CLINICAL CHEMISTRY

1. Osmolarity number of moles of solute in a liter of solution

2. Osmolality number of moles of solute in a kg of water (solvent)
3. Cystatin C a 122 amino acid protein with a molecular weight of 13,000 Da;
it is an inhibitor of cysteine protease
4. -2-Microglobulin a polypeptide with molecular weight of 11.6 kDa and
length of 99 amino acids; a component of the MHC complex class I molecule,
and is needed for the production of CD 8 cells
5. Trace Protein a low molecular weight glycoprotein with 168 amino
acids; belongs to the lipocalin protein family and functions as prostaglandin D
synthase.
6. Bartters syndrome a rare potassium-losing autosomal recessive disorder
caused by defective NaCl reabsorption in the thick ascending limb of Henle
7. Gitelmans syndrome defective NaCl reabsorption in the distal convoluted
tubule (DCT)
8. Polyuria urine volume in excess of 2.5L/day; caused by reduced
reabsorption of water in the collcting duct
9. Osmotic diuresis increased urine output due to an excessive rate of solute
excretion (60 mOsm/hour or 1440 mOsm/day in adult)
10.Water diuresis excretion of a large volume of dilute urine.
11.Primary polydipsia increased water drinking that is not caused by
physiologically stimulated thirst
12.Hyponatremia most common electrolyte disorder; reduced plasma sodium
concentration to a value less than 135 mmol/L
13.Pseudohyponatremia a spurious reduction in serum sodium concentration
caused by a systematic error in measurement
14.Hypernatremia an increased sodium concentration in plasma water, and is
generally diagnosed at serum sodium levels >145 mmol/L
15.Metabolic acidosis occurs because net acid production is increased, or
because net acid excretion is reduced; result from reduction in the
bicarbonate content of the body
16.Osteocalcin the major nanocollagenous protein of the bone matrix, and is
produced by osteoblasts, odontoblasts, and even chondrocytes.
17.Osteoporosis the most common metabolic disease of bone; a skeletal
disorder characterized by decreased organic bone matrix and
microarchitectural deterioration of bone tissue, with a subsequent increase in
bone fragility and susceptibility to fracture.
18.Osteomalacia failure to mineralize newly formed organic matrix (osteoid)
in the mature skeleton.
19.Rickets a disease of children, is the designation of osteomalacia that
occurs before cessation of growth, that is, before closure of the epiphyseal
plates of long bones.
20.Renal osteodystrophy the spectrum of bone abnormalities that occur in
patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD), predominantly osteitis fibrosa
cystica, osteomalacia, or a combination of the two.

21.Osteitis fibrosa cystica increased bone turnover due to secondary

hyperparathyroidism, a consequence of decreased levels of 1, 25(OH) 2D3
and ionized calcium.
22.Pagets disease a chronic disorder of bone that may be unifocal or
multifocal, in which involved bones are structurally and functionally
abnormal.
23.Insulin a peptide hormone with a mass of ~5800 Da, secreted by the beta
cells in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas; stimulates glucose uptake
and the formation of glycogen and inhibits glucose production.
24.Glucagon acts primarily in the liver, where it stimulates glucose
production, and over time, ketogenesis.
25.Somatostatin a tetradecapeptide with a disulfide bond which inhibits
insulin and glucagon secretion, as well as the secretion of several other
hormones.
26.Diabetes mellitus a group of diseases in which blood glucose levels are
elevated up to 126 mg/dL of fasting plasma glucose.
27.Type 1 diabetes an autoimmune destruction of insulin-producing beta
cells in the islets of the pancreas, causing an absolute deficiency in insulin
production.
28.Type 2 diabetes the most common type of diabetes and is familial; risk
factors include overweight, sedentary lifestyle, family history of diabetes,
advanced age, ethnicity, and polycystic ovary disease, as well as history of
gestational diabetes, hypertension, vascular disease, impaired fasting
glucose and other conditions associated with insulin resistance.
29.Hypoglycemia results from an imbalance between glucose utilization and
production in such a manner that the rate of glucose utilization exceeds the
rate at which glucose is being produced.
30.Galactokinase deficiency a condition in which galactose cannot be
converted into galactose-1-phosphate, leading to cataract formation.
31.Essential fructosuria an autosomal recessive disorder resulting from
fructokinase deficiency.
32.Chylomicrons are large particles produced by the intestine that transports
lipids of dietary origin to the tissues of the body
33.Very-low-density- lipoproteins (VLDL) are produced in the liver and
supply the tissues of the body with triglycerides of endogenous, primarily
hepatic, origin and cholesterol
34.Low-density lipoproteins (LDL) are produced through the metabolism of
VLDL in circulation and constitutes about 50% of the total lipoprotein mass in
human plasma.
35.High-density lipoprotein (HDL) a small particle, consisting mostly of
protein, cholesterol, and phospholipids, with only traces of triglycerides, and
is involved in reverse cholesterol transport.
36.Troponin a regulatory complex of three proteins (tropomyosin-binding
subunit, inhibitory subunit, and calcium-binding unit) that resides at regular
intervals in the thin filament of striated muscle.
37.Myoglobin a heme-containing protein that binds oxygen within cardiac and
skeletal muscle; only a single form is common to both muscle types.

