10, B16, B17, B18, C1, D2, D4, D5, D6
A1, A2, A4, A5, A6, A8, A9, A10, B1, B2, B3, B4, B5, B6, B7, B8, B9, B10
()
B12, B13, B14, B15, B16, B17, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, D1, D2, D3, D4, D5, D
()
(A8, B7, B9, B13, B16, D7)
66
From the above-mentioned results, it is concluded that at the center of the top surface of the slab,
cracks are generated at the location of steel bars and are caused by settlement due to the bleeding of
water from the concrete. On the other hand, the cracks around the top surface and the penetrating
cracks on the bottom surface of the slab are generated due to the retarding effect on setting of the cold
weather and are subsequently influenced by the settlement of the support due to the early removal of
the formwork. It is estimated that the cracks are generated due to the presence of multiple causes. In
fact, both settlement due to bleeding of concrete and settlement of supports are common causes of
cracking for cold weather concrete.
Example 3: Cracks occurred in a floor slab
The cracks occurred in a floor slab approximately after 3 weeks of placing of the concrete are shown
in Fig. C.3.3.4. There are some cracks along the direction of the short side and others diagonally to the
four corners. Almost half of these cracks penetrate to the bottom surface of the slab.
The placing of the concrete was carried out during a comparatively warm day (temperature: 18C,
relative humidity: 68%, wind velocity: 0 to 2 m/s) in the middle of April. A number of similar cracks
were also found in the adjoining floor slabs.
Fig. C.3.3.4 Cracks in floor slab
Cause Estimation:
As the cracks were generated three weeks after placing of the concrete, the causes related to C
(Service Environment) and D (Structure and External Force) are excluded.
(ii) Classifications based on generation period, regularity, and extent of cracks
Based on the investigation, it is concluded that the cracks were formed approximately 3 weeks after
placing of the concrete, and therefore the generation period of the cracks corresponds to several 10s of
days.
Furthermore, the cracks of each slab having the same pattern, there is regularity of the crack pattern.
As half of the cracks penetrate throughout the slab, the extent of the cracks is judged to be penetration.
(iii) Classifications based on deformation and limit of consideration
The deformation of the concrete is considered to be due to shrinkage.
Although similar cracks were found in each slab, the cracks are not due to the influence of the
adjoining slabs, and nor are they due to the influence of the structure as a whole. Therefore, the limit
of consideration is judged to be member.
(iv) Classifications based on mixture proportion and weather conditions
Based on the results of investigation of the mixture proportion and weather conditions, no particular
problem is found.
The results of the investigations are summarized in Table C.3.3.7. In Table C.3.3.7, the common
causes in Steps (i) to (iii) are A9 (Drying Shrinkage of Concrete), B2 (Long-Time Mixing) and B3
(Change in Mix Proportion at Pumping), A10 (Autogenous Shrinkage of Concrete), and C1 (Changes
in Environmental Temperature and Humidity). This type of crack is also often observed in other
structures, and assuming no particular problem in construction, A9 is supposed to be the most likely
67
cause. However, B2 and B3 can promote cause A9. Therefore, it is necessary to re-examine the
construction records in the detailed investigation. Cause A10 can be excluded if the ordinary mixture
proportion was used. Cause C1 can also be excluded due to the occurrence of cracking at an early age.
Moreover, as the cracks are associated with floor slabs, the possibilities of B10 (Inappropriate Joint
Treatment) and B17 (Cold Joint) are considered to be small. Considering the generation period of the
cracks, the possibility of B8 (Rapid Drying during Initial Curing), B14 (Water Leakage), and B15
(Early Removal of Formwork) are also considered to be negligible.
Classification
()
Cause Estimation
A, B
()
A9, A10, B2, B3, B4, B10, B18, C1, D2, D4, D5, D6
()
A2, A9, A10, B2, B3, B8, B14, B15, B17, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5
()
Example 4: Cracks in the box type RC rigid frame

The cracks are generated at a crack spacing of 2 to 5 m in a box type RC rigid frame sidewall, as
shown in Fig. C.3.3.5. The sidewalls are relatively thick.
Most of the cracks connect the top and bottom construction joints. The crack width varies between 0.2
and 1 mm. The cracks were found approximately 2 weeks after placing of the concrete during removal
of the formwork. It seems that the cracks were generated before the formwork was removed.
The mixture proportion of the ready mixed concrete used for construction: cement content per unit
volume of concrete = 350 kg/m3, slump = 8 cm. Placing of concrete was carried out at the end of
August (temperature = 33C, relative humidity= 80%, wind velocity=2 to 3 m/s).
Cracks
Construction Joint
Fig. C.3.3.5 Cracks in box type rigid frame

Cause Estimation:
According to the condition of the structure and crack patterns, the possibility of temperature cracks is
anticipated. Cause estimation can be done based on the procedure explained below.

As the cracks were generated at an early age, C (Service Environment) can be excluded from broad
classification A to D. Therefore, causes A, B and D become the target of further investigation.
Based on the observation that cracks are already generated before removal of the formwork at the age
of two weeks, the generation period of the cracks can be a few hours to 1 day and a few days; several
10s of days is excluded. Furthermore, as the spacing of the cracks is almost uniform, there is
regularity in the form of the cracks.
It is clear that the formation of cracks is not reticular. However, it is not possible to confirm the depth
of cracks. Therefore, the extent of cracks will be either surface layer or penetration.
68
(iii) Classifications based on deformation and limit of consideration

The deformation of concrete is due to shrinkage. The cracks occurred almost in parallel and at the
same crack spacing, and therefore it is considered that the surface layer of the concrete between two
cracks is in tension.
The limit of consideration is judged to be member level, because the cause of cracking cannot be
considered to be due to the restrained conditions of the rigid frame.
The mixture proportion and the weather condition during placing are rich mixture proportion and high
temperature, respectively.
The possible causes obtained from the investigations are listed in Table C.3.3.8. In Table C.3.3.8; the
common causes in Steps (i) to (iv) are A2 (Heat of Hydration of Cement), A10 (Autogenous Shrinkage
of Concrete) and B2 (Long-Time Mixing). As the transporting distance of concrete was not long
(about 12 km) and the delivery process was smooth, B2 can be excluded. B17 is also excluded
because the crack did not occur at the construction joint. It is expected that cause A2, temperature
cracks due to heat of hydration of cement, is the reason for cracking in relatively thick concrete
members (1 m wide). A10, autogenous shrinkage is also considered to have some influence on the
cracking.
Furthermore, in massive concrete with a thickness of more than 1 m, temperature cracks can easily
develop even without a rich mix proportion and/or construction in hot weather.
Classification
Cause Estimation
()
A, B, D
()
A2, A8, A10, B2, B3, B4, B5, B10, B14, B15, B16, B17, D5
()
A2, A9, A10, B2, B3, B8, B14, B15, B17, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5
()
A2, A6, A9, A10, B2, B8, B17
Example 5: Cracks occurred in the outer wall of a building

Cracks were found in the outer wall of a building, as shown in Fig. C.3.3.6. This building is a twostory RC structure. The first floor is an office and the second floor is used as storage. Air conditioning
is installed on the first floor. The cracks were found at the beginning of August of the first year
following the completion of construction. The cracks were generated vertically around the center of
the inner side of the outer wall of the first floor and at both (top and bottom) edges of the windows,
but they did not penetrate through. Moreover, the pattern of the cracks is diagonal type on the outer
surface of the outer walls of the second floor and almost 80% of the cracks penetrate though the wall.
Based on observation of the whole building, it is found that cracking is severe in the walls, especially
the walls facing south and west.
Fig.C.3.3.6 Cracks in outer wall of building
69
Cause Estimation:
Based on the results of investigations, the causes related to B (Construction) can be excluded.
From the results of investigation, it is determined that the cracks were generated more than 1 year
after placing of the concrete, and therefore the generation period of the cracks corresponds to several
10s of days.
In the outer wall of the first floor, the cracks in the walls of both edges are diagonal. In the center of
each wall and at the bottom and top edges of the windows, most of the cracks are vertical, and
therefore there is regularity of crack pattern. There is also regularity among the cracks on the outer
side of the outer wall of the second floor because the cracks are symmetrical in the vertical direction.
A few cracks in the first floor penetrate through the wall. The others are limited to the surface region
of the walls. In the outer walls of the second floor, almost 80% of the cracks penetrate through the
wall. Therefore, the extent of the cracks is classified as surface layer for the first floor, and
penetration for the second floor.
(iii) Classifications based on deformation and limit of considerations
Based on the results of investigations, there is no indication of any abnormal external forces applied to
the building, and therefore deformation related to settlement, bending and shearing can be excluded.
The cracks were found at the beginning of August, which is the high temperature season and most of
the cracks in the first floor occurred in the walls facing south and west, and therefore deformation due
to expansion caused by sunshine is considered to be the most likely cause. However, at the same time,
the possibility of deformation due to shrinkage cannot be excluded.
The limit of consideration is considered to be member level for the first and second floors.
(iv) Classifications Based on Mixture Proportion and Weather Conditions
Based on the investigation of the recorded data, no remarkable causes related to the mixture
proportion and the weather condition during placing of concrete were found.
Based on the investigations performed, the possible causes are listed in Table C.3.3.9. In Table
C.3.3.9; for the first floor, the common causes in Steps (i) to (iii) are A7(Chloride in Concrete), A9
(Drying Shrinkage of Concrete), A10 (Autogenous Shrinkage of Concrete), B12(Lack of Cover), C1
(Change in Environmental Temperature and/or Humidity), C2 (Difference in Temperatures and
Humidity between two surfaces of member), C7 (Corrosion of Embedded Steel due to Carbonation),
and C8 (Corrosion of Embedded Steel due to Chloride Attack); for the second floor, the common
causes are A9, A10, B2(Long-Time Mixing), B3(Change of Mix Proportion at Pumping),
B18(Insufficient Grouting) and C1.
Considering the above-mentioned results and the presence of diagonal cracks (Fig. C.3.3.6) in the
building, it can be judged that the effect of temperature is significant compared to the effects of drying
shrinkage and autogenous shrinkage. It is also judged that due to the expansion caused by the higher
temperatures in summer, diagonal tensile stresses developed in the wall, leading to diagonal cracking.
The outer walls facing south or west were heated by the sun while the inner side of the walls
maintained at low temperature due to the air conditioning. As a result, bending stress was generated by
the difference in temperatures of the inner and outer surfaces of the outer wall, causing the formation
of cracks in the inner surface of the outer wall. Furthermore, the possibility of causes A7, C7 and C8 is
excluded for the first floor as the age of the building is only 1 year after completion of construction. It
is important to note that C1 and C2 can be promoted by A9.
70

Classification
()
()
()
Cause Estimation
A, C, D
1st floor
A6, A7, A9, A10, B2, B3, B11, B12, C1, C2, C7, C8, D1, D3, D5
2nd floor
A9, A10, B2, B3, B4, B10, B18, C1, D2, D4, D5, D6
1st floor
A2, A7, A9, A10, B1, B2, B3, B8, B12, B14, B15, B17, B18, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C7, C8
2nd floor
A2, A7, A9, A10, B1, B2, B3, B8, B12, B14, B15, B17, B18, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C7, C8
()
Example 6: Cracks in a bridge pier head

Reticular cracks were found in a bridge pier, as shown in Fig. C.3.3.7, a few years after the
completion of construction. The crack width was less than 0.2 mm.
The site is located in a mountainous area. In the winter, the temperature drops to about -15C.
The mixture proportion of concrete was cement content = 320 kg/m3, slump = 8 cm, air content=3.5%.
It took 40 minutes to deliver the ready-mixed concrete from the factory to the site. Placing of concrete
was carried out in November.
Reticular Cracks
Fig.C.3.3.7 Cracks on a bridge pier head
Cause Estimation:
All of the causes related to A (Materials), B (Construction), C (Service Environment) and D (Structure
and External Force) need to be considered.
The generation period of cracks corresponds to several 10s of days. There is no regularity in the crack
patterns, and the extent of cracking corresponds to reticular.
Based on the location and crack patterns, there does not seem to be any relation between the cracks
and the deformation of the concrete due to external forces, such as settlement of the foundation, and
deformation due to any other loads. Therefore, deformation due to settlement, bending and shearing is
excluded. Further investigation on deformation due to shrinkage and expansion is necessary.
The limit of consideration is judged to be member level.
The mixture proportion and the weather condition during placing of the concrete cannot be taken into
account because of the lack of data.
Based on the investigations performed, the possible causes are summarized in Table C.3.3.10. In
Table C.3.3.10, the common causes in Steps (i) to (iii) are A3 (Abnormal Expansion of Cement), A4
(Mud included in Aggregate), A6 (Reactive Aggregate), B1 (Non-Uniform Dispersion of Admixture),
71
C3 (Repeated Cycles of Freezing and Thawing), C4 (Fire), C5 (Surface Heating), and C6 (Chemical
Reaction of Acid and Salt).
Although further investigation of the hardened concrete (analysis of concrete) is necessary, the
possibility of cracking due to A3, A4, A6, and B1 is negligible as the cracks are concentrated over the
pier head only. Furthermore, C4, C5, and C6 can be excluded as the structure is not damaged by fire or
chemical erosion. Therefore, it is estimated that remaining cause C3 (Repeated Cycles of Freezing and
Thawing) is the main cause of cracking of the bridge pier head.
Classification
Cause Estimation
()
A, B, C, D
()
A3, A4, A6, B1, B9, C3, C4, C5, C6
()
A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, A6, A9, A10, B1, C1, C3, C4, C5, C6
()
Example 7: Cracks in the exterior wall of a RC building

Irregular cracks with a hexagonal pattern became obvious in the western exterior wall of the first floor
of a seven-story RC building in the 4th year after completion of construction. Cracks were also found
in the columns of both edges of the exterior wall, and in the beams parallel to their axes, as shown in
Fig. C.3.3.8. The cracks in the walls, columns, and beams were concentrated in the west part of the
first floor. No significant cracks were found in the other parts of the structure. After further visual
investigation on the overall structure, it was found that irregular cracks with a hexagonal pattern are
also generated in the handrail of the stairs from GL to the first floor. Moreover, some rust stains were
found under the cantilever portion of the slabs with some minute cracks along the steel bars.
The targeted structure under investigation is a seven-story RC building located about 150 m from the
coast. It is 6 years old, ordinary concrete was used, and the finishing was done by spraying cement
resin.
Fig.C.3.3.8 Cracks on exterior wall of RC building
Cause Estimation:
According to the crack formation, cracks occurred in this building can be classified into three
categories, as follows:
Cracks mainly concentrated in the western exterior wall
Cracks found in the center of columns and beams parallel to their axes
Minute cracks with rust stains along the steel bars under the cantilever portion of the slabs
The cracks with a hexagonal pattern in the handrail of the first floor stair were tentatively considered
to be similar to . There was no natural calamity at the site of the structure, such as an earthquake,
typhoon, etc., since the completion of the structure. Furthermore, the foundation of the structure was
72
sound and free of any abnormality. Therefore, the causes related to the structure can be excluded.
(ii) Classifications Based on Generation Period, Regularities, and Extent of Cracks
All of the cracks of categories , and became obvious just a few years after construction of the
structure. Regularity judgment is as follows:
There is no regularity of cracks for category .
Though the cracks of category occurred along the axis of the members, it was not possible to
find any regularity.
Based on appearance, there is regularity among category cracks as they seem to occur along the
location of the bottom steel bars.
The extent of the cracks was judged as follows:
Category cracks are reticular cracks.
Category and cracks are surface layer cracks.
Based on the results of local observations, the formation of cracks due to the deformation of the
structure can be explained as follows:
The cracks of category are formed due to expansion, and it is difficult to judge whether the limit
of consideration is member or structure level.
The cracks of category are formed due to expansion. However it is difficult to judge whether the
limit of consideration is material or member level.
It can be judged that the limit of consideration of category is member level and the deformation
is not related to shrinkage. The crack direction indicated that the cause of crack is not related to
settlement, bending and shearing. Hence, expansion related crack should be considered.
According to the mixture proportion report, it was found that the concrete used for this building had a
rich mixture proportion with a high quantity of cement, and that crushed aggregate was used.
Based on the results of investigations, the possible causes of cracking can be summarized as shown in
Table C.3.3.11. The common causes of Steps (i) to (iv) for crack categories , and are estimated
as follows based on Table C.3.3.11.
Table C.3.3.11 Cause Estimation
Classification
()
()
A, B, C
A, B, C
A, B, C
A3, A4, A6
A3, A4, A5, A6
A6, A7, A9, A10
B1, B9
B9
B2, B3, B11, B12
C3, C4, C5, C6
C3, C4, C5, C6, D7
C1, C2, C7, C8

D1, D3, D5
()
A3, A5, A6
A3, A5, A6, A7
A7
B1
B1, B18
B1, B12, B18
C1, C3, C4, C5, C6
C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C7, C8
A2, A6, A9, A10
A2, A6, A9, A10
C6, C7, C8
()
Four classifications A6
Common causes
Three classifications
A2, A6, A9, A10
A6
A3, B1
A3, A5
A6, A7, A9, B11, B12
C3, C4, C5, C6
C3, C4, C5, C6
C1, C2, C7, C8
Crack Category
The common cause of Steps (i) to (iv) is A6 (Reactive Aggregate). It was estimated as the main cause
because: (1) crushed aggregates was used, (2) a rich mixture proportion was used, (3) the building was
in a location where alkalis can easily penetrate from outside; (4) the cracks occurred just a few years
after the completion; and (5) the cracks are concentrated in some locations. There are six common
causes from the three classifications, however after examining each cause, it was not possible to
73
determine any cause more significant than A6, as detailed below.

a) A3 (Abnormal Expansion of Cement) and B1 (Non-Uniform Dispersion of Admixture) can be
excluded after considering that the cracks occurred just a few years after the completion of the
structure.
b) C3 (Repeated Cycles of Freezing and Thawing), C4 (Fire) and C5 (Surface Heating) can be
excluded as there was no history related to these causes.
c) C6 (Chemical Reaction of Acid and Salt), considering that this building is close to the coast and in
a location that is strongly exposed to sea wind, and therefore likely to be affected by the sea salt
carried by the air.
Furthermore, the handrail of the stairs from GL to the first floor was finished with mortar, and the
reticular cracks occurred only in the mortar part. It is necessary to carry out a detailed investigation
before deciding that cracking is related to cause A6 (Reactive Aggregate).
Crack category
The common cause of Steps (i) to (iv) is A6 (Reactive Aggregate). It is considered to be the most
likely cause for the same reason explained for crack category .
Furthermore, there are seven common causes from the three classifications. However, based on the
results of investigations, it is judged that there are no causes more significant than A6.
a) A4 (Mud included in Aggregate) and A5 (Low Quality Aggregate) cannot be the causes because
crushed aggregate was used.
b) C3, C4, C5 and C6 can be excluded for the same reason as for crack category .
c) It is possible to judge that C7 (Corrosion of Embedded Steel Bar due to Carbonation) is not the
main cause, since a period of a few years after completion of construction is generally too short for the
carbonation front to reach the position of steel bars. This needs to be confirmed by further detailed
investigation. No rust stain was found in the cracks, and therefore corrosion of steel bars cannot be the
cause of cracking.
Furthermore, expansion due to the chloride-induced corrosion of steel bars is difficult to judge as the
cause of cracking, since the cracks do not travel all the way to the corner part of the columns or beams,
and the building location is easily affected by chloride attack.
Crack Category
The common causes in Steps (i) to (iii) are A7, B12, C1, C2, C7 and C8. Based on the results of
further examination of each cause, it is estimated that B12 (Lack of Cover) and C8 (Corrosion of
Embedded Steel due to Chloride Attack) are the main causes of cracking.
Furthermore, it became clear from the construction record that the chloride content in concrete is less
than 0.30 kg/m3 for A7 (Chloride in Concrete); this area is not a location with severe changes in
temperature and/or humidity, and therefore the cause will not be related to C1 (Changes in
Environmental Temperature and/or Humidity); since the damaged locations are limited to under the
cantilever portion of the slabs, which are locations with extremely small differences in temperatures
and humidity between two surfaces, the cause is not related to C2 (Difference in Temperatures and
Humidity between two surfaces of member); although rust fouling was found, a period of just a few
years after construction completion is generally too early for the carbonation front to reach the
position of the steel bar, and thus it is considered that carbonation did not reach the position of the
steel bars, and therefore the cause related to C7 is excluded. Although detail investigation should be
needed , the main causes of crack and would be ASR and that of be chloride attack.
Example 8: Cracks in the wall of an undersea tunnel
The targeted structure is a submerged tunnel constructed with six RC box segments approximately 20
m under the sea surface. Ready-mixed concrete was used, and the outer surface of the caisson is
covered with a steel plate with a thickness of 6 mm.
Routine inspection of this submerged tunnel is carried out twice a year. The cracks started to occur just
a few months after completion of the tunnel. At first, the cracks were few and the crack width was
narrow. However, the numbers of cracks increased with time and some cracks widened to a width of
about 1 mm after 5 years of construction. After five years, the progress of the cracks could not be
confirmed.
74
A schematic diagram of cracks is shown in Fig. C.3.3.9. There are two types of cracks, vertical cracks
with spacing of 2 to 5 m and a crack width at the center of approximately 0.2 to 1 mm, and diagonal
cracks with a slope of 45 degrees occurred in the left half of an edge segment.
Fig.C.3.3.9 Cracks in wall of undersea tunnel
Cause Estimation:
According to their formations, the cracks occurred in the tunnel can be categorized into two types, as
follows:
Cracks occurred vertically in the sidewall
Cracks occurred diagonally in the tunnel sidewall at the left edge
No natural calamities that could damage the tunnel, such as an earthquake, have occurred in this area
since the completion of construction.
Both crack categories and became obvious a few years after construction of the tunnel.
Crack categories and are generated at regular intervals, and therefore have regularity. Both types
of cracks penetrated through the members. Therefore, the extent of the cracks is judged to be
penetration.
The deformation caused by shrinkage results in crack category . The limit of consideration of crack
category is judged to be structure (tunnel) level.
For crack category , based on the fracture situation of aggregates and the deformation situation, it is
possible to judge that slippage has occurred in the crack plane. Deformation related to bending,
settlement, and shearing must be considered. The limit of consideration is judged to be member (one
box of the tunnel) or structure level. It was verified by leveling that one edge of the box has settled
several cm compared to the original level after completion of the tunnel.
Based on the results of investigations, the possible causes are listed in Table C.3.3.12. The common
causes in Steps (i) to (iv) of Table C.3.3.12 are summarized below for crack categories and .
Crack Category
The common causes of Steps (i) to (iii) are A9, B2, B3, C1, and C4. After examining each of these
causes, A9 (Drying Shrinkage of Concrete) is estimated at a value of 510-6 after dividing the total
crack widths at the central part of the box by the total length of the box. This value is sufficient to
evaluate that drying shrinkage is the cause of cracking.
For B2 (Long-Time Mixing), considering similar cracks over the whole length of the box, it is difficult
to judge that the same mistake had been made through the entire length of 100 m. B3 (Change in
Mixture Proportion at Pumping) can be excluded since the concrete was placed using buckets. C1
(Changes in Environmental Temperature and Humidity) can hardly be the cause for a submerged
75
tunnel where both temperature and humidity are stable compared to structures on land.
Based on the above-mentioned reasons, A9 (Drying Shrinkage of Concrete) is the most probable cause
of cracking of category .
Crack Category
The common causes in Steps (i) to (iii) are B4 (Inappropriate Placing Sequence), B10 (Inappropriate
Joint Treatment), C1 (Changes in Environmental Temperature and Humidity), D2 (Long-Term Load
over Design Load), D4 (Short-Term Load over Design Load), D5 (Insufficient Cross Section or
Quantity of Steel) and D6 (Differential Settlement of Structure). Among these causes, the causes
related to construction (B10) and environment (C1) can be excluded as it is difficult to estimate that
only one box of the tunnel will be affected out of six boxes for these causes. Therefore, it is
appropriate to consider the causes related to the structure and external forces. As the edge of the left
segment of the tunnel has settled more than 10 cm, it is therefore estimated that this settlement (D6 Differential Settlement of Structure) is the cause of diagonal cracking in the wall of the tunnel
segment.
Table C.3.3.12 Cause Estimation
Classification
()
()
()
A, B, C, D
A, B, C, D
A9, A10
A9, A10
B2, B3, B4, B10, B18
B2, B3, B4, B10, B18
C1
C1
D2, D4, D5, D6
D2, D4, D5, D6
A9, A10
A8
B2, B3, B8, B15
B4, B5, B6, B7, B9, B10, B11, B12, B13, B16, B17
C1, C2, C3, C4, C5
C1, C2
D1, D2, D3, D4, D5, D6, D7
(2) If it is difficult to estimate the cause based on the results of standard investigation, or to further
confirm the cause, detailed investigation is carried out and cause estimation is performed based on 3.3.
The systematic procedure of cause estimation for each of eight independent examples is explained
below to illustrate the procedure explained in (1).
3.4 Cause Estimation Based on Detailed Investigation
If it is difficult to perform cause estimation from the results of standard investigation, cause estimation
should be performed based on the results of detailed investigation, as explained in Table 3.1.
[Comments]
If the causes of cracking become clear from the results of standard investigation, then the next step
will be judgment of the necessity for repair and strengthening. However, if the evaluation of the
causes from the results of standard investigation is not clear, detailed investigation in 2.3 is to be
carried out and the causes of cracking are to be evaluated accordingly. The scope of the causes of
cracking can be narrowed down based on the results of standard investigation, and therefore in
detailed investigation, only selected items are investigated for cause estimation.
The items of detailed investigations are listed in Table C.3.4.1. Some of the items listed in this table
are already included in the standard investigation; however in detailed investigation, it is necessary to
re-examine these items. Cause estimation is performed after considering all investigation items.
Cause estimation shall be performed based on the investigation result shown in Table C.3.4.1, which
categorized in A material, B construction, C environmental condition and D structure and
external force. Test results on the quality of materials are effective in A material. Construction
records, weather and environmental data, test results on the quality of concrete and data from
destructive and non/minor destructive tests are effective in "B construction". Weather and
76
environmental data and data from destructive and non/minor destructive tests are more effective in C
environmental condition. Investigations of load condition are effective in D structure and external
force. In the case that cause estimation is impossible with above test results, judgment by an expert
engineer shall be needed.
Table C.3.4.1 Investigations and Tests in Cause Estimation Based on Detail Investigation
Cause
Designation
False Setting (of Cement)
A1
Heat of Hydration (of Cement)
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7
A8

