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1
Dr Sue Hill MA PhD FRCA
University Hospital
Southampton, UK
What is statistics?
Mathematical calculations based on
Types of Data
Categorical data can be:
Nominal or ordinal
special categorical (binary) data
Numerical data can be:
Discrete
Continuous
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Number of
Throwing a
patients with head or tail:
a given blood
group:
O
n=55
n=45
n=12
AB
n=20
Head
Data Type:
Womens EU Heights of Number of
Throwing a
Shoe sizes: six 8-y old patients with head or tail:
boys
a given blood
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n=2
group:
37
n=5
1.1m
Head
O
n=55
38
n=42
1.05m
39
n=55
40
n=25
41
n=6
1.2m
1.15m
Numerical
1.15m
Discrete
1.4m
n=45
n=12
AB
n=20
Data Type:
37
n=5
1.1m
Throwing a
Number of
patients with head or tail:
a given blood
group:
38
n=42
1.05m
n=55
39
n=55
1.2m
n=45
40
n=25
1.15m
n=12
41
n=6
1.15m
AB
n=20
Womens EU Heights of
Shoe sizes: six 8-y old
boys
36
n=2
Numerical
Discrete
1.4m
Head
Numerical,
Continuous
Data Type:
Womens EU Heights of
Shoe sizes: six 8-y old
boys
36
n=2
37
n=5
1.1m
38
n=42
1.05m
39
n=55
1.2m
40
n=25
1.15m
n=6
1.15m
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Numerical
Discrete
Number of
Throwing a
patients with head or tail:
a given blood
group:
O
n=55
n=45
n=12
AB
n=20
1.4m
Categorical,
Numerical,
Nominal
Continuous
Head
Data Type:
Throwing a
Womens EU Heights of Number of
Shoe sizes: six 8-y old patients with head or tail:
a given blood
boys
36
n=2
group:
37
38
39
40
41
n=5
1.1m
n=42
1.05m
n=55
1.2m
n=25
1.15m
n=6
1.15m
Numerical
Discrete
n=55
n=45
n=12
AB
n=20
1.4m
Head
Special
Categorical
Binary
Numerical Categorical,
Continuous Nominal
Mode?
80
50
60
50
40
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Mode?
Mode = 3
80
50
60
50
40
20
Median?
Mode = 3
80
50
60
50
40
20
Mean?
Mode = 3
80
50
60
50
40
20
Mean?
Mode = 3
Mean = 2.84 80
50
60
50
40
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Symmetric distribution of
values Mean, median, mode?
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Symmetric distribution of
values Mean, median, mode?
mode = 40
mean = 40.27
median = 40
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Asymmetric distribution of
values: skewed data
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Asymmetric distribution of
values: skewed data - negative
skew
mode = 60
median = 50
mean = 45
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Asymmetric distribution of
values: skewed data
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Asymmetric distribution of
values: skewed data: positive
skew
mode = 20
median = 30
mean = 33.6
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Negatively skewed:
square root
logarithm
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- ((x - m)2)/(n-1)
- standard deviation is the square root of the variance
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s.d. 16.1
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Interquartile range
Most useful for non-symmetrical, skewed
data
Identifies spread of values for the middle
32
50
33
Asymmetric distribution of
values: IQR
median = 30
IQR
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Asymmetric distribution of
values: 1 s.d
-1 s.d. to +1 s.d.
mean = 33.6
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Box-and-whisker plot
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
median
median
Positive skew
Negative skew
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Data Distributions
Continuous data may follow a known distribution
Normal distribution
t-distribution
Discrete data may follow a known distribution
Poisson distribution
Binomial distribution
The data may not follow any known distribution, it
A Normal Distribution
The exact shape of a Normal frequency
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z = (x - )/
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The t-distribution
- symmetrical distribution
- differs from the Normal distribution in that slightly more
observations outside 2 s.d. from the mean
- exact shape depends on the number of degrees of freedom
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Binomial Distribution
Number of successes in a series of independent
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Poisson distribution
Likelihood of n successes when mean number of successes
mean = variance
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Summary
Statistics is all about estimating population values from samples
Confidence intervals allow us to indicate a range which, on 95% of
occasions, will contain the true population value
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