38.Carbonic anhydrase III an enzyme present in skeletal but not in cardiac

muscle, hence it can serve as a sort of negative cardiac marker.
39.Glycogen phosphorylase a widely distributed enzyme that catalyzes the
first step in glycogenolysis.
40.Myosin makes up the thick filament of the muscle contractile apparatus
and is composed of a pair of heavy chains (200 kDa) and one pair each of
type I and type II light chains (20 26 kDa).
41.Homocysteine a sulfur-containing amino acid that is not incorporated into
protein but is a metabolic intermediate; it can be methylated to form
methionine, or it can be converted through the transsulfuration pathway to
cystathionine and then to cysteine.
42.Prealbumin defined electrophoretically as the fraction that migrates in a
position faster than albumin toward the anode.
43.Albumin the single most abundant protein in normal plasma, usually
constituting up to two thirds of total plasma protein.
44.2-Macroglobulin the largest major nonimmunoglobulin protein in the
plasma, with a molecular weight of 725,000 Da
45.Haptoglobin a major protein which combines with hemoglobin released by
lysis of red cells to preserve body iron and protein stores.
46.Transferrin also called siderophilin; transports ferric ions from the iron
stores of intracellular or mucosal ferritin to bone marrow, where erythrocyte
precursors and lymphocytes have transferrin receptors on their surfaces.
47.Ceruloplasmin a copper-binding protein which contains most of the copper
in plasma and exhibits ferroxidase activity that is important in iron
metabolism.
48.Enzyme specificity defines the capacity of protein catalysts to recognize
and bind only one or a few molecules.
49.Enzymes are proteins and function as catalysts, accelerating the rates of
chemical reactions in the body but do not become chemically altered.
50.Isozymes are enzymes that have different forms but catalyze the same
reaction.
51.Cofactors group of heat-stable substances required for catalysis
52.Holoenzyme a complete catalytic entity formed from the combination of
cofactor plus the protein portion apoenzyme.
53.Angiotensin-converting enzyme also known as Kininase II and Peptidyldipeptidase A, belongs to the hydrolase class of enzymes and is usually
involves in the hydrolysis of peptide bonds at a free C-terminus, releasing the
dipeptide His-Leu in the reaction.
54.Lactate dehydrogenase a zinc-containing enzyme that is part of the
glycolytic pathway; it is found in the cytoplasm of all cells and tissues in the
body.
55.Ammonia a critical and toxic compound metabolized exclusively by the
liver and is derived mainly from amino acid and nucleic acid metabolism.
56.-fetoprotein is synthesized by embryonic hepatocytes and fetal yolk sac
cells and peaks in the second trimester of pregnancy, reaching levels that
constitute up to one third of fetal serum protein.
57.Fulminant hepatic failure an uncommon but highly fatal condition in
which massive destruction of liver tissue results in complete liver failure.