Clay inclusion in Aggregate
Reactive Aggregate (ASR)
A9
A10
B1
Non-Uniform Dispersion of Admixture
B2
Long-Time Mixing
B3
Change of Mix Proportion at Pumping
B4
B5
B6

Rapid Placing
B7
B8
Rapid Drying During Initial Curing
B9
B10
B11
B12
B13
B14
B15
B16
B17

Inappropriate Placement of Reinforcement
Lack of Cover
Water Leakage (from formwork, subgrade)
Inappropriate Joint or Discontinuity
Items of Investigations and Tests

Detail investigation of cracks (pattern), data from setting test of cement
Detail investigation of cracks (pattern, depth), type of cement, heat of hydration, mixture proportion
cross section size, ambient temperature (during placing), construction method, restraint condition of
Detail investigation of cracks (pattern), data from physical and/or chemical tests of cement
Detail investigation of cracks (pattern), data from washing test of aggregate
Detail investigation of cracks (pattern, depth), source and/or lithological characteristic of aggregate, density a
Detail investigation of cracks (pattern), source and/or lithological characteristic of aggregate, alkali-s
Detail investigation of cracks (pattern, depth), arrangement of steel, location, amount of chloride in a
Detail investigation of cracks (pattern), relation between location of steel and location of cracks for b
relation between location of metal fittings and location of cracks for wall, construction method
Detail investigation of cracks (pattern), data from length change test of concrete beam, mixture prop
drying condition (age until removal of formwork, related humidity), cross section size, restraint cond
Detail investigation of cracks (pattern), data of autogeneous shrinkage of concrete, used materials in
mixture proportion, design strength
Detail investigation of cracks (pattern), mixing method of admixture, mixing method of concrete,
data of quality of concrete
Detail investigation of cracks (pattern), manufacturing method and/or time of concrete, delivering method
history of placing method, data of quality of concrete
Construction record, shipment record of concrete, data of quality of concrete,
data from strength test and/or chemical analysis using core of concrete
Confirmation of construction record and/or construction procedure, quantity and/or consuming time
Construction record, quantity and/or consuming time of placing, mixture proportion, bleeding capaci
Construction record, construction method (method of compaction), appearance of concrete,
strength estimation by schmidt hammer
Environmental condition (amount of construction and/or transportation in neighborhood), earthquak
loading condition during construction, setting characteristics of concrete, characteristics of strength developm
Weather record, age until removal of formwork, curing method, placing temperature, weather condit
temperature, humidity, wind, insulation, etc
Weather record, age until removal of formwork, curing method, placing temperature
Treatment method of construction joint plane, construction method of concrete (placing and/or comp
Detail investigation of cracks (pattern), construction record, investigation data of location of steel
Detail investigation of cracks (pattern), working diagram, investigation data of cover (thickness)
Construction record, meterial and structure of formwork, appearance of concrete
Appearance of concrete
Construction record, curing method, environmental conditions such as temperature etc, strength of concrete at remov
Temporary plan, material and structure of support, method and procedure of placing
Detail investigation of cracks (pattern, depth), construction record, method and consuming time of p
time from manufacturing until placing, consuming time of second placing, placing temperature, weather cond
temperature, humidity, wind, insulation, etc.
B18
C1
C3
Change of Evironmental Temperature and/or

Humidity
Difference of Temperatures and Humidity
Between Two Surfaces of a Member
Repeated Cycles of Freezing and Thawing
C4
C5
C6
C7
and supply of water), air content and/or boil distance factor and/or pore diameter distribution of conc
Fire Damage
Detail investigation of cracks (pattern, depth, state of exploding), fire record, carbonation depth, core
Surface Heating
Detail investigation of cracks (pattern, depth), application situation
Chemical Reaction of Acid and Salt with Conc Detail investigation of cracks (pattern, depth), application situation, type and thickness of protective layer, condition o
Corrosion of Embedded Steel due to CarbonatioDetail investigation of cracks (pattern, depth), investigation data of steel, investigation data of carbonation, service condit
C2
Detail investigation of cracks (pattern), relation with location of PC steel, type of grout, grouting condition, corr
construction method (injecting method of grout), trace filling treatment

Detail investigation of cracks (pattern), weather conditions such as temperature, humidity, wind and
type and thickness of covering meterial, covering condition
Detail investigation of cracks (pattern, depth), room temperature and weather conditions such as temperature,
and insulation etc, cross section size, type and thickness of covering meterial, covering condition
Detail investigation of cracks (pattern, depth), scaling and/or pop-out, appearance of concrete, weather record (temperat
humidity, concentration of carbon dioxide, application of rainfall, insulation), void structure, amount of calcium
calcium carbonate, hydrated components (C-S-H, CH, monosulfate, ettringite, Friedel's salt, etc)
C8
D1
D2
D3
D4
D5
D6
D7
Corrosion of Embedded Steel due to Chloride

Attack
Long-Term Load within Design Load
Long-Term Load over Design Load
Short-Term Load within Design Load
Short-Term Load over Design Load
Insufficient Cross Sectional Area or Quantity
of Steel
Differential Settlement of Structure
Freezing Heave
Detail investigation of cracks (pattern, depth), investigation data of steel, total amount of chloride in concrete, c
electro chemical evaluation (natural potential, polarization resistance, electrical resistance, etc)
Detail investigation of cracks (pattern), investigation data of loading condition
Detail investigation of cracks (pattern, change of width, depth), investigation data of loading conditio
Detail investigation of cracks (pattern), investigation data of loading condition, earthquake record
Detail investigation of cracks (pattern, depth), investigation data of loading condition, earthquake re
Detail investigation of cracks (pattern, depth), investigation data of loading condition, cross section size, investi
Detail investigation of cracks (pattern, change of width, depth), data from subsurface exploration
Weather record, substructure drawing
77
References
1) A. Baba: Cracks in Reinforced Concrete Buildings and Countermeasure, Inoue Shoin, 1982.
2) Japan Society of Civil Engineers: Concrete Standard Specifications Enacted in 2002 (Construction
Edition), 2002.
3) Architectural Institute of Japan: Architectural Standard Specification JASS 5 Construction of
Reinforced Concrete, 2003.
4) ACI 305 R-99: Hot Weather Concreting, Reported by ACI Committee 305, 2000.
5) Architectural Institute of Japan: Recommendations for Crack Countermeasures for Reinforced
Concrete Structures (Design and Construction), 2006.
78
Chapter 4 Evaluation of Cracks

4.1 General
(1) Evaluation of cracks is carried out to get necessary information determining the necessity for
repair and strengthening. The results of the evaluation are shown objectively as a grade of
influence of cracks on required performance of members (structures).
(2) In case that performance related to influence to third parties become a problem immediately, the
immediate action should be done appropriately.
(3) The type of evaluation of cracks is classified in 3 types as shown below. Each type of evaluation
is applied in accordance with cause of cracking and conditions or situations of subject members.
Evaluation-I (applied for cracks due to drying shrinkage, etc.): This type of evaluation is aimed
at cracks which are considered to stop after several years of placing concrete (thermal cracks
and drying shrinkage cracks and so on). This type of evaluation is carried out based on the
results of investigation of documents and visual observation of structures.
Evaluation-II (applied for cracks due to chloride attack, carbonation, etc.): This type of
evaluation is aimed at progressive cracks of which the proceeding of deterioration is able to be
predicted basically by technical investigation. This type of evaluation is carried out based on
the results of detailed investigation in addition to investigation of documents and visual
observation of structures.
Evaluation-III (applied for cracks due to combined deterioration, etc.): This type of evaluation
is aimed at cracks caused by combined deterioration or cracks for which verification for safety
performance is needed, which is not be able to be treated by Evaluation-I or Evaluation-II
mentioned above. This type of evaluation is carried out by expert engineers who have
qualification such as concrete inspectors.
(4) In the case that subject member is structural member and the strength of the member is decreased,
Evaluation-III should be performed in consideration of safety performance because Evaluation-III
is assumed the discussion of strengthening.
(5) In the cases other than (4), the type of evaluation of cracks should be chosen based on Table 4.1.1
in accordance with the results of investigation and cause estimation, and evaluation is carried out
by the methods shown in 4.2 to 4.4. The procedure of evaluation is explained in Fig. 4.1.1.
(6) In the case that there are more than two estimated causes of cracking, the evaluation should be
carried out for each case.
(7) In evaluation, the remaining service life (or expected remaining service life) as well as required
performances should be defined clearly.
Standard investigation
Detailed Investigation
Cause Estimation
Table 4.1.1
Evaluation-I (4.2)
Cracks which are considered
to stop proceeding in several
years (Drying shrinkage
cracks, etc.)
Evaluation-II (4.3)
Cracks which are considered
to be progressive
Evaluation Results
Fig 4.1.1 Proceeding of evaluation
79
Evaluation-III (4.4)
Cracks for which
Evaluation-I and
Evaluation-II
cannot be applied
Table 4.1.1 Causes of cracks and types of evaluation

No.
Estimated Causes
A1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
B1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
C1
2
Type of Evaluation
I
II
III
False Setting of Cement

Heat of Hydration of Cement
Clay Inclusion in Aggregate
Reactive Aggregate (Alkali-Aggregate Reaction)
Non-Uniform Dispersion of Admixture
Long-time Mixing
Inappropriate Change of Proportion at Pumping
Rapid Placing
Rapid Drying during Initial Curing
Inappropriate Placement of Rebar
Lack of Cover
Water Leakage from Formwork
Inappropriate Joint of Discontinuity
Change of Environmental Temperature and/or Humidity
Difference in Temperature or Humidity between Front and Back
Side of Member
3 Repeated Cycles of Freezing and Thawing
4 Fire Damage
5 Surface Heating
6 Chemical Reaction due to Acid and/or Salt
7 Corrosion of Embedded Rebar due to Carbonation
8 Corrosion of Embedded Rebar due to Chloride Attack
D 1 Long-Term Load within Design Load
2 Long-Term Load over Design Load
3 Short-Term Load within Design Load
4 Short-Term Load over Design Load
5 Insufficient Cross Section or Quantity of Steel
6 Differential Settlement of Structure
7 Freezing Heave
* Types of evaluation with should be chosen.

In case that there are 2 types of evaluation in an estimated cause, Evaluation-I or Evaluation-II
should be done before Evaluation-III.
80
[Comments]
(1) In this Guideline, the process of judging the necessity of repair and strengthening consists of two
phases; evaluation and judgment. Evaluation in this Guideline is defined as an action determining
the grade of influence of cracking objectively on the required performance of members (structures).
In order to indicate the grade of influence of cracking on the required performance of members
(structures) as an objective result, the grade of influence of cracking on the performance of members
(structures) is described (evaluated) as Large, Medium, or Small.
In this guideline, the following five performances can be taken into account for accurate judgment:
Structural safety
Performance related to influence to the third parties
Serviceability
Durability
Reparability
The definition of each performance is given below:
Structural safety This indicates whether the structure has necessary structural safety or not. The
strength of the structure is judged based on the results of investigation. The structural safety
performance should be judged both for the short-term and the long-term. For example, safety for
ultimate failure and fatigue failure of members, stability for slide and turnover of structures and so on
are included in this.
Performance related to influence to the third parties This performance does not relate to the
structural safety performance, but it corresponds to the influence to the third parties due to the spalling
of the cover concrete, or any other local failure.
Serviceability Amenity of structures and performance for functions of structures are included
under usability performance. Amenity corresponds to drivability, workability, appearance, noise,
vibration and so on. Performance for functions corresponds to water tightness and water resistance.
The usability performance should be judged both for the short-term and for the long-term.
Durability This refers to the satisfactory performance requirement of a structure during its service
life. This parameter judges whether the existing cracks weaken the performance of members in the
long term, even though it is judged that there is no problem with the performance of the structure at
present. Durability is different from functional performance. For example, the observation of water
leakage at the location of cracks indicates functional failure. Durability with regard to water resistance
checks the water leakage at the present stage as well as the remaining service life of the structure.
In this Guideline, the durability in perspective of steel corrosion is defined below. In the case that steel
corrosion does not occur for about 5 years from the time of investigation, the durability can be called
short-term durability. In the case that steel corrosion does not occur, for about 20 years from the time
of investigation, the durability can be called mid-term durability. However, the results of evaluation
change in accordance with the length for which the required performance is expected to sustain. Thus,
in order to perform evaluation, remaining service life (or expected remaining service life defined by
the owner of the structure) of the structure or member should be clarified.
Reparability This is an optional performance from the viewpoint of maintenance and ease of
repair works in the case of deterioration of performance in the future. This term is mainly used for
buildings.
Currently, several standards have been upgraded taking into account performance checking and/or
performance verification criteria, and the technical terms for the required performances of structure
are expressed in various ways depending on the standard. Table C.4.1.1 compares the technical terms
used in this Guideline with the technical terms used in the civil engineering and architecture fields in
Japan. Classification of required performance in civil engineering and architecture field is shown in
Fig. C.4.1.1.
81
Table C4.1.1 Terms Used in this Guideline and Others Guidelines

Related to Civil and Architecture Fields in Japan
Terms Used
Civil Engineering
Architecture
Evaluation Criteria
in this Guideline
Field
Field
Ultimate Strength, Toughness
1 Structural safety
Structural
Safety performance
(Factors on Deformability,
Performance
safety
Seismic performance)
2 Performance
Performance related
Influence on third parties due to
related to influence to influence on
Safety
spalling of concrete cover and tiles
on third parties
third parties
Performance on
Stiffness, water resistance
3 Usability
usability (including
Usability
(leakage), air tightness, etc.
Performance
beauty and landscape)
including beauty and landscape
4 Durability
Performance of structures
Durability
Durability
Performance
against durability over service life
Maintenance and ease of repair
5 Reparability
Reparability
works
Safety performance
Usability
Performance
necessary
for structure
Safety
Performance on influence
to third party
Beauty and landscape
Durability performance
(Performance for maintaining the above)
Classification in Civil Engineering field1)
Performance
necessary
for structure
Usability
Durability
Reparability
Classification in Architecture field2)
Fig C.4.1.1 Classification of performance necessary for the structure

Table C.4.1.2 Indications of judgment of necessity of repair in view of influence to third parties
Immediate action should Immediate
action
is
be done rapidly. After unnecessary. The frequency of
Repair should be done rapidly
that, necessity of repair inspection should be increased
should be discussed.
at least for the present.
Human and things may be There is indication as
influenced because of cracks which written in left column, Cracks are observed and it
connects with fall of pieces of and it can connect with may proceed.
concrete, delamination, and spalling fall of pieces of concrete.
(2) In some cases, due to the progress of cracks, spalling of cover concrete may occur and it may
harmful to the people or damage any other properties, such as cars, buses, trains, etc which are defined
as influence to the third parties in this Guideline. In such cases, appropriate immediate action must be
performed in accordance with Table C.4.1.2 by a expert engineer who figures out the surroundings.
The content of this immediate action is shown below. At first, the third parties need to be kept out
from dangerous zone where falling of pieces of concrete is assumed by putting up fences and ropes.
Then, safety performance related to harm on third parties should be ensured sufficiently until the
evaluation and the judgment of cracks can be performed appropriately. For example, surface of the
cracked concretes which might spall should be knocked off by hammers, and nets should be placed to
stop falling of concrete, if needed. After that, as may be necessary, reevaluation should be performed
82
based on the results of reinvestigation. In the case that the performance related to influence to the third
parties become a problem, Evaluation-III need to be applied in many cases because it is considered
that deterioration advanced significantly.
(3) to (5) In this guideline, the procedure of evaluation of cracks is determined after determination of
the type of evaluation method, as shown in Fig 4.1.1 fundamentally. However, in the case that cracks
occur in structural members and the cause of cracks is estimated due to an external force, it may
possible to deteriorate the performance of the structure significantly. Therefore the performance of a
structural member may reduce significantly due to ASR induced cracking, severe cracking due to
chloride and carbonation induces corrosion, for such cases, it is necessary to consider to apply
Evaluation-III in which strengthening is taken into account instead of Evaluation-II.
Except for the cases discussed above, it is most important to remove the internal causes of
deterioration when repairing and strengthening works are executed to ensure durability. If drying
shrinkage, heat of hydration, construction defects (honeycomb, cold joint, etc.) and so on are
evaluated as the causes of cracks, the durability is generally ensured after the repair works. This is
because these factors which stop proceeding in several years from the time of placement of concrete
are considered not to become new factors if repair is performed before occurring of the other
deterioration (corrosion of steel bar and so on). However, in the cases that the causes of cracks are due
to alkali-aggregate reaction or corrosion of rebar caused by chloride attack and carbonation, it is
possible for cracks to regenerate in the near future because only the repair works cannot always stop
the causes of deterioration in concrete. It means, only repair of cracks cannot always prevent the
deterioration of the structure. So, evaluations and actions should be carried out based on more detail
results of investigation because proper action needs to be performed in accordance with the cause of
cracks and the grade of deterioration (depth, area, and so on). In this Guideline, there are 3 types of
evaluation method which can be selected in accordance with the cause of cracks. Evaluation-I is based
on only the results of standard investigation fundamentally. Evaluation-II is based on the results of
standard investigation and a part of detailed investigation. In Evaluation - III, the judgment is to be
made by expert engineers.
1) Evaluation-I (applied for cracks due to drying shrinkage cracks, etc.)
One of the most common types of cracks is drying shrinkage cracks (A9) in RC members. If proper
repair of cracks is performed in proper time, such kind of cracks will not lead to a serious deterioration
of the structure in the future. However, if no repair works is carried out for a long time for such cracks,
due to the widening of these cracks with time water leakage may initiate, also significant corrosion
may occur on the steel bars. In Evaluation-I, the grade of influence on water leakage and durability is
evaluated based on crack width of members taking wall thickness and environmental condition into
consideration. In Evaluation-I, evaluation can be done based on the standard investigation only
discussed earlier. This is the feature of Evaluation-I. The causes treated in Evaluation-I includes: heat
of hydration (A2), mud included in aggregate (A4), settlement and bleeding of concrete (A8),
autogenous shrinkage (A10), non-uniform dispersion of admixture (B1), long-time mixing (B2),
inappropriate change of proportion at pumping (B3), inappropriate placing sequence (B4), rapid
placing (B5), inappropriate compaction (B6), inappropriate joint treatment (B10), deformation of
formwork (B13), water leakage from formwork (B14), early removal of formwork (B15), settlement
of support (B16), inappropriate joint of discontinuity (B17), change of environmental temperature
and/or humidity (C1), long-term load within design load (D1), short-term load within design load (D3).
Except for D3 which is caused by earthquake, all cracks can be seen during construction or in early
stage of completion, and stop to proceed. In the case that the rebar around cracks is corroded (rust
stain is found, for example), Evaluation-II is needed to be applied, even though the predicted cause of
cracks is classified into Evaluation-I.
In normal environment, lack of cover (B12), corrosion of embedded steel due to carbonation (C7)
should be taken into consideration. In condition subjected to chloride attack, chloride in concrete (A7)
and corrosion of embedded steel due to chloride attack (C8) should be taken into consideration. In the
case that there are significant cracks and defects, Evaluation-III should be applied even though the
main cause of cracks can be classified into Evaluation-I. This is because the other potential causes can
be hidden and normal repair cannot be efficient. For example, if there are cracks with more than 1.0
83
mm width or there are significant numbers of cracks of 0.3 mm width, Evaluation-III should be
applied.
2) Evaluation-II (applied for cracks due to chloride attack, carbonation, etc.)
In the case that the causes of cracks are due to alkali-aggregate reaction or corrosion of rebar caused
by chloride attack and carbonation, the cracks are progressive and it is possible for cracks to reoccur
in the future because only repair cannot always stop the causes of deterioration in concrete. Thus, it is
necessary to perform evaluation for each type of causes of cracks based on the detailed investigation.
The causes of cracks treated in Evaluation-II includes: reactive aggregate (A6), chloride in concrete
(A7), lack of cover (B12), repeated cycles of freezing and thawing (C3), chemical reaction of acid and
chloride (C6), corrosion of embedded steel due to carbonation (C7), corrosion of embedded steel due
to chloride attack (C8).
In Evaluation-II, the index related to each cause of crack is determined. The index of alkali-aggregate
reaction is defined as the residual expansion capacity, the index of frost damage is defined as the depth
of frost damage, the index of chemical corrosion is defined as the depth of erosion.
The cases in which Evaluation-III needs to be applied even though they are listed in Evaluation-II are:
the case that cracks caused by alkali-aggregate reaction or corrosion in several years from completion
(in a short-term), the case that cross section area of main rebar is reduced significantly, the case that a
part of hoop rebar has lost due to corrosion.
3) Evaluation-III (applied for cracks due to combined deterioration, etc.)
The causes of cracks treated in Evaluation-II include below: false setting of cement (A1), abnormal
expansion of cement (A3), mud included in aggregate (A4), low quality aggregate (A5), non-uniform
dispersion of admixture (B1) long-time mixing (B2), inappropriate change of proportion at pumping
(B3), loading or vibration before hardening (B7), rapid drying during initial curing (B8), early age
frost damage (B9), bad placement of rebar (B11), deformation of formwork (B13), water leakage from
formwork (B14), early removal of formwork (B15), settlement of support (B16), insufficient grouting
(B18), change of environmental temperature and/or humidity (C1), fire (C4), surface heating (C5),
long-term load over design load (D2), short-term load over design load (D4), insufficient cross section
or quantity of steel (D5), differential settlement of structure (D6), and freezing heave (D7).
In those cases, investigation by expert engineers is required because it is difficult to perform the exact
evaluation. In the case that the deterioration is quite severe (classified into deterioration period,
discussion about performing repair is needed), in the case that the deterioration is judged to be
"combined deterioration" and in the case that rational evaluation is required, Evaluation-III is carried
out even though the causes of cracks can be classified into Evaluation-I or Evaluation-II. In the same
way, in the case that the structure is required to have a high level of performance (ensuring of
performance, beauty and landscape for over 20 years), the Evaluation-III is to be used.
(6) The cause of deterioration can be evaluated not only due to a particular cause but also two or more
causes. In such cases, evaluation should be carried out for each case. Based on the results of the
evaluation, moreover, the necessity of repair and strengthening should be judged. The details are given
in 5.1 and 5.2.
(7) In this Guideline, required performance of structures needs to be clarified because the evaluation is
carried out in order to estimate the grade of influence of cracks on the performance of structures
(members). In addition, it is important to determine the remaining service life (of expected remaining
service life) of structures (or members) in order to perform evaluation because the results of
evaluation change in accordance with the expected term in which the structure is required to keep the
required performance.
4.2 Evaluation-I (Applied for Cracks due to Drying Shrinkage, etc.)
(1) In Evaluation-I, the grade of influence of crack on the performances of the member is expressed
as Large, Medium and Small, when the required performance is resistance against steel corrosion
84
and water leakage.

(2) In the case of the evaluation of durability resistance against steel corrosion, Evaluation-I uses
Table 4.2.1. Crack width means the width at surface of the member.
Table 4.2.1 Influence of crack on the performance of member from the view points of steel corrosion
Under chloride
Under normal
Under indoor or
Environmental condition
induced corrosion
outdoor
underground
Large
Large
Large
0.5<w
(20-year
(20-year
(20-year
durability)
durability)
durability)
Large
Large
Medium
(20-year
(20-year
(20-year
0.4<w0.5
durability)
durability)
durability)
Large
Medium
Small
Crack
(20-year
(20-year
(20-year
width:
0.3<w0.4
durability)
durability)
durability)
w(mm)
Medium
Small
Small
(20-year
(20-year
(20-year
0.2<w0.3
durability)
durability)
durability)
Small
Small
Small
(20-year
(20-year
(20-year
w0.2
durability)
durability)
durability)
* The meanings of Medium and Large are as below.
Small:Crack does not cause the degradation of performance and the required performance is
satisfied.
Medium:Although crack is cause of performance degradation, slight repairs are effective.
Large:The performance degradation is remarkable and the member has not satisfied the required
performance.
** The value in ( ) means the standard period that can guarantee the evaluation result of durability.
(20-year durability) means that it is about 1525 years to guarantee the result of evaluation after
cracking. 20-year is the average of 15 years and 25 years.
(3) In the case of the evaluation of durability resistance against water leakage, Evaluation-I uses
Table 4.2.2. Penetrate crack is applicable. The crack width means the width of the crack on the
surface of the member.
Table 4.2.2 Influence of crack on the performance of member from the view points of water leakage
Environmental condition
Under water pressure
Others
Member thickness (mm)
Less than180
More than 180
Less than180
More than 180
Crack
width:
w(mm)
0.20<w
Large
Large
Large
Large
0.15<w0.20
Large
Large
Large
Medium
0.05<w0.15
Medium
Medium
Medium
Small
Small
Small
Small
Small
w0.05
* The meanings of Medium and Large are as below.
Small:Crack do not cause the degradation of performance and the required performance is satisfied.
Large:The performance degradation is remarkable and the member has not satisfied the required
performance.
[Comments]
(1) The target of this section is drying shrinkage cracks. Evaluation for the required performance is
85
resistance against steel corrosion and water leakage. This type of evaluation is aimed at cracks which
are considered to stop proceeding in several years after placing of concrete compared with other type
of cracks. The value in the figure means the standard period that can guarantee the evaluation result of
durability from 15 to 25 years after evaluation of the cracking. The influence of crack on the
performances of the member is expressed as Large, Medium, and Small. This Guideline uses the
evaluation based on Tables 4.2.1 and/or 4.2.2.
(2) In the case of the evaluation of durability resistance against steel corrosion, Evaluation-I uses
Table 4.2.1. The crack width follows the measurement method described in 2.2. The evaluation of
Table 4.2.1 is applied to the member which satisfies the specified cover thickness and aims at the
evaluation of cracks caused by drying shrinkage and thermal stresses. Although, crack widths vary
among the single line crack, definition of crack width follows 1.3.
(3) In the case of the evaluation of durability resistance against water leakage, Evaluation-I uses Table
4.2.2. The crack width follows the measurement method described in 2.2. A penetrating crack is
applicable and the crack width means the value at surface of the member. Water tank and underwater
wall meet the condition under water pressure. This guideline evaluates the crack width less than 0.05
mm as Small. That is because that water leakage never occurs in the case that the crack width is less
than 0.05 mm.
4.3 Evaluation-II (Applied for Cracks due to Chloride Attack and Carbonation, etc.)
(1) In Evaluation-II, the grade of influence of crack to the performances of the member is expressed
as Large, Medium, and Small, when the performance requirement is resistance to steel corrosion or
concrete degradation. When the required performance is water tightness, the grade of the crack
should be evaluated by Evaluation-III.
(2) When Evaluation-II is applied to the crack due to chloride attack and carbonation, the influence of
the crack should be evaluated according to Table 4.3.1.
Table 4.3.1 Influence of cracks due to chloride attack and carbonation on the performance of (RC)
member
Durability for steel corrosion
Required performance
Short period
Middle period
Cause of crack
(5 years)
(20years)
Chloride attack
Large(5-year durability)
Carbonation Cover depth >=25mm***
Medium(5-year durability)
Cover depth <25mm***
*The meanings of Medium and Large are as below.
Large:The performance degradation is remarkable and the member has not satisfied the
**The value in ( ) means the standard period that can guarantee the evaluation result of durability.
(20-year durability) means that it is about 15 25 years to guarantee the result of evaluation after
cracking. 20-year is the average of 15 years and 25 years. 5-year is the average of 3 years and
7 years.
***The cover depth 25mm is a standard value, it is needed to evaluate in consideration that the cover
depth may have the margin of error which range of 5mm depending on the diameter of
reinforcing bar and other conditions.
(3) When Evaluation-II is applied to the crack due to alkali aggregate reaction (ASR), the influence
of the crack should be evaluated according to Table 4.3.2. The degree of degradation progress
should be decided by the appearance observation and the residual expansion capacity which is
described in 2.3. In addition, when the damage on the reinforced bars is suspected, Evaluation - III
should be carried out.
86
Table 4.3.2 Influence of crack due to alkali aggregate reaction on the performance of (RC) member
Durability for
Durability for
steel corrosion
concrete
Degree of
Short period
deterioration
deterioration (alkali aggregate reaction)
(5 years)
Expansion due to alkali aggregate reaction causes cracks,
Small
discoloration and gel exudation can be seen. The residual
Medium***
(5-year durability)
**
expansion capacity is small
Expansion due to alkali aggregate reaction causes cracks,
Medium
discoloration and gel exudation can be seen. The residual
Large***
(5-year
durability)
**
expansion capacity is large
Cracking propagates due to alkali aggregate reaction, number
Large
Large***
of cracks, crack width and crack density increase.
(5-year durability)
*The meanings of Small, Medium and Large are as below.
Small: Crack does not cause the degradation of performance and the required performance is
satisfied.
Medium: Although crack is cause of performance degradation, slight repairs are effective.
Large: The performance degradation is remarkable and the member has not satisfied the required
performance.
**Threshold value of expansion is presented in Table C.4.3.7.
***Although there are many unknown factors about the concrete deterioration process and it is
difficult to specify the period which can guarantee the durability evaluation result at present.
However, evaluation in this table may be considered the durability for about five years in general.
(4) When Evaluation-II is applied to the crack due to frost damage, the influence of the crack should
be evaluated by Table 4.3.3. The degree of degradation progress should be decided by the visual
observation and the measurement result of the depth of frost damage which is described in 2.3.
Table 4.3.3 Influence of crack due to frost damage on the performance of (RC) member
Durability for
Durability for
steel corrosion
concrete
Degree of
Short period
deterioration
deterioration (frost damage)
(5 years)
The depth of frost deterioration increases and The situation
that influence attains to circumference environment arises,
Small
such as peeling. The depth of frost deterioration is smaller
Medium**
(5-year durability)
than the cover depth and reinforcement corrosion does not
occur.
The depth of frost deterioration increases and the situation that
influence attains to circumference environment arises, such as
Medium
Large**
peeling. The depth of frost deterioration is larger than the (5-year durability)
cover depth and reinforcement corrosion has occurred.
Reinforcement
corrosion
progresses
considerably.
Large
Large**
Displacement and deflection are large.
(5-year durability)
Small: Crack do not cause the degradation of performance and the required performance is
satisfied.
Large: The performance degradation is remarkable and the member has not satisfied the required
performance.
**Although there are many unknown factors about the concrete deterioration process and it is
(5) When Evaluation-II is applied to the crack due to chemical attack, the influence of the crack
should be evaluated according to Table 4.3.4. The degree of degradation progress should be
87
decided by the appearance observation and the measurement result of the depth of corrosion which
is described in 2.3.
Table 4.3.4 Influence of crack due to chemical attack on the performance of (RC) member
Durability for
Durability for
steel corrosion
concrete
Short period
Degree of
deterioration
(5 years)
deterioration (chemical attack)
Deterioration of concrete is recognized. The penetration
Small
depth of deterioration factors is smaller than the cover depth. (5-year durability)
Losses in the cross-sectional area of concrete is
Medium
Evaluation-III
remarkableThe depth of deterioration factors is larger than
(5-year durability)
the cover depth and reinforcement corrosion has occurred.
Reinforcement corrosion progresses considerably.
Large
Displacement and deflection are large.
(5-year durability)
Small: Crack do not cause the degradation of performance and the required performance is
satisfied.
Large: The performance degradation is remarkable and the member has not satisfied the
**Although there are many unknown factors about the concrete deterioration process and it is
(6) When cause of crack and required durability are outside the scope of Tables 4.3.1 to 4.3.4 or the
evaluation is difficult owing to various factors even if cause of crack and required durability are
corresponded to the conditions of these Tables, Evaluation-III should be carried out.
[Comments]
(1) Targeted cracks in Evaluation-II are the cracks due to corrosion of reinforcement and deterioration
of concrete as shown in Table 4.1.1. Moreover, Evaluation-II is applied to the members that required
the performance against durability. Evaluation-II should not be applied to the member when
degradation in performance may cause hazards to the third parties. In such case, remedial measures
shall be taken before evaluation to avoid the possible hazards. The influence of initial crack affects on
water tightness and water tightness is evaluated in Evaluation-I. The influence of the cracks due to
corrosion of reinforcement and deterioration of concrete on water tightness and waterproofness has
not been clarified. Therefore, the performance should be evaluated by Evaluation-III. Structural safety
and other performance also should be evaluated by Evaluation-III. Even if the causes of cracking are
drying shrinkage and thermal stress, the progress of carbonation or chloride ingress are accelerated by
these cracks and the corrosion of reinforcement with appearance of rust stains is observed, EvaluationII should be applied for safe side evaluation.
In Evaluation-II, the cause of crack, the grade of degradation, etc. should be clarified based on the
results of investigations, and evaluation should be made in consideration of the level of the required
durability of member or structure. The causes of the targeted cracks are "C8: Chloride attack, C7:
Carbonation", "A6: Alkali aggregate reaction", "C3: Frost damage", and "C6: Chemical attack". Cause
estimation of crack should be carried out according to Chapter 3. In evaluation, Tables 4.3.1 to 4.3.4
should be used based on the cause of crack. The reason for choosing the table used for evaluation
according to the cause of crack is that it can be judged approximately the influence of the crack on the
performance of member according to the cause of crack. Furthermore, the cause of crack will affect
the deterioration progress after cracking.
The grade of influence of the crack to the performances of member is expressed as Large, Medium and
88
Small. The meanings of these expressions are shown as below Tables 4.3.1 to 4.3.4. The required
performance of the member which is evaluated by Evaluation-II is durability, and the judge of
remedial measure is carried out based on the evaluation result. Therefore, the explanations of Small,
Medium, and Large from the viewpoint of remedial measure are as follows: Small means that remedial
measure is not needed in order to satisfy the required durability. However, since the crack has been
produced, progressive observation is required. Medium means that slight repair is needed in order to
satisfy the required durability. Slight repair, such as surface coating and grouting into cracks, should
be carried out at crack part or around the cracks. It may be possible that any repair and strengthening
are not carried out only within short service life (in general, less than five years). However, continuous
observation is needed when any measures have been not taken to avoid hazards to the third parties.
Large means that large scale remedial measure is needed compared with Small or Medium case. For
example, large area removal of deteriorated concrete around the crack part or the concrete including
corroding substance, and rust-preventing coating are needed. However, the judgment of repair and
strengthening must be decided according to Chapter 5 in consideration with economical condition.
In addition, the tables used in Evaluation-II are set up as safety side. The reason is that the evaluation
is carried out using limited information in Evaluation-II although many factors must be taken into
consideration in order to evaluate the influence of crack on the durability of the concrete member.
More rational evaluation can be attained, when investigation items are added and advanced evaluation
(Evaluation-III) is carried out by an expert engineer.
(2) Table 4.3.1 is applied when the cause of crack is chloride attack or carbonation, the influence of
the crack is evaluated using the cause of crack and required performance. In the table, the required
performance, that is, protection level against steel corrosion, is divided two categories such as Short
period (5 years) and Middle period (20 years). Description such as (5-year durability) or (20-year
durability) is attached behind the evaluation result in the table. This description means standard years
which can guarantee the evaluation result of durability, and it is classified as Short period or Middle
period. Short period means about 3 to 7 years, Middle period means about 15 to 25 years, and 5 years
in Short period and 20 year in Middle period are used as the average values of these periods.
All evaluations are Large when steel corrosion has been occurred due to chloride attack. Since the rate
of steel corrosion due to chloride attack is high, evaluation is provided keeping the adequate safety
margin. When carbonation is the cause of crack, evaluation result is divided whether cover depth is
over 25 mm or less. Since the steel corrosion rate is higher and peeling of concrete may be occurred
for a small cover depth, the performance related to hazards to the third parties may degrade within a
short period. Therefore, 5-year durability and 20-year durability are Large when the cover depth is less
than 25 mm. However, the peeling of cover concrete is not only governed by cover depth but also by
the diameter of reinforcement and others. Also, corrosion rate in cracked concrete depends not only
on cover depth but also on quality of concrete, crack width, crack pattern, environmental conditions,
etc. Therefore, the cover depth of 25 mm is a standard value, and the evaluation should be carried out
taking into consideration that the threshold value has the range of 5 mm. Although the cover depth
around the crack must be observed, it is also desirable to carry out the investigation of the cover depth
in the non-cracked area in the same member from the viewpoint of preventive measures. In this case,
even if the crack has not been produced, evaluation should apply to that of cracking area. Therefore,
evaluation will be Large for 5-year durability if the cover depth is less than 25 mm. The cover depth
can be measured by chipping of concrete from the surface in the cracking area, non-destructive test
may applied to the non-cracking area. Chapter 2 can be referred about the details of measurement
method. In addition, hammer taping method is effective to find the peeling area during investigation.
(3)(4)(5) Evaluation of the influence of the crack due to alkali aggregate reaction, frost damage and
chemical attack is carried out using Tables 4.3.2, 4.3.3 and 4.3.4, respectively.
In these degradation, degradation rate and degradation progress after cracking have not been clarified.
Therefore, the period which can guarantee the durability for steel corrosion is short-term (5 years).
Guarantee years for evaluation result about the concrete durability are not specified, but they are
considered as short periods within several years (5 years). When the durability of the deteriorated
89
concrete for 5 years or more is evaluated, it is necessary to evaluate the progress of deterioration. In
addition, when the dislocation and faulting of the structure besides defects on concrete surface have
been occurred excessively by alkali aggregate reaction, the damage of reinforcing steel (such as
yielding, cracking, fracture) may occur and the load-bearing capacity may be decreased. In such cases,
the evaluation should be based on Evaluation-III. The evaluation is also carried out using the
deterioration grade and the required performance. It is necessary to clarify the degree of degradation
progress with appearance observation or degradation index. The deterioration process is usually
divided into Initiation stage, Propagation stage, Acceleration stage and Deterioration stage. The
degrees of deterioration in Tables 4.3.2 to 4.3.4 conform to these stages. The details about degree of
deterioration and degradation stage are presented in Table C.4.3.1 to C.4.3.6. The degradation process
is schematically explained in Figures C.4.3.1 to C.4.3.3. In the case of deterioration due to alkali
aggregate reaction, the expansion behavior after observation will not be always same. When the
expansion capacity of the concrete is small, the expansion may converge after cracking. For this
reason, when the influence of the crack due to alkali aggregate reaction on the performance of the
member is evaluated, it is decided to judge the possibility of the deterioration progress after the
present condition using the residual expansion capacity. The yardsticks for judgment are presented in
Table C.4.3.7. The results obtained from the standard investigation described in 2.2 and the detailed
investigation described in 2.3 can be used for evaluation the influence of crack. If there is lack of data,
more rational evaluation can be carried out by adding the detailed investigation. If detailed
investigation is added, it is possible to confirm not only the cause of crack but also the degree of
deterioration. Although, more time and cost are needed for the detailed investigations, but necessity of
repair and strengthening can be judged exactly and finally the time and the cost for measures can be
reduced. When an index is used for evaluation of a crack, the performance requirements of member or
structure shall be taken into consideration.
The standard indices used in Tables 4.3.1 to 4.3.4 are explained below. In Table C.4.3.8, the cover
depth means the shortest distance between the surface of the outermost reinforcing bar and the
concrete surface. "Residual expansion capacity" is obtained form the ratio of the expansion of the
cored cylinder collected from the ASR affected concrete members subjected to an accelerated test
divided by the original length of the cored cylinder immediately after drilling. "Depth of frost
deterioration" means the depth of cover concrete deteriorated by pop-out or scaling. Furthermore,
"Depth of corrosion" means the depth of cover concrete deteriorated by chemical attack. The target
required performances of Tables 4.3.2, 4.3.3 and 4.3.4 are divided into two categories such as the
durability for steel corrosion and concrete deterioration. The progress of the deterioration which is
caused by the crack will be accelerated by the existence of the crack and steel corrosion will be also
accelerated of due to crack. This reason is that water is indispensable for the deteriorations of concrete
such as alkali aggregate reaction, frost damage and chemical attack, and the existence of crack
accelerates water penetration into concrete. Therefore, when the further deterioration of concrete due
to crack is expected and it becomes impossible to satisfy the required performance as a result,
"Durability for concrete deterioration" should be chosen as the required durability. However, the
deterioration rate of chemical attack has not been clarified. Only the durability for steel corrosion is
considered as the required performance in this Guideline. When the durability of concrete due to
chemical attack is evaluated, Evaluation-III shall be carried out.
90
Table C.4.3.1 Deterioration stage due to alkali aggregate reaction 1)

Deterioration
process
Initiation
stage
Propagation
stage
Acceleration
stage
Deterioration
stage
Definition
Alkali aggregate reaction progresses but expansion is not yet apparent.
Expansion continuously progresses with steady supply of water and alkali, causing
cracking. But reinforcement corrosion does not occur.
Expansion due to alkali aggregate reaction becomes significant with the almost
maximum expansion rate, while cracking propagate. Reinforcement corrosion may
occur.
Crack width and density increase and steel corrosion progress, while the loadbearing capacity of members is decreased by the strength loss of concrete and
damage of reinforcing steel.
Table C.4.3.2 Grade of appearance and deterioration of structures
which alkali aggregate reaction occurs 1)
Grade of
appearance
Grade I
(Initiation
stage)
Grade II
(Propagation
stage)
Grade III
(Acceleration
stage)
Grade IV
(Deterioration
stage)
State of deterioration
Expansion and crack due to alkali aggregate reaction does not occur, no apparent
defects.
Expansion continuously progresses with steady supply of water and alkali,
causing cracking, and discoloration and gel exudation can be seenBut rust
exudation is not apparent.
Expansion due to alkali aggregate reaction becomes significant with the almost
maximum expansion rate, while cracking propagate. Crack width and density
increase and reinforcement corrosion may occur.
Crack width and density increase furthermore, dislocation and faulting of the
structure besides defects on concrete surface and partial peeling/spalling occur.
Reinforcement corrosion progresses and rust stains are apparent. Crack and
damage of reinforcement due to external force may occur. Displacement and
deformation are large.
Table C.4.3.3 Deterioration stage due to frost damage 1)
Deterioration
process
Initiation stage
Definition
Concrete is subject to freezing and thawing but scaling is not apparent.

Surface deterioration of concrete progresses but expose or peeling of aggregate
Propagation stage
is not apparent.
Acceleration
Period until reinforcement are exposed or steel corrosion begins.
stage
Deterioration
Period when corrosion of steel progresses and the fall of load-bearing capacity
stage
is remarkable
91
Table C.4.3.4 Grade of appearance and deterioration of structures which frost damage occurs 1)
Grade of appearance
State of deterioration
Grade I
(Initiation stage)
Subjected to freezing and thawing action but no performance degradation. Initial

soundness is retained.
Grade II
(Propagation stage)
Small depth of frost deterioration. Little change in rigidity with no reinforcement

corrosion, but aesthetic appearance is affected.
Grade III
(Acceleration stage)
Large depth of frost deterioration. Hazards for third party such as spalling occur
with reinforcement corrosion.
Grade IV
(Deterioration stage)
Depth of frost deterioration is greater than the cover depth. Significant

reinforcement corrosion with adverse effects on serviceability performances and
safety performance.
Deterioration
process
Initiation
stage
Propagation
stage
Acceleration
stage
Deterioration
stage
Table C.4.3.5 Deterioration stage due to chemical attack 1)

Definition when there is no
Definition when there is protective coating
protective coating
Up to the time when concrete Up to the time when concrete deterioration
deterioration start due to the start due to the penetration of deterioration
penetration of deterioration factors. factors through the protective surface.
Up to the time when the aggregate in concrete is exposed and it begins to separate.
Up to the time when the deterioration factors penetrate to the reinforcement and
reinforcement corrosion has occurred.
Period during the load-bearing capacity is significantly reduced by the losses in the
cross-sectional area of concrete and reinforcing steel.
Table C.4.3.6 Grade of appearance and deterioration of structures which chemical attack occurs 1)
Grade of
Deterioration Deterioration state when there Deterioration state when there is
appearance
process
is no protective coating
protective coating
Up to the time when concrete Although
the
deterioration
Initiation
Grade I
deterioration star, no apparent factors penetrate into protective
stage
defects.
coating, no apparent defects.
Concrete surface is ruined or Defects are observed on
Propagation crack is appeared.
protective coating and concrete
Grade II
stage
under the protective layer is
deteriorated.
Acceleration Significant cracking and cross-sectional losses of concrete.
Grade III
stage
Aggregate is exposed or spalled.
Cross-sectional losses of concrete and crack reach at the depth of
Deterioration
Grade IV
the reinforcement, displacement and deflection are large due to
stage
the cross-sectional loss of reinforcement.
Table C.4.3.7 Standard for judgment for residual expansion capacity 2)
Test name
Test method
Standard for judgment
Storage in the chamber at 402C and
JCI-DD2
Smaller than 0.05% (3 months)
95%RH or more.
Canadian
Immersion into 1N NaOH
Smaller than 0.1% (14 days)
method
solution at 80C
Immersion into saturated NaCl
Danish method
Smaller than 0.05% (91 days)
solution at 50C
92
Cause of
cracking
Carbonation
Alkali
aggregate
reaction
Frost
damage
Related Tables
Table 4.3.1
Table 4.3.2
Table 4.3.3
Table 4.3.4
Excessive cracking occurs

or corrosion occurs
Cracking
occurs
Cracking occurs
Acceleration stage
Initiation stage
Service Period
Service Period
Deterioration stage
Initiation stage
Propagation stage
(a) when the expansion capacity of the concrete is large
Propagation stage
(b) when the expansion capacity of the concrete is small
Deterioration due to
frost attack
Figures C4.3.1 Schematics of deterioration due to AAR

Steel exposure
Steel corrosion
Aggregate exposure
Aggregate spalling
Scaling occurs
Acceleration stage
Performance
deterioration
Performance
deterioration
Alkali aggregate reaction
Chemical
attack
Table C.4.3.8 Standard index for evaluation

Kind of
Test method, equipment
investigation
Non-destructive test:Radar
Non-destructive method, Electromagnetic
investigation,
induction methodUltra sonic
Cover depth
Chipping
wave method
investigation
chipping:visual inspection,
scale
Residual
JCI-DD2, Canadian method
expansion
Laboratory test
(ASTM
C1260),
Danish
capacity
method
Depth of frost
Appearance
Visual inspection
deterioration
investigation
JIS A 1152 (Method for
Chipping
Corrosion depth
measuring carbonation depth
investigation
of concrete)
Index for
evaluation
Initiation stage
Propagation stage
Number of
freezing and thawing
Deterioration stage
Reduction in load-bearing capacity

Reduction in rigidity
Figure C4.3.2 Schematics of deterioration due to frost damage
93
Performance
deterioration
chemical attack
Corrosion of steel occurs

Cracking occurs
Aggregate exposure
Corrosion of
concrete occurs
Service Period
Acceleration stage
Initiation stage
Propagation stage
Deterioration stage
Reduction in load-bearing capacity

Reduction in rigidity
Figure C4.3.3 Schematics of deterioration due to chemical attack

4.4 Evaluation-III (Applied for Cracks due to Combined Deterioration, etc.)
(1) Evaluation-III should be carried out based on advanced judgment by an expert engineer.
(2) Evaluation-III should be applied when the required performance is structural safety, durability or
water tightness for a long period.
(3) Evaluation-III can be also applied to the crack due to combined deterioration or the crack which
cannot be evaluated by Evaluation-I or Evaluation-II.
[Comments]
(1) When Evaluation-III is used as a result of cause estimation of the crack, or when judgment is
difficult according to Evaluation-I or Evaluation-II, evaluation should be carried out based on
advanced judgment by an expert engineer. Evaluation-III should be also applied to the case when the
evaluation of the structural safety of member or structure is needed, the case which the influence of
the crack on the performances for over 20 years long is evaluated, or the case which the evaluation
object is an especially important member or structure.
Evaluation-III should be carried out by an expert engineer. An expert engineer clarifies the cause of
crack taking into consideration with various factors, such as cracking situation, environmental
condition, construction conditions, loading condition, etc. Based on the result of the standard
investigation or the detailed investigation, the influence of crack on the performance of member or
structure is evaluated by adding the investigation corresponding to each case if needed. Especially,
when the necessity of strengthening is judged, it is necessary to evaluate the structural safety.
Furthermore, since the influence of crack on the performance of member or structure may become
complicated when the cause of crack is due to the combined effect of deterioration, the advanced
judgment based on special knowledge is needed.
(2)(3) In the case of the crack due to steel corrosion, the load-bearing capacity and the rigidity of the
member may be reduced by the reduction of adhesion between reinforcement and concrete or the loss
of cross-section of reinforcement. Therefore, when investigating the influence of crack on the
structural safety performance of the members or structure, advanced judgment by an expert engineer is
needed. Due to the fall of structural safety of member or structure, many corrosion cracks occur and
peeling and spalling of cover concrete are observed in many cases. When the bending crack and the
shear crack is generated by the load exceeding design load or the differential settlement, crack width
and number of cracks increase depending on the loading condition and the settlement, and the
94
structural safety may be reduced. Since a brittle failure behavior is shown when a shear crack is
generated, immediate counter measures may be needed. The advanced judgment by an expert engineer
is required. It is considered that the crack to which the structural safety of member or structure is
reduced generates large tensile stress in steel bars with widening the crack width. Therefore, the
relation between the crack width and the tensile stress which acts on steel according to the
arrangement of reinforcement and load situation etc. are investigated, and the influence of crack on the
structural safety are also to be evaluated. In Evaluation-III, it is also possible to analytically evaluate
using a simulation tool which can take into consideration the influence of the crack on the structural
safety of member or the structure, if needed. To perform structural evaluation directly, the deflection
and the deformation may be investigated by the loading test of the members, and the result may be
compared with the design values. In these ways, the structural safety of the member can be evaluated.
When it is impossible to evaluate the influence of crack by Evaluation-I and Evaluation-II, an expert
engineer may be able to evaluate the performances such as the water tightness, water tightness for
long period and the performance to protect the steel from corrosion based on crack width, length and
density of cracks, etc. Generally, when crack is penetrated, water tightness is evaluated as depreciation.
However, since crack may blocked with re-hydration of cement or clogging depending on crack width,
advanced judgment by an expert engineer may be required. Increase in width, length, or density of
crack reduces the performance which protects reinforcement. Since reinforcement corrosion may be
further accelerated when environmental condition is severe or combined deterioration of chloride
penetration and carbonation takes place, advanced judgment by an expert engineer is needed. The
allowable crack width is set up according to environmental condition in the JSCE Standard
Specifications for Concrete Structures. When the crack width is larger than the allowable crack width,
it will be evaluated as that the risk of damage by chloride attack increases. When the corrosion of
reinforcement is remarkable, the increase in the hazards for third party due to peeling/spalling and the
fall of structural safety performance will be taken place as mentioned above. Moreover, penetration of
water and other deterioration factors through crack may cause the deteriorations such as frost damage,
chemical attack, alkali aggregate reaction and combined deterioration; expert engineer should carry
out advanced judgment according to a degradation factor. In Evaluation-III, when direct evaluation of
the influence of crack is carried out, it is based on water permeability test or air permeability test on
site. The permeability of water or gas can be investigated and durability and water tightness can also
be estimated according to the permeability. Moreover, an expert engineer may evaluate taking into
consideration not only a single test result but the combined test results according to the importance
and the performance requirements of member or structure.
References
[1] Japan Society of Civil Engineers: Standard Specifications for Concrete Structures -2007,
Maintenance, 2008.3 (in Japanese)
[2] Ministry of Construction Minister's Secretariat technology survey room [SUPERVISION], editing
by Japan Association for Building Research Promotion : Performance evaluation guideline of the
reinforced concrete construction building, GIHODO SHUPPAN Co.Ltd, 2000.8 (in Japanese)
95
Chapter 5 Judgment of Necessity of Repair and Strengthening

5.1 General
(1) In order to ensure the performance of cracked concrete structures, necessity of repair and
strengthening should be judged by owner of the structures in view of influence of cracks on
performance of members or structures and specific limitation such as importance of structures.
(2) In the case that performance related to influence on third party becoming a problem immediately,
after doing immediate action appropriately, the necessity of repair and strengthening should be
judged based on the results of reevaluation for required performances of members or structures.
(3) The necessity of repair and strengthening should be judged by the methods shown in 5.2 based on
the results of evaluation of cracks in view of expected remaining service life, social importance of
structures and economic efficiency.
(4) In the case that different types of evaluation are performed, the judgment should be performed in
each estimated cause of cracks. The final judgment should be based on the safest-side result.
[Comments]
(1) Originally, the judgment of necessity of repair and strengthening should be determined by the owner
of structures, based on comprehensive discussion: not only the grade of influence (the results evaluated
objectively and physically) of cracks on the performance of members or structures but also the expected
remaining service life, social importance of the structure and economic evaluation (scenario of
maintenance of structures, life-cycle cost (LCC), asset management). In other words, the judgment of
necessity of repair and strengthening should be carried out by the owner of the structures in accordance
with the circumstance of the structures. In this guideline, standardized method to help determination
about the judgment of necessity of repair and strengthening is described because it is practically
impossible to indicate every method of judgment for each structure.
In order to judge the necessity of repair and strengthening, in addition to the technical evaluation, it is
necessary to determine methodological theory to perform determination according to the plan.
In this guideline, standardized method to judge the necessity of repair and strengthening in accordance
with the expected remaining service life is shown as methods to carry out determination. In order to
determine the expected remaining service life, it is better to take purpose and function of structure,
required performance and existing performance, economic efficiency (LCC, etc.) and so on into
consideration sufficiently.
It is better to carry out the judgment in proper period based on this guideline, but conditions of members
or structures (including the situation of cracks) can be changed in a large way until the next checking
and investigation. In such cases, the contents and the results of prediction of occurrence or propagation
(or deterioration) is important in order to carry out the evaluation. In order to carry out judgment, the
results of this prediction and the results of estimation of LCC and the idea of preventive maintenance
should be taken into consideration sufficiently. In such cases, more rational judgment can be carried out
because sooner action connect with avoiding latter large-scale action, and latter reliable action rather
than immediate action in presence enables to decrease LCC.
If results of the evaluation are not taken into consideration in the judgment of necessity of repair and
strengthening, the repair and the strengthening for cracks do not connect with successful effect and the
cost can become bigger. Thus, it is very important to take results of the evaluation of cracks into
consideration in order to maximize the effect of the repair and the strengthening.
(2) In the case that the performance related to influence on third parties becomes a problem immediately,
as written in 4.1 (2), an immediate action should be carried out rapidly as a rule. After that, depending
on its need, the investigation and the evaluation for the performance requirements of members or
structures should be carried out. Then, as medium to long-term action, the necessity for repair and
strengthening should be judged based on the results of the evaluation. As for the immediate action,
comments in 4.1 (2) can be referred to.
96
(3) In the judgment, the necessity of repair and strengthening should be judged depending on the
performance which is required for target members or structures. In the case that structural safety
performance of members or structures is deteriorated by cracks the necessity of strengthening should be
judged at first. The judgment should be carried out based on the advanced judgment by expert engineer.
If the structural safety performance is not deteriorated, the necessity of repair and strengthening could
be judged based on the results of evaluation for the other required performance (durability, for example).
In the case that Evaluation-I or Evaluation-II is carried out in view of durability, water resistance and
water resistance in Chapter 4, standardized method for judgment of necessity of repair is shown in 5.2.
In the case that the necessity of repair and strengthening is judged in perspective of the other
performance (performance related to influence on third parties, air tightness, beauty and so on), the
judgment should be carried out based on advanced judgment by expert engineer and the judgment by
the owner of the structure.
There are practical actions (the increase in frequency of inspection, the repair for aesthetic purpose, the
limitation of service, the change of use application, demolishment, removal, etc.) other than repair and
strengthening, so they should also be taken consideration. The typical actions other than repair and
strengthening are shown below.
1) Limitation of service and working load
Active load (running vehicle, for example) should be limited in order to keep the required structural
safety performance in the case that the judgment indicates the deterioration of structural safety
performance by cracks.
2) Change of purpose
The structures can be reused in the safe-side range of movable load. For example, a storage plant can be
converted to an office.
3) Breaking down, taking away, demolition
Existing structures can be taken away in the case that repair and strengthening do not connect with the
sufficient improvement, in the case that the operation of repair and strengthening needs a big amount of
costs and in the case that the existing structure is judged to be taken away in consideration of LCC.
(4) In the case that there are two or more estimated causes of cracks, evaluation is carried out after
choosing the type of evaluation. Thus, there are two or more results of evaluation. In such cases, after
carrying out the judgment in each cause of cracks, the safest-side result should be chosen as the final
judgment as a rule. The safe-side result in this section is the most sever results in the judgments. For
example, in the case that the expected remaining service life is more than 20 years, in the case that the
judgment is carried out based on the result of Evaluation-II or Evaluation-III and in the case that the
result is repair is necessary, the final judgment should be normally repair is necessary. In this regard, in
the stage that final type of countermeasure and the time of year are determined, it is necessary to
confirm that the contents of the countermeasure are proper.
5.2 Methods of Judgment
(1) In the case that Evaluation-I is carried out from the viewpoint of durability for steel corrosion, the
judgment of necessity of repair can be performed based on Table 5.2.1. In the case that Evaluation-I
is carried out from the viewpoint of water resistance and water tightness, at this moment, the
judgment of necessity of repair can be performed based on Table 5.2.2.
(2) In the case that Evaluation-II is carried out from the viewpoint of durability for steel corrosion, the
judgment of necessity of repair can be performed based on Table 5.2.3 or Table 5.2.4. In the case
that Evaluation-II is carried out from the viewpoint of durability for deterioration of concrete, at this
moment, the judgment of necessity of repair can be performed based on Table 5.2.5.
(3) In the case that Evaluation-II is carried out, taking expected remaining service life into consideration,
repair and strengthening should be performed by a expert engineer based on the results of evaluation
of cracks.
97
Table 5.2.1 Judgment based on 'Evaluation-I' (in view of durability against steel corrosion)
Expected
remaining
service life
Less than 10 years
From 10 to 20 years
Over 20 years
Repair is unnecessary
Medium
(20-year durability)
Repair is basically
unnecessary
(Repair is necessary
according to the
circumstances)
Large
Repair is basically necessary

(Repair is unnecessary
according to the
circumstances)
Repair is basically
unnecessary
according to the
circumstances, and
investigation of cracks should
be done constantly)
Repair is necessary
(Investigation of cracks
should be done constantly)
Repair is necessary
Influence
on performance
of members
Small
Repair is necessary
(Including strengthening,
demolishment and removal)
Table 5.2.2 Judgment based on 'Evaluation-I' (in view of water tightness)

Influence on performance of members
Small
Medium
Large
Judgment
Repair is basically unnecessary (Repair is unnecessary according to the
circumstances, and investigation of cracks should be done constantly)
Repair is necessary
Table 5.2.3 Judgment based on 'Evaluation-II' (in view of durability against steel corrosion)
(In the case of chloride attack and carbonation)
Expected remaining
service life
Influence
on performance
of members
Medium
(5-year durability)
Large
(5-year durability)
Large
Less than 5 years
From 5 to 20 years
Over 20 years
Repair is basically
unnecessary
according to the
circumstances)
Repair is necessary
Advanced judgment by
expert engineer
expert engineer
expert engineer
Repair is necessary
expert engineer
expert engineer (Including
strengthening, demolishment
and removal)
Repair is necessary
Table 5.2.4 Judgment based on 'Evaluation-II' (in view of durability against steel corrosion)
(In the case of alkali-aggregate reactionfrost damagechemical corrosion)
Expected remaining
Influence on
service life
performance of members
Small
(5-year durability)
Medium
(5-year durability)
Large
(5-year durability)
Less than 5 years
Over 5 years
Advanced judgment by expert

engineer
engineer
Repair is basically unnecessary

(Repair is necessary according to the
circumstances)
Repair is necessary

engineer
Table 5.2.5 Judgment based on 'Evaluation- II' (in view of durability against concrete deterioration)
(In the case of alkali-aggregate reaction, frost damage)
Expected remaining
Influence on
service life
performance of members
Medium
Large
Less than 5 years
Over 5 years
Repair is basically unnecessary

(Repair is necessary according to the
circumstances)
Repair is necessary

engineer
98

engineer
[Comments]
(1)
1) In view of durability
The approach in the use of Table 5.2.1 (Table for judgment based on Evaluation-I in view of durability
for steel corrosion) is shown below. In the case that the result of evaluation is Small, if the expected
remaining service life is less than about 20 years, the judgment can be repair is unnecessary. This is
because the change of performance in 15-20 years is assumed in Evaluation-I for steel corrosion. In the
case that the expected remaining service life is more than 20 years, it is not necessary to carry out repair
only if investigation of cracks is carried out constantly. In this case, the necessity of repair needs to be
judged in each case based on the results of investigation of crack extension in the future. However, there
are cases in that repair is carried out in perspective of preventive maintenance even though the judgment
is repair is unnecessary.
In the case that the result of evaluation is Medium, of the expected remaining service life is longer than
20 year, the judgment should be repair is necessary. In this case, if the expected remaining service life
is less than 10 years, the judgment can be basically repair is unnecessary (if needed, repair is
necessary). In the case that the expected remaining service life is 10-20 years, if investigation is carried
out constantly, the judgment can be basically repair is unnecessary at this time. However, in this case,
the necessity of repair needs to be judged based on the results of investigation of crack extension in the
future. In addition, there are cases in that repair is carried out in perspective of preventive maintenance
even though the judgment is repair is unnecessary.
In the case that the result of evaluation is Large, if expected remaining service life is less than 10 years,
the judgment can be repair is basically necessary (repair is unnecessary according to circumstances).
On the other hand, in this case, if the expected remaining service life is 10-20 years, the judgment
should be repair is necessary. Specially, if the expected remaining service life is more than 20 years, it
should be taken into consideration that judgment of action including demolishment and removal can be
required.
Additionally, the necessity of repair should be discussed despite the judgment written above in the case
that preventive maintenance and beauty is especially taken into consideration.
2) In view of water resistance and water tightness
The approach in the use of Table 5.2.2 (Table for judgment based on Evaluation-I in view of water
resistance and water tightness) is shown below. The result of evaluation in this case is indicated as a
grade of influence of cracks at the time of evaluation (the grade of influence is shown as Small, Medium,
or Large). Thus, the judgment based on the result of evaluation is evaluated only by the result of
evaluation despite the expected remaining service life. In the case that the result of evaluation is Small,
the judgment can be repair is unnecessary. In the case that the result of evaluation is Large, the
judgment can be repair is necessary. In the case that the result of evaluation is Medium, repair is
basically unnecessary in this time, only if investigation of cracks is carried out constantly (repair is
necessary according to circumstances). However, in these cases, the necessity of repair should be judged
in each case based on the results of investigation of crack extension in the future. There are cases that
repair is carried out in perspective of preventive maintenance even though the result of judgment is
repair is unnecessary.
(2) Durability is used as an influence of cracks on members or structures in Evaluation-II, there are 2
types of durability: the durability for steel corrosion and the durability for deterioration of concrete.
In the case that Evaluation-II is carried out in view of durability for steel corrosion, the result of
evaluation (Medium or Large) about influence of cracks on the in short-term durability (5 years) and
mid-term durability (20 years) is determined. In the same way, in view of durability for alkali-aggregate
reaction, frost damage, chemical corrosion, the result of evaluation (Small, Medium, or Large) about
influence of cracks on short-term durability (5 years) is determined. On the other hand, in the case that
Evaluation-II is carried out in view of durability for deterioration of concrete, the result of evaluation
(Medium or Large) about influence of cracks on durability is determined.
1) In view of durability for steel corrosion
99
In the case that Evaluation-II is carried out in view of durability for steel corrosion, based on the results
of evaluation and Table 5.2.3 or Table 5.2.4, focusing on the term of evaluation of durability and
expected remaining service life by owner, the necessity of repair can be judged. If the cause of cracks is
estimated to be chloride attack or carbonation, Table 5.2.3 is used. If the cause of cracks is estimated to
be alkali-aggregate reaction, frost damage, chemical corrosion, Table 5.2.4 is used. In former case,
mid-term durability in addition to short-term durability is determined and the expected remaining
service life can be determined until 20 years. Thus, Table for judgment is different in each cause of
cracks.
i) In the case that the causes of cracks are chloride attack and carbonation (Table 5.2.3)
In the case that the result of evaluation for short-term durability is Medium (durability for 5 years) and
the expected remaining service life is less than about 5 years, the judgment can be repair is basically
unnecessary (repair is necessary according to the circumstances).
In the case that the result of evaluation for short-term durability is Large (durability for 5 years), the
judgment should be repair is necessary even if the expected remaining service life is less than about 5
years.
In the case that the result of evaluation for mid-term durability is Large (durability for 20 years), the
judgment should be repair is necessary despite the expected remaining service life. Especially, in the
case that expected remaining service life is longer than 20 years, it should be confirmed that overall
judgment including demolishment and removal can be necessary.
In this Table, in the case that the result of evaluation for short-term (5 years) durability is Medium
(durability for 5 years) or Large (durability for 20 years) and the expected remaining service life is more
than 5 years, the judgment should be carried out by expert engineer because the results of evaluation for
the mid-term (20 years) durability is necessary.
ii) In the case that the causes of cracks are alkali-aggregate reaction, frost damage, chemical corrosion
(Table 5.2.4)
In the case that the result of evaluation for short-term durability is Small (durability for 5 years), the
judgment can be repair is unnecessary if the expected remaining service life is less than about 5 years.
In the case that the result of evaluation for short-term durability is Medium (durability for 5 years), if he
expected remaining service life is less than about 5 years, the judgment can be repair is basically
unnecessary (repair is necessary according to the circumstances). In the case that the result of evaluation
for short-term durability is Large (durability for 5ears), the judgment should be repair is necessary even
if the expected remaining service life is less than 5 years. In the case that the expected remaining service
life is more than 5 years, after performing more detail investigation, based on advanced judgment by
expert engineer (Evaluation-III), the necessity of repair is judged.
2) In view of durability for deterioration of concrete
In the case that Evaluation-II is carried out in view of deterioration of concrete, generally, the necessity
of repair can be judged based on the results of evaluation and Table 5.2.5. The approach in the use of
Table 5.2.5 is shown below. In the case that the result of evaluation is Medium, if he expected remaining
service life is shorter than 5 years, the judgment can be repair is basically unnecessary (repair is
necessary according to the circumstances). In the case that the result of evaluation is Large, if he
expected remaining service life is less than 5 years, the judgment should be repair is necessary. In the
case that the expected remaining service life is more than 5 years, after performing more detail
investigation, based on advanced judgment by expert engineer (Evaluation-III), the necessity of repair is
judged.
(3) In Evaluation-III, the judgment should be carried out by expert engineer as a rule based on the result
of evaluation of cracks, taking expected remaining service life into consideration. In this case, the
necessity of repair and strengthening should be judged in accordance with the deterioration of the
performance by existing cracks. In the case that the judgment is structural safety is lost, the necessity of
strengthening should be judged at first, and secondly, the necessity of repair should be judged. In this
Guideline, in the judgment of repair and strengthening, even though seismic strengthening is not
intended, present law should be taken into consideration if needed. In judgment, original criteria of
repair and strengthening can be referred to.
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Practical Guideline for Investigation, Repair and Strengthening of Cracked Concrete Structures -2013
-
Chapter 6 Repair and Strengthening

6.1 General
(1) The method most suitable for the purpose of repair or strengthening for cracks is to be adopted
based on investigation, evaluation, and judgment on the necessity of repair or strengthening.
(2) The certified personnel, in principle, execute repair and strengthening.
[Comments]
(1) The method most suitable for the purpose of repair or strengthening is to be adopted based on
investigation, evaluation, and judgment on the necessity of repair or strengthening, described in
Chapters 4 and 5. The definitions of repair and strengthening are given in Chapter 1.
(i) Repair
The purpose of crack repair is to recover the degraded performance of a concrete structure due to cracks.
Therefore, it is necessary to examine among other things the causes, the degree, and the progress of
cracks, and to select the most appropriate repair methods based on the results of such crack
investigation.
The recovery of water-tightness and durability are the main purpose of crack repair. Sometimes cracks
are repaired to prevent falling of concrete and mortar pieces, for aesthetic purposes and enhancement of
concrete performance related to the third parties. As to the extent of crack repair, it should be
determined by taking into consideration economic efficiency that is within the range that satisfies the
purpose of repair. In this case, it is necessary to consider the remaining service life of the structure and
its life cycle cost.
Sometimes, similar cracks occur again in a newly repaired concrete structure. This may be caused by
problems related to repair materials, selection of the repair methods, cause estimation of crack, progress
predictions and construction. Another factor to be considered is structural defects. Especially in the case
of structural defects, it is not enough to just repair the crack without strengthening. For the other cases,
it is necessary to investigate how to control the factors associated with degradation.
Furthermore, it is important to estimate the progress of degradation, when the degradation mechanism,
such as carbonation or chloride attack, has been identified. It is necessary to carefully examine the scope
and scale of repair, the repair time, etc., especially in the cases for which the rate of degradation is high
based on the environmental conditions.
(ii) Strengthening
The purpose of strengthening a cracked concrete structure is to recover or raise its structural capacity. It
is important to comprehensively examine the causes and the degree of crack progress, etc., based on
crack survey results, and select the strengthening method most suitable for the purpose of strengthening.
Furthermore, economic efficiency is also to be taken into consideration to select a strengthening method
that satisfies the purpose of strengthening. Additional factors that should be carefully examined include
the possible remaining service period of the structure, life cycle cost, size of the budget, and the degree
of social influence and reparability of the structure. Strengthening is to be carried out if the structure
loses safety or load carrying capacity and demolition of the structure and proposal for a new structure
should be considered only as the last measure. Thus, in choosing and adopting the method most suitable
for strengthening, careful examination based on crack survey results, cause estimation of the cracks and
progress prediction of the degradation should be performed in order to select a method that can reliably
achieve the required strengthening effect.
When the deterioration mechanism, such as carbonation or chloride attack, has been specified, it is
important to estimate the progress of deterioration. The strengthening range, scales, periods, etc., are to
be carefully considered based on the present conditions of the structure. If rapid progress of degradation
is predicted due to severe environmental conditions, the decision to perform strengthening should be
made and carried out quickly.
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-
(2) To plan and to construct an appropriate method for repair and strengthening, in-depth knowledge on
the subject matter is indispensable. Therefore, in principle, repair and strengthening works are to be
executed by professional engineers having skills on crack repair and strengthening.
6.2 Design of Repair and Strengthening
6.2.1 Basis of repair and strengthening design
Repair and strengthening designs are carried out to maintain the performance of the structure up to a
certain level during the design service life of the structure expected by the owner when repair and
strengthening works are executed.
[Comments]
When it is judged that the repair and strengthening are necessary, a series of examinations are executed
from the record of actual construction and a repair and strengthening method is designed.
It is necessary to do repair or strengthening designs for the structures of which structural performance
fall below the required levels as explained in the previous chapters. When cracks are initiated due to the
heat of hydration of cement or drying shrinkage and evaluated by Evaluation-I, a standard repair method
can be selected as explained in 6.2.4.
It is preferable to execute repair/strengthening work as soon as possible without delay, particularly if it
influence to the third parties. If a deteriorated structure is kept without repair for a long time, it may
cause further excessive deterioration which will result in a major rehabilitation work beyond
expectation that will consequence a major repair/strengthening work with a huge amount of cost and
time. Therefore, it is required to implement repair/strengthening work promptly. For this reason, it is
important to carry out a periodic inspection and to formulate a maintenance plan before execution of
repair/strengthening work.
The conceptual steps of the repair and strengthening designs are shown in Fig. C.6.2.1. As shown in this
figure, the information, such as performance requirements of each structural member and a structure,
remaining service life, and expected service life, etc. can be obtained from the information explained up
to Chapter 5 of this Guideline. The expected service life which is determined by the owner of structure
is also cited in this figure. The definitions of repair and strengthening are described in 1.3. Safety may
not be recovered or enhanced by repair, while serviceability may be ensured. Strengthening may recover
or enhance the safety of structure.
The basic principles of repair and strengthening designs can be roughly categorized as CASEs 1 to 4 of
Fig. C.6.2.1. For each of the CASE, structural performance after repair/strengthening has to be
increased up to a certain level during the expected service life of the structure. The performance after
repair/strengthening may vary as shown in Fig. C.6.2.1 based on repair/strengthening methods,
materials, etc. In CASE 1, the remaining service life can be set the same as the expected service life, but
performance after repair/strengthening strongly depends on the materials, environmental conditions, etc.
Therefore, in case of wide scattering of deterioration progress, the safe margin to set the remaining
service life is necessary as explained in CASE 2. Moreover, in case of costly repair/strengthening work,
it is possible to execute several minor and inexpensive repairs, as explained in CASE 3. CASE 4
describes the life extension by strengthening work to drawback the structural performance. Methods for
preventing early re-deterioration after execution of repair/strengthening works are described in 6.2.2 (6).
6.2.2 Note of repair and strengthening design
The following points are to be considered during repair and strengthening designs:
(1) An effective repair is done based on the investigated causes of the crack.
(2) The repair and strengthening method and the material are selected considering the expected service
life.
(3) Even when strengthening is made, it is necessary to do an appropriate repair.
102
-
Service Start
Design Service Life
Elapsed service life Remaining service life
Performance
Residual period on
serviceability
Expected remaining
service life
Required level of
performance
Elapsed year
Performance
CASE1
Required level of
performance
Life of structure when repairing
Elapsed year
Performance
CASE2
Required level of
performance
Life of structure when repairing
Elapsed year
Performance
CASE3
Life of structure when repairing several time
Required level of
performance
Elapsed year
Performance
CASE4
Life of structure when strengthening

(including repair)
Required level of
performance
Elapsed year
Fig. C.6.2.1 Bases of repair and strengthening designs
103
-
(4) In the case that the repaired part is within a structural member, strengthening is considered at first
and then the repair.
(5) A monolithic action between the structure and the repair and strengthening material is necessary.
(6) The re-deterioration mechanism is to be pointed out which may occurs in a short time after the
repair/strengthening works and necessary actions against it are to be taken.
[Comments]
(1) The repair and strengthening of the concerned cracks is considered to be enough if it is based on
Evaluation-II and as per cause of cracks determined based on this Guideline. It is necessary to select an
appropriate repair and strengthening method so that re-deterioration may not occur beyond the accepted
level during the expected life period.
(2) The materials to be used for repair and strengthening must have enough durability in consideration
of the expected life period of the structure. When a material is used allowing deterioration in the short
span of time compared to the expected life period like CASE 3 of Fig. C.6.2.1, the re-repair should be
planned beforehand, be monitored, and it to be repaired at the appropriate time again. Because if the rerepair is delayed, flaking off material due to deterioration may occur and it may causes harm to the third
parties. It is necessary to keep in mind that there is a possibility to increase the deterioration rate with
time. The life cycle cost is one of the good indices to select the best repair/maintenance scenario among
several alternatives. The numbers of repair and strengthening during the expected design service life can
be determined based on life cycle cost estimation.
(3) In principle, if strengthening is conducted, a repair is carried out to improve the performance of the
structure or to control the future deterioration rate.
(4) As discussed in Chapter 5, the necessity of strengthening should be judged at first when the safety
of members or structures is degraded. Therefore, in the case that the structure to be repaired is a
structural member, the strengthening work is first considered and then the repair.
(5) In almost all the repair and strengthening methods, the existing structure and the repair material
should act monolithically to ensure the required load-carrying ability as well as durability of the
structure. The performance of the structure will depend on the performance of the weakest part of the
section of the member. Therefore, it is necessary not to provide a weak layer in the material in repair
and strengthening. The section of the material after repair or strengthening is divided into the following
three parts: 1) base materials, 2) interface between base materials and repair/strengthening materials,
and 3) repair/strengthening materials. After repair and strengthening works, if the load is applied on the
repaired member and the stress exceeds the threshold stress limit, separation may occur at the weakest
part among these three parts as follows:
1) Separation at the base material
2) Separation at the interface
3) Separation due to low strength of members repaired/strengthened
(6) The repair area is to be decided keeping in mind the time of next repair, i.e., the period of two
successive repairs. For cracks evaluated by Evaluation-II or Evaluation-III, it may insufficient to repair
only the crack portion as re-deterioration may generate nearby by repair portion, particularly for the
cases of corrosion of steel in concrete, alkali-silica reaction, etc. For the severely deteriorated structures,
an effective repair work is to be designed to avoid a repeated repair within a short period of time.
Furthermore, it is necessary to add restructuring to choices at the early stage of the examination.
6.2.3 Additional survey for repair design
Additional survey for the repair design is carried out to make up for the lack of information as necessary.
104
-
[Comments]
In the design of a repair, the repair method, the range of the repair and strengthening, the plan of scheme
of execution, etc. are decided based on the results of detailed investigations. However, the main purpose
of the detailed investigations is generally to identify the possible causes of deterioration and to judge the
necessity of repair and strengthening. Therefore, the investigation of current conditions and the data for
quantity surveys required for the design of repair and strengthening may not be sufficient.
6.2.4 Selection of repair method
The repair method of each structure is selected based on major causes of crack, evaluation, judgment
result, expected life period, and level of recovery target.
[Comments]
(1) Classification of general repair method
The classification of the repair methods is shown in Fig. C.6.2.2, and the details of each repair method
are described in Section 6.3.
Crack covering method (covering cracks only)
Crack repair method
Injection method
Filling method (when reinforcement is not corroded)
Section repair method
Plaster method
Mortar injection method
Concrete filling method
Spray method
Repair method
Surface coating method
Surface coating method

(not only for cracks but for entire concrete surfaces)
Spalling prevention method
Anchor pinning method

Fiber sheet covering method
Renewal method for external wall by net over
Electrochemical repair method
Cathodic protection method

Desalination method
Re-alkalization method
Fig. C.6.2.2 Classification of repair methods
105
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(2) Idea of repair method selection

The cracks of concrete can be divided into a progressive crack and a non-progressive crack
(corresponding to that of Evaluation-I). For the latter crack, there are cracks for which the width of the
crack is periodically changed and something that does not change by repeating the temperature change
for the latter.
The cracks which occur at an early age after construction or even during construction and become
sTable with a couple of years are called non-progressive cracks. The main causes of non-progressive
cracks are: drying shrinkage (A9), heat of hydration of cement (A2), settlement and bleeding of
concrete (A8), autogenous shrinkage (A10), improper order of concrete casting (B4), rapid casting (B5),
improper compaction (B6), improper treatment of joint (B10 and B17), changes in temperature and
humidity (C1), long-term loading (D1), and short-term loading (D3).
Selection of repair method can be made by using Fig. C.6.2.3 depending on behavior and width of the
cracks as the water leakage or corrosion of steel bars in concrete can be controlled by repair the cracks.
Repair methods are summarized in Table C.6.2.1 depending on the cause of cracks. The suitable
method or combination of methods depends on the required performance even for the same causes of
cracks.
Furthermore, the AIJ Guidelines (1997) specifies the selection of repair depending on the performance
recovery levels as shown in Table C.6.2.2, which is generally divided into the following 3 types:
1) Repair work done to recover the same extent of performance as a healthy component (lasting
repair): this repair work is expected to achieve the result of permanent repair by not only
repairing all the parts with conspicuous degradation, but also permanently removing the
degradation factors that caused the degradation in question. Specifically, repair work is
undertaken when the cause of cracking is clear, such as heat of hydration of cement and drying
shrinkage.
2) Repair that recovers the range for problem-free use (prolonged life by repair): In addition to
repair some parts of the structure against deterioration, improvements of the other parts which
have inherent degradation factors may be necessary with an aim to prolong the life of the
structure. Concretely, such repair is applicable in cases when there is a remarkable level of
degradation of the structure due to steel bar corrosion, cracks caused by reactive aggregate, etc.,
or when several different causes of cracking are involved and for the cases for which it is
impossible to identify all the causes.
Crack of Evaluation-I
Improper
placement in
multi-layer
concrete
Crack due to shrinkage etc.

Behavior of crack
Less progressive
Improper
joint
between
concrete lifts
Progressive
Crack width (mm)
Crack width (mm)
Degree of defect
0.2
0.2 1.0
1.0
0.2
0.2 1.0
1.0
Covering
Injection
Filling
Covering
Injection
Filling
Elastic
waterproof
material
or
Polymer
cement
paste
Epoxy
resin
or
Acrylic
resin
or
Polymer
cement
paste
Polymer
cement
mortar
or
Flexible
epoxy
resin
Elastic
waterproof
material
Sealing
material
Epoxy
resin
(urethane
resin)
(silicon
resin)
(soft)
or
Acrylic
resin
or
Flexible
epoxy
resin
Fig. C.6.2.3 Selection of repair methods
106
Low
High
Covering
Covering
+
Filling
(injection)
Elastic waterproof
material
or
Polymer
cement paste
Elastic waterproof material

or
Flexible epoxy
resin
-
Table C.6.2.1 Repair/strengthening methods depending on the cause of crack

C7
Carbonazation
Interception of
deterioration factor
Control of deterioration
speed
C8
A6
C3
C6
C4
D1-D4
Chloride
attack
Alkali
aggregate
reaction
Frost
damage
Chemical
corrosion
Weathering
Fire
Load
Crack repair (crack covering, injection, filling), surface coating

Impregnation
Cathodic
protection
Crack repair (crack covering, injection, filling)

Surface coating
Impregnation
restraint
Section repair
Removal of
deterioration factor
Improvement of
structural performance
Section repair
Realkalization
Desalination
Impregnation
Strengthening, replacement
3) Repair is executed in some parts to stop the influences to the third parties (provisional repair):
The parts with severe degradation are repaired. In order to secure performance against the
influence to the third parties, treatment of the peeled parts of concrete are executed, and people
are kept outside the area where repair is in progress to avoid the danger due to falling debris. The
area is also secured with safety nets, fence, etc.
6.2.5 Selection of strengthening method
(1) In the case of strengthening concrete structures whose structural strength is decreased due to the
generation of crack, the appropriate method most suitable for the purpose of strengthening is
adopted based on investigation, cause estimation, advance prediction of degradation, and judgment
on the necessity of repair.
(2) The target load-carrying capacity after strengthening shall be determined taking into account the
combination with repair methods and durability during the expected service life by the owner.
[Comments]
(1)
1) Structural capacity evaluation
The purpose of strengthening of a concrete structure due to the generation of cracks is to recover or
raise its dynamic performance and rigidity.
The strength capacity evaluation method is explained below:
(i) Strength calculation of the strengthened member is generally carried out using the standard
specifications. However, selection of an appropriate method to calculate durability is based on the form
of the structure, the target structure, the cross-sectional area, and the dynamic characteristic of the
material used.
The usual strength calculation method is based on several actions, such as bending, axial force, shear
force and torsion. Therefore, it is necessary to confirm whether these actions can conform to the
durability calculation after strengthening and to figure out in advance the feature of the calculation
method to be adopted.
Structural deterioration mostly occurs in the place where there is a stress concentration, such as at the
location with a sudden change in cross-section of a member. For such cases, it is important to use the
FEM analysis that can evaluate the actual phenomenon of the durability calculation with sufficient
accuracy, or to carry out experimental confirmation according to the case.
In the case of statically indeterminate structures, to calculate the strength of member, it is necessary to
consider the influence of secondary stress by prestress, temperature change, drying shrinkage, and creep
of concrete. In the case of temperature crack in mass concrete due to external restriction, the stress is
induced in steel bars. If load is applied in the same direction, the crack width will be increased due to
107
-
the increase in stress in steel. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the influence of temperature stress
when strengthening design is carried out.
Type of damage
Kind of repair
Level of recovery
Provisional
Prolonged life (1)
Prolonged life (2)
Lasting
Deteriorated part
Mortar
Mortar
Coating
Mortar
Impregnation
Coating
Mortar
Coating
Reinforcement corrosion
Chipping/Removal of
deteriorated concrete
Cracked and/or
delaminated part
Entire corroded part
Reinforcement treatment
Removal of floating
rust
Removal of floating rust
Removal of floating rust
Grade 2 clearing
Impregnation treatment
Alkali adding material

Paint-type corrosion inhibition
material
Corrosion protection
Carbonation inhibition
material
Carbonation inhibition material
material
Section recovery
Section repair
material
Section repair material
Surface coating
Carbonation inhibition or
Chloride ion inhibition
material
material
material
Deteriorated
part
No treatment
Surface coating
Mortar
Coating
Mortar
Coating
Carbonation
Chroride-induced
deterioration
Surface concrete treatment
No removal
Cleaning
No removal
Cleaning
No removal
Cleaning
Removal of carbonated
part
Alkali adding material
Section recovery
Surface coating
material
Carbonation inhibition material
material
Surface concrete treatment
No removal
Cleaning
No removal
Cleaning
No removal
Cleaning
Removal of chloride
contaminated part
Paint-type corrosion inhibition

material
Section recovery
Surface coating

material

material

material
Table C.6.2.2 Selection of repair method depending on performance recovery level
108
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Moreover, when loss in cross-sectional area is found due to corrosion of steel in concrete or deficiency
in concrete section is determined, it is necessary to consider the influence of cross-sectional deficiency
of steel and concrete to evaluate the strength calculation. A certain amount of strength can be expected
even after cracking of concrete, but it is good to carry out the strength calculation after confirming it
based on the similar experience or experiment.
(ii) The structural safety performance of the strengthened member is to be confirmed after defining the
strengthening level, the magnitude and direction of load, frequency of load, etc.
One of the deterioration factors that have a bad influence on the durability of concrete structure is
fatigue which occurs due to repeated application of live load. It happens for highway bridges over
which heavy vehicles are crossed. It is known that RC slab having thin slab thickness compared to the
clear span will cave-in due to punching shear failure. That is, bending cracks occur in the RC slab when
vehicles run beyond the design load. And wire-mesh shaped cracks are formed and corner spalling of
concrete are promoted with the increase in the number of vehicles passing over it due to the occurrence
of crack penetration and punching shear failure. Therefore, in the strengthening design, it is important to
predict correctly the magnitude and frequency of live load when it concerns the safety of the structure
over a long period of time.
2) General classification of strengthening methods
The strengthening methods generally used in the civil engineering and the architectural fields are:
replacement of members, increase in member section by overlaying or jacketing, addition of
reinforcement, addition of prestressing, addition of members, etc.
Table C.6.2.3 summarizes standard strengthening methods, which are categorized based on the
objective of strengthening. In practice, the listed strengthening methods are sometimes used in
combination. Strengthening methods and their applications in members are listed in Table C.6.2.4.
3) General strengthening design
Strengthening design of a section or a structural component is performed to ensure that the goal of
strengthening purpose which can be attained after strengthening in consideration of load, restoration
nature, etc. The strengthening design considers the degradation mechanism and degradation prediction,
load conditions, necessary load carrying capacity, the scale of strengthening, environmental conditions,
safety, time necessary for completion, economic efficiency, importance of the structure, and
environment. Based on these, the suitable strengthening method, strengthening material, and
strengthening time are selected.
Table C.6.2.3 Classification of strengthening methods
Strengthening method
For civil structures
For buildings
Member replacement
Replacing method
replacing method
Surface overlaying method
Concrete jacketing method
Concrete jacketing method
Steel plate bonding method
Steel plate bonding method
Continuous fiber sheet bonding method
Continuous fiber sheet bonding method
Steel plate jacketing method
Steel plate jacketing method
Continuous fiber sheet jacketing method
Rebar addition method
Introduction of prestress
External cable method
Addition of members
Member addition method

Beam/girder addition
Bridge pier addition
Member addition method

Steel bracing
External steel bracing
Addition of concrete sections
Bonding and jacketing
109
-
Table C.6.2.4 Example of strengthening methods depending on applicable member

Subject
Individual
members
Outline
Examples
Member replacement
Addition of concrete sections
Bonding and jacketing
Introduction of prestress
Entire
structure
Addition of members
Application member
Beam
Column*1
Slab
Wall
Replacing method
Steel plate or continuous fiber

sheet bonding method
Steel plate or continuous fiber

sheet jacketing method
Rebar addition method
Beam/Girder addition method
Wall/Column addition method

Supporting member addition
method
*1) Including wall type pier

: Applicable, : Applicable but not many experiences
The stress calculation of a reinforced concrete member is carried out based on the structural type and
the dynamic characteristics of the member using a suitable method.
Stress and load action are defined appropriately when the reinforced section and the structure safety of a
component are properly checked.
(i) It is important to comprehensively examine the cause and the degree of crack progress, etc., based on
the crack survey result and select the best strengthening method most suitable for the purpose of
strengthening. With this, economic efficiency is taken into consideration in selecting the strengthening
method that satisfies the purpose of strengthening.
(ii) Moreover, for strengthening, the possible remaining service period of the structure, life cycle cost,
scale of the budget, and the degree of social influence and reparability of the structure must be carefully
examined.
(iii) Strengthening is carried out, if the structure lacks safety or load carrying capacity; demolition of the
structure and proposal for a new structure is regarded as a last measure. Thus, in choosing and adopting
the method most suitable for strengthening, careful examination based on crack survey result, cause
estimation of the crack and the progress prediction of the degradation should be made in order to obtain
effective strengthening effect.
When deterioration mechanism, such as carbonation or chloride attack is specified, it is important to
estimate the progress of deterioration. The strengthening range, scales, periods, etc. are carefully
considered based on the present condition of the structures. If it is predicted that the progress of
degradation is rapid due to severe environmental condition, the decision of strengthening should be
carried out quickly.
(2) Strengthening is principally aimed for recovering or enhancing structural performance of a structure
or its member. Actually strengthening is generally done when serious deterioration is observed;
therefore, durability of expected life span should be considered. For this purpose, combination with
repair methods described in 6.2.4 to inhibit or to enhance durability should be considered based on how
and why such deterioration occurs.
110
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6.3 Repair Method

Suitable methods complying with the objectives should be applied for repair with understanding the
cause of deterioration and damage and characteristics of methods themselves. The following categories
of repair methods are applied:
1) Crack repair method
a. Crack covering method (used to cover cracks only)
b. Injection method
c. Filling method (used when steel reinforcement is not corroded)
2) Section repair method
a. Plaster method
b. Mortar injection method
c. Concrete filling method
d. Spray method
3) Surface coating method
a. Surface coating method (used not only for cracks, but also for entire concrete surfaces)
4) Spalling prevention method
a. Anchor pinning method
b. Fiber sheet covering method
c. Renewal method for external wall by net over
5) Electrochemical repair method
a. Cathodic protection method
b. Desalination method
c. Re-alkalization method
[Comments]
In this Guideline, the primary target of repair is cracks; therefore, methods 3) to 5) are applied together
with methods 1) and/or 2). Methods 3) to 5) may sometimes be used in case of the preventive
maintenance. Repair methods other than those listed here may be selected if their effects are expected to
be adequate.
1) Crack repair method
a. Crack covering method (method that covers only crack)
The crack covering method, as summarized in Fig. C.6.3.1, is applied for improvement of watertightness and durability. This method is applied when the cracks are minute (generally crack width is
equal to or smaller than 0.2 mm). This method has some disadvantages, such as the fact that it is
applicable for crack widths of smaller than 0.2 mm, it does not address the inside of cracks, and it
makes it difficult to follow the propagation of cracks. To improve this situation, first apply a flexible
material or a material that provides no significant bonding with the concrete and covering material, as
explained in Fig. C.6.3.2.
Covering material
Crack
Fig. C.6.3.1 Crack covering method
111
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b. Injection method
The injection method is a method that injects resins or a cementitious material into the crack to improve
water-tightness performance and durability. Until now, the injection method was either manual injection
or injection using a halt style injection machine. However, accuracy of the injection depends on the
level of experience (efficiency) of the worker, control of the injection volume is difficult, and in
the case of a high injection pressure, the resin may spread out along the crack before it gets injected all
the way to the bottom of the crack. Currently, the main repair method using low-pressure injection
consists in performing low-speed and low-pressure (0.4 MPa) injections using an injector as shown in
Fig. C.6.3.3.
Low-pressure and low-speed injection has several benefits; namely it is easy to check the injection
volume, the accuracy of the injection is not influenced by the experience of the worker, and the
resin can be reliably injected into the crack even if the crack width in the deeper parts is as small as 0.05
mm. The standard flow of this injection method is shown in Fig. C.6.3.4.
c. Filling method
This repair method is applied when the crack is comparatively wide (0.5 mm or more) and steel
reinforcement is not corroded. In this method, a U-shape cut is made along the crack path, and then
filled with a suitable repair material.
After cutting a U-shape approximately 10-mm wide along the crack, the crack is repaired by injecting a
filler material such as sealant, permeable epoxy resin, or polymer cement mortar. The U-shape cut is
made along the crack path by using an electro-motion drill with a U-shaped conic diamond bit.
The method is briefly explained in Figs. C.6.3.5 and C.6.3.6. The standard flow of this method is shown
in Fig. C.6.3.7.
Covering material
Isolated material
Crack
Fig. C.6.3.2 Crack covering method for largely progressive crack
Sealant
Pressure
Pressure
Crack
Crack
Pressure
Crack
Pressure
Pressure
Pressure
(a) Injection by rubber
(b) Injection by compressed air (c) Injection by spring
Fig. C.6.3.3 Low-pressure, low-speed injection method
112
-
Start
Investigation of crack
Cleaning at crack position
Setting of pipe for injection

Confirmation of pipe space
Sealing of crack face
Curing of sealing material
Flexible epoxy resin is used
in case of a progressive crack
Injection
Confirmation of amount of injected

material and curing
Removal of pipe
Removal of sealing pipe
End
Fig. C.6.3.4 Standard flow of injection method
Crack
Primer
Flexible epoxy resin
Fig. C.6.3.5 Filling method using flexible epoxy resin
Polymer cement mortar

Sealant
Primer
Sealant
Fig. C.6.3.6 Filling method using sealant
113
-
Start
U-cut along crack path
Cleaning
Application of primer
Insertion of packing material
Packing of packing material
Curing
End
Fig. C.6.3.7 Standard flow of filling method

Reinforcement
Reinforcement must be exposed

In case that chipping reaches
outermost reinforcement
Feather edge must be avoided
Fig. C.6.3.8 Extent of chipping of concrete for section repair method

2) Section repair method
The section repair method is used to restore the damaged part of concrete structure caused by
deterioration due to frost attack, alkali aggregate reaction, carbonation and chloride attack as well as
caused by defects such as reinforcement corrosion and honeycomb.
An example of the section repair method is shown in Fig. C.6.3.8. At first, the concrete behind the
corroded steel reinforcement is removed, and then the rust around the steel reinforcement is chipped and
removed. A corrosion inhibitor is applied on the steel bars, and a primer coat is applied to the concrete.
Finally the removed section is filled with a polymer cement mortar coat, etc.
The flowchart of this method is shown in Fig. C.6.3.9. It is important to follow the points listed below
when steel reinforcement has corroded:
Completely remove the rust on the corroded steel bar.

It is necessary to use additional new reinforcement if the cross sectional loss of reinforcement is
remarkable.
It is necessary to repair even the part around the steel reinforcement where no cracking has yet
114
-
occurred because corrosion often spreads to the uncracked region.

It is necessary to use a flexible repair material if the cracks are in the propagation stage.
An example of section repair method is shown Fig. C.6.3.10. The macro-cell corrosion should be
avoided, as shown in Fig. C.6.3.11, by careful consideration to determine the repaired area.
It is useful to apply a corrosion inhibitor to enhance durability of the repaired part. The corrosion
inhibitor also promises to suppress the macro-cell corrosion current.
The section repair method is divided into a. plaster method, b. mortar injection method, c. concrete
filling method, and d. spray method, depending on the work conditions and the scale of repair.
Start
Chipping of concrete on crack surface
Exposure of reinforcement
Removing rust of reinforcement / Cleaning
Application of corrosion inhibitor for reinforcement
Application of primer on concrete surface
Packing of packing material at defect area of concrete
Curing
End
Fig. C.6.3.9 Standard flow of section repair method
Section repair
material
Reinforcement with
corrosion inhibition
Cutter joint
(10 mm)
Extent of
chipping
Coating material
Chipping behind
reinforcement if
necessary
(a) Plaster method
Air hole
Air hole
Injection
Injection
(b) Mortar injection method
Shooting
machine
Plate
(c) Shotcrete method
Fig. C.6.3.10 Example of section repair method (when reinforcement has corroded)
115
-
Corroded part
Macro-cell corrosion current

Restoration
material
Base concrete
Fig. C.6.3.11 Macro cell corrosion

a. Plaster method
The plaster method is used for small repair areas. Polymer cement mortar or lightweight epoxy resin is
used as filler and is applied using a plaster trowel.
b. Mortar injection method
The mortar injection method is used when the repair area is comparatively large. In this method, a
formwork is made around the repair section and filled with polymer cement mortar or cement mortar
with excellent flowability by using pump.
c. Concrete filling method
When the repair area is large, the concrete filling method is used, in which a highly flowable concrete is
applied.
d. Spray method
The spray method is used when the repair area is comparatively large. There are two spraying methods:
the first one is a wet method, whereby cross-sectional restoration material that has been mixed by
kneading beforehand is sprayed on. The other one is a dry method, whereby powder and water or an
admixture liquid is sprayed during application by a special type of spray machine.
3) Surface coating method
a. Surface coating method (Used not just for cracks, but also for entire concrete surface)
The surface coating method suppresses degradation and improves durability performance by coating the
surface of the concrete structure using resin or polymer cement material to stop the degradation factors
(water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, salinity, etc.).
First, all laitance or fouling is removed from the concrete surface using a disk sander, sandblaster, high
pressure water cleaning, etc. Then primer and putty are applied accordingly, followed by an
intermediate coat consisting of the main material, and lastly, a finishing coat. For higher resistance
against degradation factors it is necessary to increase the painting frequency, eliminate pin-hole defects,
and increase the film thickness. The section repair method is to be implemented beforehand if there is
any defect and damage in the concrete. In addition to the above-mentioned application materials, the
surface coating materials also include moldings in the broader sense of the term (panel, anti-corrosion
shuttering, film, etc.).
An example of repair work done using the surface coating method is shown in Fig. C.6.3.12.
Base concrete
Restoration material
Substrate treatment material (primer)
Finishing material
(final coat)
Unevenness adjusting material (putty)

Principal material (intermediate coat)
Fig. C.6.3.12 Example of surface coating method
116
-
4) Spalling prevention method

The spalling prevention method is a method for improving performance against influence to the third
parties due to the peeling off concrete cover, mortar pieces, etc. This is a countermeasure performed
after removing the delaminated concrete cover and mortar by using a hammer and after conducting
appropriate repair, such as the section repair or some other methods.
a. Anchor pinning method
The methods used for repairing pop-outs and peeling of the finish mortar layer of a building are
epoxy resin injection on part of the anchorage pinning as shown in Fig. C.6.3.13, epoxy resin
injection on the entire anchorage pinning as shown in Fig. C.6.3.14, and polymer cement slurry
injection on the entire anchorage pinning. For large-scale improvement to prevent spalling, the external
wall compound improvement method, whereby a reinforced compound with anchor pin and network
(vinyl fiber, glass fiber, polypropylene fiber, aramid fiber, etc.) is applied on the finish layer.
Epoxy resin injection method on part of anchorage pinning
The mortar coat can spall as the result of strokes of the usual level, and in order to prevent this, an
anchor pin with adequate fixation by epoxy resin is applied. This is done as a provisional method in
which the float or peeling area is less than 0.25 m2. Fig. C.6.3.15 shows the execution process of epoxy
injection with anchor pinning method.
Epoxy resin injection method on entire anchorage pinning
The mortar coat can spall as the result of strokes of the usual level. In order to avoid this, anchor pin
with epoxy resin are used and implement the injection infilling method with epoxy resin. This method is
often used when the float or peeling is less than 1.0 mm and the float or peeling area is larger than 0.25
m2.
Polymer cement slurry injection method on entire anchorage pinning
The mortar coat can spall as the result of strokes of the usual level. In order to avoid this, apply fixation
by anchor pin with adequate fixation by epoxy resin, and implement the injection filling method with
polymer cement slurry. This method is often used when the float or peeling is less than 1.0 mm and the
float or peeling area is larger than 0.25 m2.
Positioning of pinning
Marking
Punch of pinning hole
Mortar
Floating
part
Drill
float
Epoxy resin injection for

anchor pin fixation
Epoxy resin
Punch
Pinning
Injection
apparatus
Pinning
Anchor
pin
Fig. C.6.3.13 Epoxy resin injection method on part of anchorage pinning
117
-
Positioning of pinning
Marking
Mortar
Floating
part
Drill
float
Epoxy resin injection for

anchor pin fixation
Punch
Position of pinning
Mortar
Injection
apparatus
Pinning
Anchor pin
Marking of hole
Punching of epoxy resin injection hole
Epoxy resin
Injection hole
Injection apparatus
Punch of injection hole
Pinning hole
Fig C.6.3.14 Epoxy resin injection method on entire anchorage pinning
b. Fiber sheet adhesive method

This method is employed to prevent spalling of the degraded concrete cover under a bridge floor
(overhang floor), an outer side of a high wall, an inner surface of a tunnel, etc. This repair method is
executed with the similar procedure to the surface covering method. This repair method ensures smooth
performance by strengthening the coating layer with the addition of various fiber sheet networks (vinyl
fiber, glass fiber, carbon fiber, aramid fiber, etc.) through impregnation with epoxy resin to stick on the
concrete surface. An example of this method is shown in Fig. C.6.3.16.
c. New renewal method for external wall by net over
This method is used to prevent the spalling. The finish layer is reinforced with the anchor pin and net.
This method is used for a large-scale overall repair. Anchor pins, washers, nets, bonding materials, etc.
are used for the constituent materials. An example is shown in Fig C.6.3.17.
5) Electrochemical repair method
The electrochemical repair method is implemented by supplying direct current to steel (steel
reinforcement, prestressing tendon, structural steel, etc.) in concrete from the anode material. The
appropriate method should be selected not from the viewpoint of crack width but the cause of crack or
expected effects. In particular the following three methods in this section are not intended for direct
crack repair. When cracks already occur, therefore, crack repair and/or section repair are required before
applying the electrochemical repair method. Furthermore, when spalling and/or delamination of cover
concrete occurs, restoration of the deteriorated portion by section repair method should be carried out as
a pretreatment.
118
-
Drilling
Cleaning
Inserting anchor pin

with injection hole
Driving pin
Enlarging the tip of

anchor pin
Injection by handoperated apparatus
Percussion rod
Filling injection hole

with epoxy putty
Fig. C.6.3.15 Epoxy resin injection method on entire anchorage pinning (with injection hole)
Base concrete
Continuous fiber sheet
Protective material (layer)
Fig. C.6.3.16 Fiber sheet adhesive method
119
-
Existing finish layer

Unevenness adjusting layer
Net reinforcing layer
Mortar and resin layer
Base concrete
Straddle type anchor pin
Fig. C.6.3.17 New renewal method for external wall by net over
Table C.6.3.1 Electrochemical anti-corrosion methods and application examples
Cathodic
protection
method
Desalination
method
Re-alkalization
method
Electrodeposition
Atmosphere
Splash
Tidal
Submerged
Condition
Land
Environmental
conditions
Marine
Environment
method
Structural
member
RC
PC
Newly-built or
already existed
Newly-built structure
Already existing structure
Note) : Applicable, : Examination needed, -: Not applicable
The application of this method is difficult when the resistance between the inner steel and the outer
anode is very high due to the presence of a surface coating with high insulation, such as epoxy resin
coating, polymer rich cement mortar, etc., used for restoration. In such a case, the high electric
insulation must be removed before application of direct current.
Examples of the application of the electrochemical repair method are presented in Table C.6.3.1. It can
be noted that this Table covers general matters of these methods.
a. Cathodic protection method
This method can be roughly divided into an impressed current system and a galvanic anode system.
Table C.6.3.2 summarizes the types of anode according to their shapes, materials, and power supply
systems. For practical application, environmental conditions, installation cost, service life of the
equipment, etc., should be carefully considered. Examples of those two systems are shown in Fig.
120
-
C.6.3.18.
In the impressed current system, an anode is placed on the surface of concrete with a conductive overlay
and a direct current of approximately 10 to 30 mA/m2 is passed in the concrete. On the other hand, in
the galvanic anode system, a galvanic cell is created between steel reinforcement and the external anode,
which has a negative potential with respect to the steel reinforcement. In this case, the anodic material is
oxidized and produces electricity that flows toward the steel reinforcement in the concrete. With the
supply of an anticorrosive current, the corrosion of steel reinforcement is suppressed as long as the
current is supplied. For protection, it is necessary to shift the potential of the steel reinforcement in the
negative direction by 100 mV or more. After selection and installation of an anode material that can
resists continuous energization, it is important to confirm that the anticorrosive current is appropriately
flowing in the system.
Table C.6.3.2 Summary of cathodic protection method
System of anode
Plane anode system
Anode setting method
Type of anode
To control corrosion all over the surface,

a plane anode is set.
Titanium mesh
Conductible paint
Conductible mortar
Titanium spray, etc.
Impressed current system
Zinc plate
Zinc spray, etc.
Linear anode system
A linear anode is set at regular intervals

for corrosion control.
Point anode system
A rod anode is inserted and set in the

shape of a point for corrosion control.
Overlay
Power source system
Galvanic anode system
Titanium grid
Titanium ribbon mesh,
etc.
Titanium rod, etc.
Zinc rod, etc.
Galvanic anode system
Anode
Electric power unit
Concrete
Protective current
Reinforcement
(a) Current impression system

Sacrifice anode
Flow of protective current
Restoration material
Base concrete
(b) Galvanic anode system (spot anode)
Fig. C.6.3.18 Cathodic protection method
121
-
b. Desalination method
The desalination method is a repair method for chloride-induced deterioration. As shown in Fig.
C.6.3.19, a temporary anode with an electrolytic solution, such as Ca(OH)2, Li3BO3, etc., is attached on
the concrete surface. A direct current is passed for a period of around 8 weeks. The applied current
forces the chloride ions to move to the concrete surface and finally the desalination objective is obtained.
After desalination, the chloride concentration around steel reinforcement is checked and if it is lower
than the chloride threshold value of steel corrosion in concrete, the desalination process is terminated. It
is necessary to apply the surface coating method after removal of the temporary anode if there is the
possibility of chloride ingress from the outside in the future.
There is a possibility of hydrogen embrittlement in the process of desalination; therefore, it is necessary
to investigate the applicability carefully in the case of prestressed concrete structures.
c. Re-alkalization method
The re-alkalization method is a repair method for carbonated concrete.
In this method, as shown in Fig. C.6.3.20, a temporary anode with alkali solution, such as K2CO3, is
attached on the surface of the concrete. A direct current of 1-2 A/m2 as standard is passed between the
anode and the steel reinforcement for 1 to 2 weeks. The current forces the diffusion of alkaline solution
toward the steel reinforcement.
The associated chemical reaction in the case of potassium carbonate as an alkaline solution is given in
Equation C.6.1. The progress of corrosion stops if the pH of the concrete around the steel
reinforcement reaches 10.7. Upon confirmation of this situation, the temporary anode can be removed.
If the concrete surface is washed with rainwater, a surface coating is applied to prevent the diffusion of
the alkaline solution that has permeated the concrete.
K2CO3+CO2+H2O2KHCO3
(C.6.1)
Because of the possibility of hydrogen embrittlement similar to the desalination method, this method
should be examined carefully before being applied in prestressed concrete structures. Depending on the
type of electrolytic solution, there is a possibility of occurrence or acceleration of alkali-aggregate
reaction. Therefore, comprehensive examination is necessary before application to the structures.
Reinforcement
(Internal electrode)
Electrolyte solution
External electrode
Cl-
Concrete
Cl-
Cl-
Electric power unit
Fig. C.6.3.19 Desalination method
122
Closeup
-
Alkaline solution
Reinforcement
(Internal electrode)
External electrode
Alkaline solution
Alkaline solution
Concrete
Alkaline solution
Electric power unit
Fig. C.6.3.20 Re-alkalization method
123
Closeup
-
6.4 Strengthening Methods

In the case of strengthening concrete structures, the method most suitable for the purpose of
strengthening is to be adopted based on the appropriate understandings of the strengthening method and
used materials. In this case, the load carrying capacity of the member (or the structure), the conditions
for the strengthening works, and the environmental conditions should be considered.
In this section, the strengthening methods are classified into five categories and their characteristics and
important points are introduced.
The five categories of strengthening methods are as follows:
1) Member replacement
a. Replacing method
2) Addition of concrete sections
a. Surface overlaying method
b. Concrete jacketing method
3) Bonding and jacketing
a. Steel plate bonding method
b. Continuous fiber sheet bonding method
c. Steel plate jacketing method
d. Continuous fiber sheet jacketing method
e. Rebar addition method
4) Introduction of prestress
a. External cable method
5) Addition of members
a. Member addition method
[Comments]
There are various strengthening methods as shown in 1) to 5). The most suitable method is different
according to the level of carrying capacity after the strengthening or to the purpose of recovering or
upgrading. Also, the environment of the construction site should be considered.
In this section, the performance or characteristics of the strengthening methods shown above and the
important points to make the methods effective are introduced. For introduction, although the basic
principals of the methods are the same in the fields of civil engineering and architectural fields, the
member size of the structure, the level of the strengthening, details of the member are different in each
field, so the description of the methods are written separately in each field. Also, in the field of
application, the methods are sometimes combined.
The strengthening is also adopted for the severely deteriorated structures, therefore the expected
remaining service life should be considered. Some repair methods shown in section 6.3 might be
selected to achieve the expected remaining service life based on the causes of deterioration.
1) Member replacement
a. Replacement method
This method is adopted for the seriously damaged members with the cracks caused by chloride attack or
other causes. In this method, the existed members are removed and new members which have required
load carrying capacity are constructed. Sometimes, pre-casted members are used as new members. An
example of this method is shown in Fig. C.6.4.1.
In practice, the effect of taking off the members should be checked. Due to the removal of a member,
the safety of the adjacent member may reduce and therefore temporary countermeasures by adopting
supports can be taken.
124
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To ensure the unity between the existed

and newly constructed members, the
joints should be carefully designed and
constructed.
For
removing
the
deteriorated concrete members, some
methods which remove only concrete
and keep steel bars intact or some
methods which cut off the deteriorated
members, are usually adopted. Even in
the case of cut off methods, some
necessary length of steel bars is to be
kept to ensure good joints between the
old and new members. The chipping
hammer were used to remove the
concrete, but it was recognized that the
mechanical methods like using chipping hammers were tend to damage the bond between the existed
and new concrete. Then, the high pressure water washing is recognized to be needed to clean up the
joints after removing the concrete by high pressure watering machine. Also nowadays, water-jet(WJ,
water removal) is adopted to remove the concrete instead of mechanical methods in many occasions.
2) Addition of concrete sections
a. Surface overlaying method
Surface overlaying method is a method to strengthen a member by increasing the section of the member.
This method is mainly adopted to slabs, beams and wall members by bonding concrete or RC to
increase the section of the member.
a-1. Application in the field of civil engineering
An upper surface overlay method and a lower surface overlay method are introduced.
(i) Upper surface overlay method
The upper surface overlay method is a general term that covers two construction methods, namely the
upper slab surface overlay with steel fiber concrete method and the upper surface RC overlay with
reinforced concrete method.
The upper slab surface overlay method is designed to improve punching shear capacity by casting steel
fiber concrete to thicken the slab after cutting and grinding the concrete upper surface, and the upper
surface RC overlay method places reinforcing steel to improve punching shear capacity and bending
capacity.
In the case of the upper slab surface overlay method, the control of traffic is needed, so to shorten the
control period, super high early strength cement is often used.
As shown in Fig. C.6.4.2, the upper slab surface overlay method is mainly aimed to improve the
shearing capacity of slabs and also to improve the bending capacity due to the accompanying rise of the
neutral axis.
On the o ther hand, the upper slab surface RC overlay method is designed to improve the negative
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bending capacity against the negative moment, which is sometimes produced in the main beam of the
middle fulcrum portions, main slab and cantilever slab part of a continuous bridge, by placing steel bars
in the cross-section as shown in Fig. C.6.4.3.
In the case of the upper slab surface overlay method, thin steel fiber concrete (6 cm thick) is cast, after
removing the existing asphalt pavement and slab concrete on the upper surface and grinding the surface
by steel shot blast or water jet. In the case of the upper surface RC overlay method, after the same
treatment as shown above, steel bars are arranged and then steel fiber concrete (10 cm thick) is placed.
In these cases, it is very important to make a good bond between the old concrete and the new steel fiber
concrete. It will increase the shearing and bending capacities of the strengthened beams.
In the production of steel fiber concrete, the following items should be considered: Use of high early
strength cement (rapid setting and hardening cement). Use of low slump concrete to reduce cracks
due to drying shrinkage (about 5 cm slump). Mixing steel fiber to increase the strengthening effect
aft er construction.
Considering the above items, it is usual to use a large-size batching plant for fiber reinforced concrete.
Then the steel fiber reinforced concrete produced in the concrete plant is placed, compacted and
finished. If the time required for the concrete to harden is not severely limited, it is better to use high
early strength cement instead very high early strength cement.
(ii) Lower surface overlay method
The lower surface overlay method is mainly aimed to improve bending capacity. The first step is to seal
harmful cracks with the injection method. And the second step is to clean the lower surface by shot blast.
Next, reinforcing material such as steel bars are arranged and then high adhering mortar is applied by
plaster finishing or spraying method. The examples of this method are shown in Figs. C.6.4.4 and
C.6.4.5.
The lower surface overlay method is mainly applied to strengthening slabs. As the overlay materials,
polymer cement mortar and steel fiber mixed very high early strength mortar are used.
Up to now, the lower surface overlay method using polymer cement mortar has been usually applied to
the sections with 6 mm reinforcing steel bars, and the lower surface overlay method using steel fiber
mortar has been applied to the sections with 10 mm or larger reinforcing steel bars.
In the lower surface overlay method, manual work with plaster method has been usually applied, but
recently spraying method is mainly applied to make the work easier and economical.
Moreover, the lower surface overlay method is used to increase the bending capacity as well as shear
capacity. But during applying this method to the slab which lost the shear capacity, it is better to
consider the combined use of a partly replacing method.
Also, it is necessary to prevent water leakage to the lower surface of the slab by applying a surface antiwater coat beforehand when the lower surface overlay method is used.
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a-2. Application in the field of architecture (buildings)

(i) Floor slab overlaying method
In Fig. C.6.4.6, an example of floor slab strengthening by RC overlaying method is shown. This method
is to arrange reinforcing steel bars on the upper surface or lower surface and place concrete or mortar to
fabricate overlay and strengthen the slab. The deteriorated surface should be overlaid by new
reinforcing steel bar with adequate cover concrete. This strengthening method is applied to the slabs, for
which deterioration is so serious that the structural safety is not enough, or the ones for which service
load is increased significantly (by the change of the usage of the structure) that consequences the
generation of very wide cracks, large deflection, and significant vibration. This method is effective to
increase or restore the bending capacity and stiffness of the slab because of the increasing the depth of
the section.
The procedures of the method are shown below:
If necessary, crack repair, anti-corrosion treatment of rebars and the section restoration should be
done before overlaying.
Surface treatment of the old concrete.
Embed post anchors for the new reinforcing steel bars.
Embed main reinforcement for the new RC slab.
In the case of lower surface overlaying, the formwork should be placed.
Placing concrete or injecting non-shrinkage type mortar.
The important point in this method is to ensure the sufficient bond between the old concrete and new
one. For this, the surface texturing of the old concrete should be sufficient and to ensure the shear transf
er there should be sufficient shear reinforcement.
(ii) Beam overlaying method

In Fig. C.6.4.7, an example of beam strengthening by RC overlaying method is shown. This method is
to embed reinforcing steel bars outside the existed beam and the outside of the beam is overlaid by
concrete or mortar. This method is classified into two sub divisions. One is as shown in Fig. C.6.4.7 (a),
three sides of the beam are overlaid and the other is as shown in Fig. C.6.4.7 (b), four sides of the beam
are overlaid.
In the later case (four sides overlaid), the stirrups can be closed or overlapped and the shear carrying
capacity is assured.
This method is adopted in the cases for which the deterioration is so serious that the structural
performance (especially, shearing capacity, bending capacity, stiffness, etc.) is reduced significantly or
in the cases for which the load is so increased (because of the change in usage) that lead to large crack
widths, large deflection and/or excessive vibration, etc. This method is effective to increase and restore
the shearing capacity and deformability. And also by increasing the reinforcing steel bars, the bending
capacity and the stiffness of the beam are also increased and/or restored.
The procedures of this method are as follows:
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If necessary, crack repair, anti-corrosion treatment of rebar and section restoration should be
Surface texturing of the old concrete.
Placing shear reinforcement.
Embed the main reinforcement for the new RC beam.
Embed the stirrups for the new RC beam.
Placing new formworks.
Placing concrete or injecting non-shrinkage mortar.
one. For this, the surface texturing of the old concrete should be sufficient and to ensure the shear
transfer there should be sufficient shear reinforcement. Also, for the sufficient anchorage of the main
reinforcement for the new beam, new post anchors should be embedded.
(iii) Wall overlay method
In Fig. C.6.4.8, an example of wall strengthening by RC overlaying method is shown. This method is to
or mortar.
This method is adopted in the case when the deterioration is so serious that the structural performance
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(especially, shearing capacity and stiffness) is reduced significantly. This method is effective to increase
and restore the shearing capacity and stiffness.
The procedures of the method are as follows:
If necessary, crack repair, anti-corrosion treatment of rebars and section restoration should be
Embed post-installed mechanical anchors.
Embed the main reinforcement in the extended region of the section.
Injecting concrete by pressure.
When there is a cold joint or space between the existing concrete and new concrete, resin
injection will be needed.
one. For this, the existing wall and new concrete should be jointed with anchor bolt or post installed
mechanical anchors. Also, the thickness of the new concrete should be sufficient partly because it is
difficult to work with small thickness.
b. Concrete jacketing method
The concrete jacketing method is a method of strengthening of the independent member by jacketing
the section of the member with reinforcement and concrete or mortar.
b-1. Application in the field of civil engineering
The concrete jacketing method is a method of increasing the required performance of the existing
member by embedding reinforcement and concrete around the existing member with sufficient bond
between the existing and new concrete.
The concrete jacketing method is classified into RC jacketing method, PC jacketing method and precast
panel jacketing method.
This method is usually adopted as a common seismic strengthening method for independent column or
wall. During the selection of the strengthening method, it is advisable to compare this method with steel
plate jacketing method and FRP sheet jacketing method from the viewpoints of the type of member,
required performance, construction condition, economy, etc.
RC jacketing method is usually planed with the thickness over 25 cm as shown in Fig. C.6.4.9. In the
case of PC jacketing method, this method is not only effective as the seismic strengthening of existed
concrete columns but also effective to the cracks caused by alkali aggregate reaction by the confining
effect.
In the structural design of the concrete jacketing method, the section is assumed to be completely
bonded as the other strengthening method.
The procedures of the method are as follows:
Surface treatment (blast treatment): If necessary, crack repair, anti-corrosion treatment of rebars
and section restoration should be done before overlaying.
Embed the main reinforcement (drilling holes for anchors, resin injection), embed the hoop
lateral tie (flare welding: the length should be over 10d in the case of one side welding (d:
diameter of the tie).
Placing and curing concrete (the concrete often contains expansive admixture and plasticizer).
b-2 Application in the field of architecture (buildings)
In Fig. C.6.4.10, an example of column strengthening by RC jacketing method is shown. By this
method, 10 15 cm thick jacketing is applied around the existing column by using reinforced concrete
or mortar. As shown in (a) and (b) of Fig. C6.4.10, this method is divided into two sub divisions, one
uses the welded wire mesh as reinforcement and the other uses welded hoop as reinforcement. As filling
material, concrete, mortar injection, and mortar spraying are usually used. There are also various
combinations of reinforcement and matrix, and various construction methods.
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This method is adopted in the cases for which the deterioration is so serious that the structural
performance (especially, shearing capacity, bending capacity, compression capacity against axial load,
stiffness and deformability) is reduced significantly. This method is effective to increase and restore the
shearing capacity, the axial loading capacity and deformability altogether by the reinforcement and
confining effects of jacketing. Also, shown in (c) of Fig. C6.4.10, by embedding the new main
reinforcement and anchoring them into the slab, the bending capacity and stiffness can be restored or
increased.
If necessary, crack repair, anti-corrosion treatment of rebars and section restoration should be
done before strengthening.
Embed reinforcement (welded mesh or welded hoop).
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Place new formworks.

Inject or spray of filling (matrix) materials (concrete or mortar).
The important point of this method is that when the objective is only to increase the deformation
capacity of the column, there should be a slit at the bottom part of the RC jacket as shown in (d). This
slit can prevent the reduction of the effectiveness of the method.
The welding of the welded hoop should be flare welding, and the welding length should be more than
5d (d is the diameter of the hoop) in the case of two side welding and more than 10d in the case of one
side welding. Also for selection of the filling (matrix) material, the thickness of the jacket should be
considered. Especially, in the case of concrete, the maximum size of the aggregate should be considered.
The detailed structure and the calculation method are shown in the guideline of Japan Building Disaster
Prevention Association.
3) Bonding and Jacketing
a. Steel plate bonding method
The steel plate bonding method is a method designed to improve bending and shearing capacity by
bonding a steel plate on the tensile side of a concrete member by pressurized injection of adhesive
material in spaces (pores) between the steel plate and concrete so that the steel plate and the existing
member are bonded together. In this method, the thickness of the steel plate is larger compared to the
continuous fiber sheet bonding method, also the strengthening effect will be very large.
Remove the laitance and/or dust and clean the concrete surface by using disk sander or by blast.
Set anchor bolts for bonding steel plates.
Set steel plates with a planned distance to the concrete surface.
Inject adhesive agent between the concrete and steel plate to be bonded perfectly.
In this case, the adhesive agent penetrates into the cracks of existing concrete member and control the
movement (open and close) of the cracks. In general, epoxy resin is widely used as the adhesive agent.
An example of steel plate bonding is shown in Fig. C.6.4.11.
This method is mainly used to the RC slabs of a steel bridge and to RC beams or girders. In the case of
the beams of concrete bridges, steel strips are bonded to strengthen the bending capacity against positive
bending moment. Also, sometimes steel plates are bonded to the webs of a girder or beam to strengthen
the shear capacity.
In the design with this steel plate bonding method, the cross section is assumed to be completely bonded
as a composite section. And the steel plates are treated as the reinforcement in the RC design. However,
the dead load is already present during strengthening works and will not be effective against it, but it
will be effective against the working load after the strengthening. So in calculating the stress in concrete
or steel, the stress before the strengthening with the existing section and after the strengthening with the
composite section should be separately calculated and added up.
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An example of strengthening by this method is shown in Fig. C.6.4.12. An example of the arrangement
of anchor holes, injection pipes and joints is shown in Fig. C.6.4.13.
In the case when the deterioration of the concrete is very significant and the strength is also decreased
significantly, the effect of this method cannot be expected, so the partial replacement of the slab should
be considered. Also, by applying this steel plate bonding method to the slabs, the prevention of the
leakage of water through the bottom surface of concrete is inevitable.
An example of this steel plate bonding method to a beam is shown in Fig. C.6.4.14. An example for
salb is shown in Fig. C.6.4.15. In this method, the damaged beams or slabs are attached with thin (3.2 12 mm thick) steel plate, and then the spaces between the existing concrete and newly assembled steel
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plate are filled with injected resin or non shrink type mortar (injection method) or filled with resin by
pressure (pressure method).
This method is adopted in the case when the reinforcing steel bars are severely corroded and the
concrete covers are delaminated, so the structural performances (especially, shearing capacity, bending
capacity) are decreased significantly. Also, this method is adopted in the cases for which the structure is
overloaded due to the change in usage and there are excessive cracks and deflections.
This method can strengthen the shear capacity by bonding steel plates on the web and can strengthen the
bending capacity by bonding steel plates on the lower surface of a beam. In the case of a slab, this
method can increase or restore the bending capacity by bonding steel plates on the upper side or lower
side of the slab.
The procedures of the methods injection method and the pressure method are shown below:
<Injection method>
If necessary, crack repair, anti-corrosion treatment of rebars and/or section restoration should be
Clean and level the concrete surface.
Set anchor bolts.
Fix steel plates.
Seal around the fixed steel plates.
Inject epoxy resin or non-shrink type mortar between the steel plates and existing concrete
surface.
<Pressure method>
If necessary, crack repair, anti-corrosion treatment of rebars and/or section restoration should be
Clean and level the concrete surface.
Set anchor bolts.
Apply epoxy resin on the surface and bond the steel plates by pressure.
Fix steel plates.
To prevent the delamination of the steel plates, it is recommended to use post-installed mechanical
anchors. When injecting the epoxy resin or non-shrink type mortar, the air inside the space should be
removed by air holes.
For the structural design, in the case of increasing shear capacity, the steel plates can be converted into
stirrups and in the case of increasing the bending capacity of beams or slabs, the depth of the section
should be conservatively calculated with the conventional assumption that plane sections remain plane.
Also, the bonding length of the steel plates should be sufficient considering the extra transfer length.
The bond strength which is needed to calculate the transfer length should be determined by
experimental works or by other means.
b. Continuous fiber sheet bonding method
The continuous fiber sheet bonding method is a method to improve bending capacity by bonding
continuous fiber sheets on the surface of concrete where tensile stress or shear stress is large. The sheets
are strengthened by placing continuous fiber sheets of FRP in one or two directions or impregnate resins
into these sheets.
In Fig. C.6.4.16, an example of a section applied this continuous fiber sheet bonding method is shown.
b-1. Application in the field of civil engineering
The continuous fiber sheet bonding method has the following features:
Since continuous fiber sheets are lightweight, and since they are easy to form on-site, work can
be performed even in places where workspace is limited.
This method can be applied for strengthening concrete structures, such as those located in a
marine environment, due to its excellent durability.
As the strengthening effects, crack control and increase of load carrying capacity can be
expected. And the effects can be controlled by the number of the sheet layers.
This method enables observation of the progress of cracks by sticking continuous fiber sheets in
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the form of a lattice at regular intervals, and also avoiding stagnant water in members.
Since the increase in cross-section rigidity is small, this method is not suited as a stiffness
improvement measure.
The members in which this method can be applied are RC slabs, girders and beams, same as in the case
of steel plate bonding method. By bonding continuous fiber sheets on the tensile side of the member
under bending moment, the stress reduction and/or redistribution effect can be expectedAlso, by
bonding the sheets on the web of girders or beams, the shear capacity can be increased.
As for the ultimate load carrying capacity, the sheets might be delaminated just before failure, and
therefore the strengthening effect cannot be expected.
The design concept is similar to those adopted in the case of steel plate bonding method.
In Fig. C.6.4.17, an example applied on a PC box girder bridge is shown. In the case of PC box girder
bridge, it is difficult to adopt steel plate bonding method because steel plates are too heavy and the place
is too narrow to carry steel plates inside the box girder. For such a case, the good points of continuous
fiber bonding method (light weight of the fiber, easy to work, etc.) can be fully utilized.
The procedures of the continuous fiber sheet bonding method are as follows:
Expose a good surface for bonding by removing the deleterious substances (laitance, dust and
etc.) using a disk sander.
Edging is required at the corners.
On the concrete surface, application of primer, adhesive and continuous fiber sheets are several
times layered.
Final top coating is applied.
Different types of fiber sheets, such as carbon fiber sheet and aramid fiber sheet are adopted. As primers
and impregnated resin, epoxy resin is commonly used. The compatibility with the kind fiber should be
checked. Also, in the case when the unit weight of the fiber sheet is large, the impregnation ability of the
resin should be checked.
The epoxy resin, which is commonly used as impregnated bonding resin, has poor resistance against
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ultra violet ray. So the top coat should be strong against weathering. However, inside the box girder,
there is no ultra violet ray and therefore the top coating is unnecessary.
b-2. Application in the field of architecture (buildings)
In Fig. C.6.4.18, an example of application of continuous fiber sheet bonding in a beam is shown.
The procedures of the continuous fiber sheet bonding method in the field of architecture are as follows:
Before applying this method, repair of the damaged concrete is necessary.
As shown in this figure, stripes of the continuous fiber sheet are bonded to the sides and/or lower
surface of the beam by epoxy resin (U-shape).
The anchorages of the sheets are constructed at the sides of a beam or lower surface of a slab by
anchorage devices or post-installed mechanical anchors.
When the bending capacity is increased, the axial directed fiber stripes are applied under the Ushaped fiber stripes. Also, stripes are applied on the upper surface, if necessary.
This method also can be applied for strengthening of walls and floor slabs.
This method is adopted when the structural performances is reduced significantly due to the heavy
corrosion of steel bars in concrete that causes spalling off cover concrete of beams, walls and floor slabs.
This method can be used for the cases subjected to overloading due to change in usage which results in
large deflection and severe wide cracks. Namely, this method is effective for restoration or increasing
the shear capacity, bending capacity and deformability of for a beam, shear capacity of a wall as well as
bending capacity of a slab.
The procedures of this method for a beam are as follows:
Before applying this method, repair of the cracks, anti-corrosion treatment of the reinforcement
and restoration of the section should be done if necessary.
Place post-installed mechanical anchors.
Level the surface of and edge the corners of the beam.
Apply primer on the surface of concrete.
Bond the continuous fiber sheets.
Set anchor plates.
The important matter in this method is to anchor the sheets by some appropriate method. This is
different in the case of columns in which the sheet can be anchored by a closed loop. The other
important matters are similar to the cases of 3) d.
c. Steel plate jacketing method
Steel plate jacketing method is often adopted for the seismic strengthening of columns and walls similar
way like concrete jacketing method. Especially in the cases where the job spaces are narrow and limited,
this method is preferred. Also, in the cases of large piers, this method is adopted to reduce the dead
weight of the strengthening materials.
c-1. Application in the field of civil engineering
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This method is effective to strengthen the bending capacity, shear capacity and stiffness.
The thicknesses of steel plates are generally 6 mm, 9 mm and 12 mm. As shown in Fig. C.6.4.19, the
steel plate structures have generally four parts. The size of one piece of steel plate is planned to
minimize the number of joints, particularly in the case of structures with heavy loads. However, in the
cases where only a 50 kN crane is available, the weight is planned to be 400 kg per one piece, and
where cranes are not available the weight of each steel plate to be about 150 kg.
The joints are made in the field by welding or high tension bolts. The spaces between the concrete and
steel plates are filled with epoxy resin or non shrink type mortar. From the economical viewpoints, non
shrink type mortar (with 30 mm welding joint or 40 mm high tension bolts) is usually used.
During application, the concrete surface is treated properly (clean and leveled) like in the case of
concrete jacketing method. Then the steel plate is set by anchors and the plates are welded at the joint.
As shown in Fig. C.6.4.20, non shrink type mortar is injected form the lower side to make bond
between the concrete and steel plates. Finally the steel plates are applied with some anti-corrosion
treatment. In atmospheric condition, the surface is often painted or galvanized, and in underground
condition, the surface is often covered by cement polymer mortar or concrete overlaid.
c-2. Application in the field of architecture (buildings)
An example of strengthening a column by steel plate jacketing method is shown in Fig. C.6.4.21. As
shown in figure, thin steel plates are jacketed around an existed column and the space between the
column and steel plates is filled with mortar. There are two sub divisions of this method. One is as
shown in (a) and (b) of Fig. C.6.4.21. In this case, columns are jacketed by thin steel plates (4.5 9 mm
thick) and the spaces are fulfilled with non shrink type mortar or highly flowable mortar. The other is as
shown in (c) of Fig. C.6.4.21 Four angle plates are fastened at each of the four corners of a column and
steel plates are welded to make jacket and then filled the space with mortar as before. Also to improve
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ductility (to prevent bucking of the steel plates), at the bottom or top of the strengthened columns, slits
of 30 mm width are sometimes placed.
On the other hand, for applying this method to beams, steel plates are jacketed from the lower surface of
the beam and anchored to the bolts which are set through the upper slab of the beam. Then the spaces
between the steel plates and the existed beam are filled with injected resin or pressured mortar.
This method is adopted when the structural performances (shear capacity, axial loading capacity and
deformation capacity) are reduced significantly due to severe deterioration. This method is effective for
restoration or increasing the shear capacity, axial loading capacity and deformability performance for a
column, shear capacity and deformation capacity for a beam at the same time.
The procedures of this method for a column are as follows:
Before applying this method, repair of the cracks, anti-corrosion treatment of the reinforcement
and restoration of the section should be done if necessary.
Surface texturing of the existed column surface.
Insert steel plates and hoop ties.
Inject mortar in the case of steel plates and apply mortar in the case of hoop tie.
In the case of using rectangular steel
plates (or other shape), the distance
between the column and steel plates
should be 30 mm or more to fill the gap
by mortar without any major difficulty.
Also the thickness of the steel plates
should be more than 4.5 mm, and the
radius of the steel corner should be more
than 3 times of the thickness of the plate.
For the corrosive environment, corrosion
prevention measures should be taken.
d. Continuous fiber sheet jacketing
method
has
many
practical
applications
(experiences) on seismic strengthening (or
retrofitting) such as concrete jacketing
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method and steel plate jacketing method. For strengthening against bending capacity, that this method is
not effective in the lower parts of columns and walls. This method is effective to strengthen the shear
capacity and ductility of the members.
An example of this method with carbon fiber sheets is shown in Fig. C.6.4.22.
d-1. Application in the field of civil engineering
This method is most effective and applicable in the case where the job spaces are narrow or in the case
of chloride attack, as stated in the continuous fiber sheet bonding method. The procedures are same as
those of continuous fiber sheet bonding method. As the standard surface treatment, 1 mm polymer
cement mortar is used. However, in the case when the damages by vehicle collision are expected, mortar
thickness of more than 10 mm is to be used.
d-2. Application in the field of architecture (buildings)
An example of strengthening a column by continuous fiber sheet jacketing method is shown in Fig.
C.6.4.23. In this example, continuous fiber sheet stripes are fastened around an independent column
with epoxy resin. Generally, carbon fiber and aramid fiber are commonly used.
This method is adopted when the structural performances (shear capacity, axial loading capacity and
deformation capacity) are reduced significantly due to severe deterioration and corrosion of steel bars
and delamination of cover concrete are observed. Generally, this method is effective for restoration or
enhancing the shear capacity, axial loading capacity and deformability performance at the same time.
The basic procedures of this method are as follows
Before applying this method, repair of
the cracks, anti-corrosion treatment of
the reinforcement and restoration of the
section should be done if necessary.
Surface texturing and corner edging of
the existing column surface.
Apply a primer coat (bonding agent).
Wrap or bandage continuous fiber
sheet.
Training of workers is necessary to apply this
method or skilled labors having experience on
this application can be selected for the work.
The treated surface should be cured carefully.
It should be kept away from rains, sands or
dust while the impregnated resin is in fresh
state, especially in the case of epoxy resin. The
curing temperature should not be less than 5
degree centigrade.
e. Rebar addition method

This method has many practical applications in the field of architecture. An example of strengthening of
a floor slab by rebar addition method is shown in Fig. C.6-4-24.
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In this method, grooves are made at the intervals of 100 - 200 mm by a cutter on the surface of concrete.
Then rebars are inserted in the grooves and they are bonded by epoxy resin. In many cases, the
diameters of the rebar are 10 mm or 13 mm.
This method is adopted when the structural performances (especially bending capacity) of a floor slab is
reduced by local deterioration due to cracks or for excessive deformation or vibration caused by
overloading due to the change in usage. Generally, this method is effective for restoration or increasing
the bending capacity by the addition of rebars.
The procedures of this method are shown as follows:
Make grooves on the concrete surface at an interval of 100 200 mm by a cutter.
Insert rebars in the grooves and injects resins.
When a sufficient anchoring is required, the ends of the rebars are bend into 90 degree hooks, and the
hooks are inserted into the holes made by an electric drill. In this method, the bonding between the
rebars and resin is so important that the concrete surface should be cleaned after making grooves and
holes and also before injecting resin.
4) Introduction of prestressing
a. External cable method
The introduction of prestressing is divided into two sub divisions, one is external prestressing method
and the other is internal prestressing method. Generally for the strengthening purpose, external
prestressing method is used. Here, external prestressing method is discussed.
In this method, PC cables are arranged or installed outside the concrete member. The bending and shear
capacity of the member are strengthened by prestressing the members with anchors and deviators.
This method is adopted to change the structural system and increase the overall structural capacity. The
characteristics of this method are as follows:
The strengthening effect is very clear against structural performances.
Considering the vertical components of the prestressing force, the design shear force may reduce.
To change the direction of prestressing force, deviators are useful.
Maintenance is easier after strengthening.
Generally no traffic control is needed.
No effect is expected to the deteriorated old concrete portion.
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In areas behind the anchor, no strengthening effect is expected.

Stiffness will not increase by prestressing.

Recently, cases with fracture of the PC cables are reported by the serious deterioration of the structure.
For the safety of these structures, the external cable method is often adopted. If there is a possibility to
fracture the PC cables, the strengthening design should be done very carefully and it is also necessary to
monitor the structure after strengthening. There are many cases of successful practical applications of
this method to enhance bending capacity of PCT type and box girder type bridges. But for the other type
bridges, there are not so many practical applications and therefore this method should be carefully
designed for these bridges.
To apply this method, the following limitations should be carefully considered:
The anchorage plates should be smaller.
It is effective to use some anchorage methods in which the amount of set is smaller. Especially, it
is more effective when the cable is short.
The anchoring loss of prestress is smaller for the screw type anchor compared to the wedge type
one.
In the case of a short member, low stiffness fiber like aramid fiber is used as PC cable instead of
steel cable.
The job spaces are generally limited in the cases of strengthening or repair works, so the prestressing
devices should be smaller, lighter and easier to handle. To introduce prestress effectively, the use of
double action hydraulic jacks should be considered. Recently, hollow prestressing bars are developed in
which the prestress is already introduced before bar embedment, known as new prestressing system
using hollow prestressing bar. In the case of using hollow prestressing bars, reaction abuts and large
jack are not necessary. In this case less labor is also necessary. Also this PC bars are effective in the case
of a short member, so this bars are adopted to anchor the anchors or deviators of external cables.
In the field of architecture, the external cable method is not practical to apply directly on the structure.
However, to apply this method strengthen the structure itself by introduce prestress outside the structure
is developed.
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An example of this application using the technology used for the cable stayed bridge is shown in Fig.
C.6.4.26. In this case, outside the building, basements and precast columns are constructed and
strengthened by prestressed bars and unified with the building. Consequently the loading capacity of the
building is increased.
5) Addition of members
a. Member addition method
If the loading capacity of the structure is significantly decreased due to the severe deterioration of the
structure, new members are added or installed to increase the loading capacity.
There are many examples in which the old and deteriorated RC beams are strengthened by adding new
members between the beams. As shown in Fig. C.6.4.27, RC or steel beams can be used to increase the
capacity of the structure. The spaces between the old slab and new member are filled with epoxy resin
or non shrink type mortar to transfer the load smoothly.
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Generally, this method is adopted in the walls of architectural structures. The method is divided into
three sub divisions as follows:
(i) Add new walls as open frames.
(ii) Increase the thickness of the existing wall.
(iii) Close and fill the opening of the existing RC wall.
Generally, an old member exists in the upper part of the new wall, therefore construction method is to
be designed carefully. Also, the bonding between the new wall and the existing member should be good
enough. Post installed mechanical anchors are used to improve the bond between old and new members.
Additional members, such as steel braces or seismic steel walls or wing walls are sometimes used
beside RC walls.
Two examples are shown in Fig. C.6.4.28. After installation of the post installed mechanical anchors at
the lower and the upper parts of the wall, steel bars are embedded. The steel bars and the post installed
mechanical anchors are welded or lap jointed. Then after setting the formwork, concrete is poured.
The joints are placed by concrete or injected by mortar as shown in Fig. C.6.4.28 (a) and (b). Same as
the inverted lining concrete is placed from the lower side by pressure.
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6.5 Repair and Strengthening Materials

To select the repair and strengthening materials, it is necessary to choose the suitable material that
complies with the repair and strengthening method. In choosing, the characteristics of the method and
the materials should be understood. Also, the causes of the deterioration and damage should be
understood.
Repair and strengthening materials can be divided roughly into the following four types for which the
characteristics and important points are described in this Guideline.
a. Cementitious materials
b. Polymer materials
c. Metals
d. Fibrous material
e. Others
[Comments]
In repair and strengthening works, the materials should be properly chosen depending on the method,
and the other factors. The factors which should be taken into considerations are as follows:
The causes (environmental-loading conditions and deterioration mechanism) of degradation,
such as cracks and spalling of concrete, and the degree of degradation (present and estimated
future degree of degradation).
The characteristics of method: The performance requirements of the materials depend on the
methods.
Planning: Expected remaining service life, importance of structure, the interval of investigation,
and maintenance system.
Design: The required performances (mechanical performances, functions, performances against
the influences to the third parties, esthetics, durability, etc.), type, size and shape of the structure,
and job site.
Table C.6.5.1 The outline usage and important points of Repair and Strengthening Materials
Improvement
of Concrete
Surface
Ce mentitious
materials
Polymer
materials
Metals
Improvement
Surface
Injection
Section
Section
coating
into Crack
repair
replacement
of
tension
performance
Instead of
rebar
Other utilization
Bond for
anch or
Post-instal led
Cementitious materials a re widely used in surface coating method and in section replacement. Higher P/C of PCM is used in the
case of thin layer of overlay.
In the planning of section repair or section replacement, appropriate materials have to be chosen. When small parts of sections are
repaired, PCM is most suitable. But when large parts of sections are repaired, polymer cement concrete has to be considered to be
used. Above this, casting (placing) performances have to be considered.
Bond,
protection
against
water
permeation, primer
Polymers are widely used as bonding materials, matrix, synthetic resin, synthetic rubber and synthetic fiber. Synthetic resin or
synthetic rubber is used with or without cementitious materials and is rarely adopted for large sections because of shrinkage at the
hardening.
Electrochemical
sacrifice material, post
installed anchor
Metals are used as rebar or steel plate for tension members in many strengthening methods. Recently metals are used as
electrochemical sacrifice material in cathodic protection method.
Fibrous
materials
Others
Spalling
method
prevention
Fibrous materials can be divided into short fiber and continuous fiber. Short fibers are mainly used to increase the ductility of
concrete. And continuous fibers are used as FRP for tension members or prevention members from spalling off.
Anti corrosion coating,
Alkaline solution
In repair and stre ngthening, many materials are used more than above e.g. anti corrosion material, impregnating water proof
coating, primer, alkaline solution in re-alkalization method.
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Construction: The difficulty of the work (such as space limitation) and construction sites
environment (such as noise, smell, and vibration).
The level of difficulty of maintenance after the repair or strengthening.
The influence on the economy and environment.
Others.
In this Guideline, considering above factors, the materials are classified into five different groups. The
classification is based on the usage, characteristics and form but not based on the chemical composition
of the materials. Also, the classification of the composite materials is not so logical.
The outlines, such as usage and important points, of the five groups are listed in Table C.6.5.1. The cost
of the materials is relatively low compared to the total cost. Therefore, it is wise to consider the
relatively expensive materials such as stainless steel in the cases of a high possibility of re-deterioration
in the very near future after the repair works.
There are many materials available for repair and strengthening which are developed recently. For
adopting a new material, the factors discussed above should be considered.
a. Cementitious materials
For repair work shown in 6.3, cementitious materials are widely used in 2) a. and 3) a.
For strengthening work shown in 6.4, cementitious materials are widely used for 1), 2), and 3) as well as
used as filling materials in 3) and as materials for fabricating anchors or deviators in the case of 4) a.
In this section, the authors define "cementitious materials" as the total or summarized name of inorganic
cementitious materials and polymer cement materials. In Table C.6.5.2, the required representative
performances of cementitious materials are shown.
(i) Inorganic cementitious materials
Inorganic cementitious materials are the ordinary cement concrete, represented by the ordinary portland
cement concrete. As the binder, ordinary Portland cement, aluminum cement and super powder cement
are used. Depending on the required performances, the binder is mixed with rock powders, aggregates
(including light weight aggregates), mineral admixtures, chemical admixtures and fibers to make paste,
mortar or concrete.
Inorganic cementitious material is the most economical material compared to polymer cement mortar or
polymer materials, so this material is used for large section. Also the thermal expansion coefficient and
Youngs modulus are similar to the existing concrete structures. This material is used as repair and
strengthening materials in the forms of slurry (for crack injection), mortar (for section restoration,
jacketing, filling, etc), concrete (section restoration and jacketing).
The characteristics of inorganic cementitious materials are:
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The properties are almost same as those of the existing concrete, especially thermal expansion
coefficient, electric resistance and permeability.
Common construction materials.
Relatively economical
Incombustible
As shown in Table C.6.5.2, during application of repair and strengthening works, sometimes expansive
or flowable performances are required for inorganic cementitious materials. For such cases, the
characteristics of these materials should be understood before execution of the works.
(ii) Polymer cement materials
Polymer cement materials are classified into three categories, such as polymer cement concrete (mortar),
polymer impregnated concrete and polymer concrete (or resin concrete).
As repair and strengthening materials, polymer cement mortar (hereafter PCM) is commonly used.
PCM is produced by replacing a part of the mixing water (or cement) by a polymer.
As PCM polymer, synthetic resin emulsion or synthetic rubber latex (when the rubber particles are
dispersed, it is called latex) are used.
In PCM, dispersed synthetic resin and synthetic rubber were firmly glued with cement hydration
products and aggregate (the matrix is called CO-MATRIX), and fill the void in the repair material to
improve the property compared to the usual cement concrete (mortar). Thus, PCM is especially suitable
to use in thin and/or small quantity of work.
The performances of PCM are closely related to the kind and the amount of polymer used. The amount
of emulsion and latex is expressed by weight ratio between resin or rubber (P) and cement (C) (polymer
cement ratio P/C) and usually used in the range of 5% to 30%. As shown in Fig. C.6.5.1, the higher the
P/C, the properties are closer to those of polymer or organic materials.
In the PCM emulsion, acrylic emulsion is used. In the PCM latex, styrene-butadiene copolymer latex or
chloroprene rubber latex is used. Recently, resin and rubber are pulverized, and it has been
commercialized as a re-emulsified powder resin. The re-emulsified powder resin is mixed with cement,
aggregate (fine aggregate), fibrous system materials (short fiber) and are readily available in pre-packed
forms in the market. Only by adding the specified amount of mixing water at site and careful mixing,
the polymer cement concrete (mortar) of good quality can be easily made. The use of polymer cement
paste is increasing due to the on-site reduction of labor.
PCM has the following characteristics as compared with the usual cement concrete. PCM is expensive
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and sometimes shows significant amount of shrinkage. Therefore, in large quantity of works, the
application of PCM should be carefully considered.
Excellent adhesive property

Higher tensile and bending strength
Higher deformability
Higher autogeneous shrinkage
Better water proofing and less damage chloride attack or frost (freezing-thawing) damage
Less carbonation
Difficult to manage air content because of the emulsions effects (due to fewer amounts of water,
air entrainment is increased)
Hardens slowly
Finishing performance is not good
Higher electric resistance. It makes difficult to use electro-chemical measurement.
Polymer impregnated concrete (hereafter PIC) is manufactured by impregnating low viscosity polymer
into concrete and after impregnation they are polymerized to be PIC. PIC has good performances
against strength, permeability, etc. PIC is sometimes used as eternal formwork.
b. Polymer (organic) materials
Polymers are widely used in repair works as shown in 6.3, especially in the methods shown in 1) crack
repair, 2) section restoration, and 3) surface coating. Also they are used as secondary (or supporting) or
bonding materials in the methods shown in 4) and 5).
In strengthening works, they are used as bonding material in 5) Addition of members, and also used
as secondary or supporting materials.
Polymers are categorized in to three groups, such as (i) synthetic resin (epoxy resin and polyester resin,
acrylic resin, urethane, etc.), (ii) synthetic rubber (styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR), chloroprene rubber
(CR), etc.), and (iii) synthetic fiber (vinylon fiber, vinyl fiber, aramid fiber, etc.). In this section, (i) and
(ii) are explained and the last group is described in d.
(i) Synthetic resin (Polymeric materials)
Synthetic resin can be classified into thermoplastics and thermosets (thermosetting plastics) by the
characteristics against heat or temperature.
As construction materials, thermosets are commonly used. The thermosets are composed with additives
and fillers to form so-called plastics. Also, thermosets are main raw materials of paints, linings,
adhesives, and fillers.
As structural materials, thermosets are used as polymer cement materials mixed with cementitious
materials, also are used as strengthened plastics (FRP, or others shown in d. fiber materials) combined
with fibers and are used as binders (or matrix) in resin concrete.
Synthetic materials irrespective of thermo plastics or thermosets have the following features compared
to the steel and concrete which are commonly used as construction materials:
1. They are durable in both acid and alkalis, and they are not corroded nor produce rust.
2. They have excellent adhesive property.
3. Balances of the mechanical strengths are good (compression strength bending strength, the
tensile strength is 10 to 20 times of the same of concrete).
4. The elastic modulus (rigidity) is small (about 1/10 that of in the concrete, about 1/100 that of in
the steel).
5. Many physical properties are influenced by temperature (glass transition point, Tg, softens like
rubber at the temperature more than Tg, hardens like glass in a temperature below Tg).
6. They are combustible (has a limit in the heat-resistance).
7. Thermal expansion coefficients are high (about 5 to 10 times that of steel and concrete).
8. Heat and electricity are difficult to be transmitted. Because of the high resistivity of electricity,
after the work, it is difficult to set electro-chemical corrosion monitors or to adopt electrochemical rehabilitation methods.
9. They show creep and stress relaxation.
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10. They can be deteriorated by the ultraviolet ray.

11. The shrinkage at the hardening is very large. Therefore, especially in the cases when used as
resin concrete or mortar in large sections, there should be careful considerations.
12. In low temperature (<5), special considerations should be taken because the hardening of the
synthetic resin is very slow.
13. Mixing with water is very bad for hardening and the bonding to the concrete surface is very
weak when the surface is wet.
(ii) Synthetic rubber
There are different kinds of synthetic rubbers with a wide range of properties. Generally, there are some
synthetic rubbers whose chemical and physical structures are almost same as natural rubbers, and some
have excellent properties compared to natural rubber, such as high heat resistance, resistance to oils and
anti aging property, etc.
Synthetic rubber has an excellent elasticity (elongation property) despite the chemical compositions are
almost same as synthetic resin.
There have been some research and development to apply synthetic rubbers as the extensible coatings to
repair and strengthening works. Also, as structural material, they are used with cementitious materials or
used as rubber bearing materials.
c. Metal
Metals are used in some repair methods described in 6.3. Generally, metals are used as anchor shown in
4) a. and used as anodic materials (sacrificial anodes) in 5).
On the other hand as strengthening materials as described in 6.4, they are used as main structural
materials in 3) a., 3) c., 3) e., and 4) and also used as strengthening materials in other methods.
Among metals, steels are most commonly used in repair and strengthening works. Steel plate bonding
method and steel plate jacketing method have advantages against RC jacketing method in minimizing
section and dead load after repair and strengthening works. On the other hand, steel requires some
corrosion prevention measures in corrosive environments.
Other metals, for example titanium and aluminum alloys, have higher strength and corrosion resistance.
To use these materials effectively, careful considerations on the usage are needed.
Metals are heavier and stronger in comparison with FRP. So, the construction works with metals need
heavy machineries and more spaces compared to FRP.
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The other aspects of metals are shown as follows:

1. Corrosion damages of the metals depend on the type of metal and environmental condition. In
acid or alkaline environments, there should be appropriate considerations. In general, in
corrosive environments, there should be some countermeasures against corrosion.
2. The joints between metals can be made by weld, bolt or nut fastening and crimp.
3. The densities of steel and copper are large but aluminum and titanium are small.
4. Youngs modulus and tensile strength vary.
5. The thermal expansion coefficient of steel is almost same as concrete, but for other metals it is
varied.
6. Generally they conduct heat and electricity.
7. Some are magnetic.
8. Some have weaker fatigue strength.
9. Some show creep and relaxation.
10. Generally they are incombustible, but in high temperature their strength is reduced.
11. They show no deterioration by ultraviolet ray.
As explained above, to select metals for repair or strengthening works, it is necessary to check and
investigate the required performances and the surrounding environments. In Table C.6.5.3, standard
properties of metals are shown in comparison with concrete.
In this Guideline, metals are classified into (i) metals for strengthening, (ii) metals for steel corrosion
protection, and (iii) others.
(i) Metals for strengthening
Steels and its alloys have good performances against strength, Youngs modulus, ductility, heat
resistance, deformability, welding ability, etc. They are also economical, environmentally friendly, not
so bad for health, and also available in abundant quantities. Steel and its alloys are iron (Fe) based
materials, and there are many kinds of steels and alloys with different elements (kind and percentage)
and manufacturing methods.
Steel and alloys are classified into carbon (normal) steels and special steels. Then, special steels are
classified into structural steels, tool steels and special purpose steels (stainless steel and etc.). Also,
steels are used to RC structures as deformed bars (steel bars), PC tendons, and structural steels.
Concerning to steel bars in RC, besides normal steel bars, there are stainless steel bars, galvanized bars,
epoxy coated bars, and stainless clad bars.
For epoxy coated bars, damage or scarping on the surface of the bars should be avoided while
transportation, stocking, bending or construction. If damages are found on the coatings, the damages
should be repaired and also the cut surface should be coated. Also in this case, binding wires should not
damage the coating and bonding wires should be anti-corrosion type.
Anchors used for steel plate bonding methods or addition of members should have performance
requirements.
(ii) Metals for steel corrosion protection
Titanium, zinc, aluminum and its alloys are used for steel corrosion protection. Titanium is used as
anode in cathodic protection of steel bars in concrete in the forms of rods and mesh, and also used as
connection wires between the anodes.
Zinc is used as electrochemically sacrificial materials in the forms of zinc sheet, zinc alloy sprayed
coating and zinc alloy anode.
Aluminum alloys are used as sacrificial anodes for marine steel structures.
(iii) The others
Non ferrous metals (aluminum, copper, titanium, etc.) and composite metals (stainless clad metal,
titanium clad metal, etc.) have different densities, durability, deformability, magnetic properties and
esthetic properties compared to those of steel. And they are used as finishing materials and equipment
materials rather than structural materials. The new applications of these materials with new construction
methods are expected.
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d. Fibrous materials
Fibrous materials are used mainly in the methods in 4) b. which is described in 6.3. Also in 2), they are
used with mortar or concrete. Furthermore, they are used in 3) as strengthening and/or thickening the
coatings.
They are also described in 6.4. They are used as main materials in 3) b. and 3) d. Also they are used in
4) for fixing the anchors and/or deviators to the existing members.
Fibrous materials are classified into metal type, such as steel fiber and non-metal type. The non-metal
type is divided into inorganic fibers, such as carbon fiber and glass fiber, and organic fibers, such as
polyamide (vinylon), polyvinyl, polyester, and acrylic type fibers.
The properties of steel fibers are described in c. Metals.
The properties of nonmetal fibers are as follows:
1. They are light and have lower densities compared to metals.
2. They are highly corrosion resistant.
3. Their tensile strengths are more than 10 times of steel strength, but they are brittle without
showing yield points.
4. Carbon fibers have higher Youngs modulus than the other fibers, but the elongation capacity is
smaller and less shock resistant. On the other hand, they are resistant in acid and alkaline
solutions (high chemical resistance), and they are electric conductors.
5. Aramid fibers have smaller Youngs modulus, but the elongation capacity is higher and more
shock resistance compared to carbon fibers. So they have advantages to use as prestressing
materials for less prestressing loss, and they can keep enough prestress even in short members.
6. Vinylon fibers have lower tensile strength and Youngs modulus compared to the other fibers,
however, they are high resistance to alkalinity.
7. Glass fibers are relatively low cost. Also their thermal expansion coefficients are similar to steel,
so they are used as lining cloth and safety nets against spalling of concrete. However, they have
low resistance to alkalinity partly because of high contents of borate and aluminates.
Table C.6.5.4 Property of Various Fiber Type Material
Kind
Organic Fiber
Aramid
Vinylon
Inorganic Fiber
Carbon
Item
Glass
Prestressing
Steel Wire
(E-glass)
Specific Gravity
1.45
1.3
1.8
2.6
7.85
Tensile Strength (N/mm2)
2800
7001500
26004500
35003600
1950
130
1137
235
7475
201
Elo ngation at Breaking (%)
2.3
7.0
1.31.8
4.8
6.4
Coefficient of Thermal
-6
-0.7
810
12
Modulus of Elasticity
(N/mm2)
Expansion
(10-6 /)
In Table C.6.5.4, representative properties of fibers are shown. Comments on some fiber strands are
given below:
The strands are divided into short fiber and continuous fiber. Short fibers are mixed in concrete or
mortar to make fiber reinforced cementitious composite (FRCC). In this case, the lengths of the fibers
are up to several centimeters. Steel fibers are generally used as short fibers.
Non metal fibers are first fabricated as mono filament, and about 12,000 mono filaments are bundled
into strands, and strands are again bundled to form short fibers or continuous fibers.
In the cases when they are used as continuous fibers, they are bundled with resins to form and to be
used as fiber reinforced plastics (FRP). Also, they are formed as a thick mat or cloth and used as
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corrosion prevention lining. This kind of FRP is formed as the shape of steel and use as structural
members.
(i) Short fibers
Short fibers are mainly used to increase the ductility of concrete (or mortar), to prevent the drying
shrinkage cracks and to control the width of the cracks. Recently, poly propylene fibers are used to
prevent spalling failure of high strength concrete under fire. Also they are used for high performance
FRCC which is expected to show high ductility with high density cracks. Concrete can be sprayed for
such cases.
There are some cases where omni mixer is used to avoid the formation of fiber balls in making FRCC.
Also, de-foamers (anti foamers) are often used not to produce too many air bubbles in FRCC.
Fiber spikes may come out on the surfaces of FRCC mix with fibers with a high Youngs modulus. Thus,
care must be taken during application of FRCC (labors and other peoples should not walk with bare foot
over FRCC). In surface concrete (with very small cover depth), steel fibers are corroded, and therefore
spot rusts are observed on the surface of concrete. In the cases of concretes with appropriate mix
proportions, corrosion of steel fibers is not continued into the deeper portion of concrete (only in surface
areas). On the other hand, it may be difficult to make observation on surface by spot rusts, so cares or
considerations should be taken.
(ii) Continuous fibers and FRP
Strands of continuous fibers are generally bundled by impregnated and hardened with resins. They are
formed into sheets, meshes, rods and lattices, and these formed strands are called FRP. In FRP,
continuous fibers are widely used.
These FRPs are used as substitutes of steel plates and steel bars, and also used as surface coating
materials for spalling prevention.
As a resin, epoxy resin is mainly used. There are three kinds of fabricating methods of FRP by
impregnation and hardening with epoxy resin. For sheets and meshes, the hand lay up method is usually
adopted in construction site. In this method, sheets or meshes are laid on the concrete surfaces and
resins are impregnated. Second one is the method to fabricate sheets or meshes in factories. The last one
is to use pre-prig sheets or meshes (which are already impregnated resins but not hardened) fabricated in
factories.
In the impregnation stage of hand the lay up method, it is important to remove air bubbles in FRP by defoaming roller.
For rods and lattices, as a resin, vinyl ester resin is sometimes used because of its expected high
durability. In this case, the impregnation is generally done in a factory by pre-intrusion method. In this
method, the continuous fibers are under tension while impregnated.
The mechanical properties of FRP are similar to those of non-metal fibers as shown in Fig. C.6.5.4.
Especially both materials are brittle, i.e., they have no yield points. So the design methods are different
from those with steel plates, bars or PC bars. Also, they have significant creep behavior.
On the other hand, the other properties and durability are similar to the matrix materials namely the
resins. Therefore, the properties are similar as a. polymer materials.
In the cases of sheets and meshes which are on the concrete surfaces, top coats are often used together
to make weather resistance and fire resistance higher.
Continuous fibers are used as strands in the cases of sheets and meshes. In the cases of rods and lattices,
the mechanical properties are generally evaluated as composite materials (FRP). In these cases, the
volume fraction of fibers (Vf) is an important variables. And the properties are evaluated with some
formulas known as the composite law. The maximum value of Vf is about 60% because of the mixing
problems. The tensile strengths of FRP (continuous fiber reinforced plastics) with vinylon or e-glass
fibers are same as those of usual steel bars as shown in Table C.6.5.4.
The bonding and anchorage between the continuous reinforced fibers and the concrete surface are
difficult. In the cases of sheets and meshes, same as in the cases of surface coatings, there are some
surface treatment with primer and putty to improve the bonding. Even in these cases, the interfaces are
weak at external peeling. In the cases of rods, they are manufactured as twisted, knitted, bandage fibers
or sand bonded forms to secure bonding. Also in the cases of prestress or pretensioned, the rods are
anchored with steel pipes and resin mortar or expansive materials. In the cases of lattices, the basic idea
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is to place anchorages at lattices.

Sheets and meshes of continuous reinforced fibers are lighter than the metals, so they have advantages
in the cases where spaces are too narrow to use heavy industrial machines, sheets and meshes with
continuous reinforced fibers can be applied in the field manually.
On the other hand, usually they are very thin and the fibers are in one direction, and they cannot resist
the lateral or transverse forces to the fibers direction. Also, in the hand lay up methods in the field, the
continuous fiber strands are too small and easy to be damaged, so careful works are needed.
In the cases of continuous fiber rods, the Youngs modulus are small enough to prestress in short
members or distances, they can fix the anchorages and deviators in external cables method. Also, there
is a possibility to use them as external cables in very severe environments such as marine environments
because of their high durability.
Generally, the continuous reinforcing fibers are more expensive than the steel materials. However, they
have advantages against durability, density and strength. So when these materials are used, smaller
cover depth, easier construction work and longer repair cycles are expected. Therefore based on the life
cycle cost, they appropriate use of the materials can be decided.
e. Other materials
The polymers, the cementitious materials, the metals and the fibrous materials are explained earlier
considering the properties of the materials and their applications in the fields.
The effects of the other materials are evaluated indirectly, for example, they are evaluated by corrosion
prevention of internal steel bars, prevention of moisture, or lower permeability.
6.6 Repair and Strengthening Works
6.6.1 General
Contractors should notes the items below and to execute the repair and strengthening works.
(1) The contractors should obey the related laws.
(2) The contractors should complete work plans after carrying out necessary pre-investigation.
(3) The contractors should understand the characteristics of the materials and determine the ranges of
temperature and humidity to ensure the required performances of the materials. Also, they should
determine reasonable work schedules.
(4) The contractors should give necessary explanations to the users of the structures and neighborhood
publics (public involvement: PI) before the work. Moreover, they should make and submit necessary
documents to the authorities.
(5) The contractors should control the construction works in every stages.
(6) The contractors should make records of works and completion.
[Comments]
(1) The contractors should obey the related laws. Also, to prevent accidents or disasters in the
construction works, the contractors should show the organizations for control and prevent the disasters,
and also they should make the planned and organized countermeasures on disaster prevention. In
addition to the above, they should make efforts to form construction environments considering safety
and health for the labors.
(2) Before completion of the construction planning of repair and strengthening, the contractors should
investigate the items shown below:
Investigation on the construction site and surrounding environments.
Investigation on the design documents, maintenance records and repair or strengthening history.
On the construction site environments, they are closely related to geographical features, conditions of
premises and traffic conditions. The surrounding environments include occupied hours or durations of
the structures and the relations to the surrounding society. Also, it is important to check the design
documents or histories of the maintenance.
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In addition to these matters, the contractors should propose the construction plans which minimize the
influence of the work to the users of the structure and the neighbors with no damages or inconveniences
to the structure.
(3) For example, in a cold weather (less than 5C), synthetic resins for crack injection and/or cement
polymer materials for section restoration show very slow hardening behavior. Also, when mixed with
water or in very humid condition, the bonding behaviors of the materials are not accepTable.
So, the contractors, with adequate understanding of the materials, should make rules and conditions to
secure adequate quality of the materials and works; for example, avoiding the winter construction works
in cold areas and avoiding the works in heavy rains.
(4) In many cases of repair and strengthening works, the objected structures are under use. So, it is
important to secure the safety and the health of the public including the residents and neighbors of the
structures. The contractors should plan appropriate work schedule, secure necessary work periods and
also other considerations; plan restricted areas and hours, fabricate protection walls, countermeasure
against strong winds, etc.
Also, when there is some possibility of sparks, for example while in the welding works, the contractors
should prepare fire protection sheets or the other countermeasures. In some cases while repair and
strengthening works on the buildings like apartment houses, some health problems by the volatile
organic compounds might be included in repair materials may be afraid. In these cases, the contractors
should open some seminars (meetings) about the repair and strengthening works, if necessary.
(5)(6) The contractors should control all the works in repair and strengthening. The information about
the works done by them and professional workers is necessary for the reconfirmation of the works and
future maintenance, so the records should be safely kept.
6.6.2 Occupational (Work) safety and health measures
The contractors should obey the work safety and health measures shown below in repair and
strengthening:
(1) The contractors should make construction plans with the consideration of workers safety and health.
And also, they should prepare the safety and health management system with safety and health
training to prevent accidents and disasters.
(2) The contractors should use qualified engineers or labors to execute safely the special works required
in repair or strengthening works.
[Comments]
(1) In repair and strengthening works, the targeted structures are in use or have residents. So there are
many time and space restrictions, and the works are not executed as expected when the contractors
make unreasonable plans.
Sometimes, there are unexpected problems which are not recognized in preliminary investigation. So
the contractors should take such cases in mind and prepare the safety and health management system
including the trainings of the workers.
(2) In repair and strengthening works, the workers should use various and special tools and methods,
such as concrete breakers, concrete cutter, boring machines, impact wrenches, water jet and chemical
liquid injection methods. Also sometimes, the contractors should take measures against scattering of
asbestos.
In these cases, the contractors should make all the workers keep the related laws, and designate
qualified manager able to adequate safety and health care, and make qualified workers to execute safe
and appropriate works. About asbestos, the use of asbestos is already inhibited now, but in the existed
structures there still remain. In these cases, countermeasures against scattering are strongly required.
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6.6.3 Environment conservation measures

The contractors should take appropriate environment conservation measures as follows in repair and
strengthening works:
(1) The contractors should execute their works considering the environments with the life cycles of the
structures.
(2) The contractors should execute their works considering various environments, such as the global
environment, the regional environments, the surrounding environments of the structures, and job
environments.
(3) The contractors should obey the related laws.
(4) The contractors should reduce the by-products and disposals which are produced in construction
works such as raw materials, wrapping materials, scaffolding materials, material tips, and curing
materials.
(5) According with the laws which recommend environmental friendly goods, the contractors should
choose environmental friendly materials.
(6) The contractors should reduce the output of special or poisonous organic compounds from the
construction works and reduce the influences on the people.
[Comments]
(1)(2) The kinds of targeted structures are various including buildings, bridges, piers, etc., and repair
works and strengthening works are usually done separately. Thus, the separate environment
conservation countermeasures are required, considering the usage, characteristics and life stages of the
structures. Also, because the purpose of the repair and strengthening works is to expect long life, so the
long term environment conservation should be considered.
Specifically, there are many causes such as noises, vibrations, dusts and water pollutions while the
construction works, and emission of carbon dioxide by the use of construction machines which causes
global warming. Thus, the contractors should make appropriate environment conservation plans to
reduce them.
(3) The contractors should obey the related laws and investigate environment conservation examples
and then they should make appropriate countermeasures.
Some countermeasure examples related to noises and vibration are shown as below:
1. Use the low level noise and vibration type drill
2. Public information panel showing noise and vibration level
3. Examples of environment causes related to repair and strengthening works and their
countermeasures
The manufacturers are improving their drilling machines and related machines to reduce the direct
damages of the workers and residents by boring works. Also, the cases are increasing in which the
contractors are showing the level of noises and vibration in their works.
(4)(5) In repair and strengthening works as well as new construction works, reduce the construction
materials and by-products is considered very important environment conservation measures. So, the
contractors should plan to reduce the by-products and disposals which are produced in construction
works such as raw materials, wrapping materials, scaffolding materials, material tips and curing
materials.
(6) The numbers of repair and strengthening works are expected to be much increased, so it is important
to reduce the amount of environmental load substances from the viewpoint of environment conservation
measures. The environmental load substances by the outputs of chemicals are observed and occurred in
the stages of production, transportation, construction and usage of materials. The chemicals often
pollute large areas and long time. Thus, there may be many related laws on the output of chemicals.
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6.6.4 Construction management

The contractors should manage the repair and strengthening work executed as planned while in
construction.
[Comments]
The managements of repair and strengthening works should be done to secure the quality, schedule,
safety-health, environment, labors and cost according to the construction plans so as to satisfy the
planned requirements. The managements of repair and strengthening are similar in the cases of new
constructions.
As for the quality, the contractors should do self investigation and the owners should do investigation in
each step of the works so as to confirm the works are done as planned. Especially, in each step like just
before taking out the scaffolds or injection, they should confirm not to remain un-repaired parts and also
they should check and record the construction work.
6.7 Inspection
(1) The owner should make the inspection plan with the consideration of the importance of the structure,
the expected remaining life and the cost/benefit, and the owner should inspect the designs and works
of repair and strengthening construction.
(2) For the design inspection, the owner should check whether the design is appropriate to satisfy the
required performances of the members (structures) during the expected remaining life, based on the
investigation, causes estimation and judgment.
(3) For the works inspection, the owner should check whether the repair and strengthening works are
done as designed.
(4) If the owner judged the design or the works are not satisfied, the designer or the contractor should
make appropriate measures.
[Comments]
(1) The owner is recommended to make a reliable, efficient and cost-benefit plan with the importance
and expected remaining life of the structure (including the concrete schedule and the contents of the
inspection and the standards of judgment), and make inspection at each stage of the works and
completion of the repair or strengthening.
Inspection of the design is generally made at the completion of the design and the inspections of the
works are made at each stage of the works.
Especially in the cases of the works inspection, it is difficult for the owner to make all inspections which
are detailed and various. For this reason, inspections of materials quality, it is reasonable that the
contractor makes the inspection by his/her responsibilities, and the owner inspects the results or reports
of the contractor. In this case, before the repair or strengthening begins, the owner and the contractor
should discuss and make reasonable agreement, and the owner should improve the inspection planning
and the contractor should improve the construction planning considering the agreement.
(2) For design inspection, the owner should check whether the design is appropriate to satisfy the
required performances of the members (structures) during the expected remaining life, based on the
investigation, causes estimation and judgment. For this purpose, the owner and the designer should
discuss at the important stages of the design, and make minutes of the meeting. According to the
minutes of the meetings, the design should be improved.
(3) To satisfy the designed performance of the work, the expected purposes of repair and strengthening,
the construction management and inspections should be done appropriately as planned. For this purpose,
it is important to make inspections at each stage of the works and to confirm the works are done as
designed.
Especially the places where it is very difficult to make inspections after the repair, the inspections
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should be carefully done to check whether the works are done as designed as well as not to remain
unrepaired places at each stage of the works.
After the completion, the owner should check whether the repair or strengthening can be achieved by
some appropriate means.
The confirmation of the repair effect is easy in the degradations like the leakage of water. However, in
the cases in which the purposes of the repair are up grading or more durability of the structures, the
confirmation of the repair effects is difficult. In these cases, depend on the purposes, the owner (or
contractors) should check the records of partial destructive measurements (bonding tests of coatings and
section restoration materials, measurement of the injection depth and etc.) during the repair and non
destructive measurements (cover depth, arrangement of reinforcing bars and etc.) after completion. Also,
the owner should check the finishing condition of the repair.
The confirmation of the effects of strengthening is to check whether the loading capacity of the cracked
member or structure is restored or increased after the works.
To confirm the restoration or increase of the loading capacity, the methods are given below:
Investigation of the progress of the cracks after the strengthening to confirm the stability and no
propagation of the cracks.
To check the strains of steel bars and concrete by strain gages.
To measure the deflection of the members by static loading.
To measure the vibration characteristics by dynamic loading.
In the case of strengthening, the effect cannot be measured by direct measurement. Thus, if the
measurement of deflection is small, strain and crack width are small enough, the required strengthening
is judged to be successful.
(4) In the cases, the owner judges the design or construction is not satisfied, the contractor should make
necessary measures. In these cases, the contractors should ask advices from the experts.
6.8 Records and Interim Observations
The recommended inspections are to be executed periodically after the repair and strengthening and the
records are to be saved.
[Comments]
Inspections after the repair and strengthening are important for appropriate maintenance of the
structures. So after the repair and strengthening, it is necessary to make periodic inspections. Usually,
the interval of the regular inspection is several years, so between the regular inspections, sometimes
interim easier monitoring (mainly observation by naked eyes) is recommended.
Usually, monitoring by means of using expensive sensors with specialists requires a lot of money. In the
cases of apartments or personal houses, it is reasonable to inspect their buildings by an economical
means (especially by naked eyes) compared to the expensive inspection with special sensors.
In the cases of the economical monitoring mainly by naked eyes, the monitoring should be planned
based on the causes of cracks. Usually this monitoring targets the cracks which are judged to be repair
is unnecessary as per Chapter 5 and also targets the repaired or strengthened cracks.
In an expensive monitoring, after the completion and transfer of the structure, the progress and the
widths of the repaired or no-repaired cracks is monitored by crack gages and recorded by digital
cameras. If the crack width reaches the crack width which is judged as should-be-repaired by the criteria
of Chapter 5, the owners should consult to the specialists.
In the cases of cracks caused by the subsidence of the structure, the owner should check the flatness of
the floors by marbles, and if there are some inconveniences, the owner is recommended to consult with
the specialists. With these easy and economical monitoring, the owner can notice the degradation very
soon, and the early countermeasures are possible to reduce the costs of repair and strengthening and also
reduce the construction mistakes.
When the repair or strengthening work is completed, the reference documents and results such as the
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results of crack investigation, the cause estimation, the judgment and its story of the necessity of repair
or strengthening, the documents related to repair and strengthening and the records of the repair and
strengthening work, should be saved as the complicated and detailed records. Also, the results of the
regular investigation can be precious in investigation on the repair and strengthening effects, the
durability of the adopted repair and strengthening methods and the future maintenance methods, so the
records should be classified and saved accordingly.
The results of investigation should be renewed periodically and in general the records are saved in the
life of the structure.
156

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Practical Guideline for

Investigation, Repair and Strengthening

Japan Concrete Institute

Practical Guideline for

Japan Concrete Institute

In spite of numerous efforts to eliminate cracks from concrete structures, there

1.1 Scope and Objective

Chapter 3 Cause Estimation

Chapter 4 Evaluation of Cracks

Chapter 5 Judgment of Necessity of Repair and Strengthening

Chapter 6 Repair and Strengthening

strengthening method based on the evaluation and the judgment in future.

Standard investigation for

Detailed investigation for

Selection of type of estimation (4.1)

Repair and strengthening (6)

Additional investigation for

Note1) A parenthesis ( ) in the flow means number of

The Investigation, evaluation,

Expected remaining service life

Residual period on serviceability etc.

When crack occurs

Residual period on the safety performance when

When crack occurs

The Investigation, evaluation,

Elapsed service life

Expected remaining service life

When crack occurs

Residual period on the safety performance

When crack occurs

Fig. C.1.3.2 Concepts of design for strengthening

Table2.1.1 Items for investigationpart.1

Chap.3 Cause estimation of cracks

Way to use of results2

Evaluation EvaluationII EvaluationIII

Data of materials (cement, aggregate,

Confirmation that present load condition

Temperature, himidity, CO2

Drwings, re-bar arrangement, structural

Way to use of results2

Chap.3Cause estimation of cracks

Chap.5Judgment for necessity of

Test methods, equipments

Visual inspection, scale, crack scale and microscope

Length, total length

Visual inspection, scale, digital camera

Visual inspection, scale, digital camera

Visual inspection, digital camera

Visual inspection, scale

Visual inspection, scale

Position and area of peeling of concrete

Visual inspection, test hammmer, scale

Position and area

Visual inspection, scale

Position and area

Visual inspection, scale

Visual inspection, scale

Visual inspection, scale

Feeling,phone,visual inspection, scale

Classification based on fihure of crack pattern

Judgement for necesstity of repai and strengthening

Judgement for necesstity of repai and strengthening

Feeling,phone,visual inspection, scale

Table2.1.1 Items for investigationpart.2