58.Cirrhosis a condition that results in parenchymal fibrosis and hepatocytic

nodular regeneration and can be caused by alcoholism, panhepatic hepatitis,
chronic active hepatitis, toxins and drugs, and diseases of the biliary tract.
59.Chronic passive congestion a condition most often secondary to
congestive heart failure in which blood pressure from the right heart is
transmitted to the hepatic sinusoids from the inferior vena cavaand the
hepatic veins, causing physical damage to hepatocytes.
60.Posthepatic biliary obstruction blockage of the intrahepatic and
extrahepatic ducts and/or to blockage of bilirubin excretion from the
hepatocyte into the canaliculi, leading to backflow of bile into the hepatocyte
and ultimately into the circulation.
61.Macroamylasemia an acquired benign condition that is more frequent in
men and is usually discovered incidentally in the fifth through seventh
decades, in which there is a persistent increase in serum amylase.
62.Cystic fibrosis an autosomal recessive disease of ion transport affecting
the CF transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene on chromosome 7
that encodes an epithelial chloride channel protein.
63.Hemochromatosis excessive body iron accumulation from any source and
is directly toxic to cells and causes fibrosis.
64.Pancreatitis an inflammation of the pancreas caused by injury to acinar
cells due to activation of digestive enzymes within the pancreatic
parenchyma
65.Lipase a glycoprotein with a molecular weight of 45,000 Da; an enzyme
that hydrolyzes glycerol esters of long-chain fatty acids at the carbon 1 and 3
ester bonds, producing 2 moles of fatty acid and 1 mole of -monoglyceride
per mole of triglyceride.
66.Pepsinogen biologically inactive proenzyme of pepsin that is produced by
chief cells and other cells in the gastric mucosa and is found in two distinct
types: Pepsinogen I (or A), and Pepsinogen II (or C).
67.Diarrhea passage of three or more loose or liquid stools per day, or more
frequently than is normal for the individual.
68.Malabsorption pathologic state of impaired nutrient absorption in the
gastrointestinal tract.
69.Abetalipoproteinemia a rare autosomal recessive disorder that is
characterized by defective assembly and secretion of apolipoprotein B and
apo B-containin lipoproteins.
70.Celiac disease also called as Gluten-sensitive enteropathy; a disorder
precipitated in genetically predisposed individuals by the ingestion of gluten,
characterized by intestinal malabsorption due to sensitivity to the alcoholsoluble portion of gluten known as gliadin.
71.Whipples disease a rare multisystem disease that often presents with
arthralgias, diarrhea, malabsorption, and weight loss.
72.Pancreatic adenocarcinoma malignant epithelial tumors composed of
mucin-producing glandular structures.
73.Insulinoma derived from cells and produce insulin that induces clinically
significant hypoglycemia
74.Gastrinoma gastri-secreting non- cell pancreatic tumors that cause a
syndrome of intractable peptic ulcer disease and gastric acid hypersecretion.

75.Glucagonoma a rare tumor, mostly of pancreatic origin, that secretes

glucagon, which induces glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in the liver and
raises blood glucose levels.
76.Carbon monoxide a toxin that disrupts oxygen transport by binding to
hemoglobin to form a reversible complex , carboxyhemoglobin.
77.Endocrine system a finely tuned servo-system in which the
hypothalamus, the pituitary, and various endocrine glands communicate
through an intricate scheme of feedback inhibition and stimulation.
78.Prolactin a polypeptide produced by the lactotrophs of the pituitary and is
responsible for the initiation and maintenance of lactation.
79.Growth hormone a single-chain polypeptide of 191 amino acids
synthesized, stored, and secreted by the somatotrophs of the pituitary in
response to the secretion of growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) by
the hypothalamus.
80.Somatostatin produced by the hypothalamis, inhibits growth hormone
release.
81.Acromegaly growth hormone overproduction; may develop into gigantism
if condition develops before closure of the epiphyses
82.Oxytocin stimulated by stretching of the cervix and vagina during
parturition (Fergusson reflex); contribute to uterine contractions late in labor.
83.Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) a glycoprotein consisting of two
monocovalently linked and subunits; it is the subunit that carries
specific information to the binding receptors for expression of hormonal
activities.
84.Adrenal glands pyramidal structures located above each kidney; each
weighing approximately 4-6 g.
85.Adrenal medulla part of the sympathoadrenal axis and possesses the
capability of synthesizing catecholamines through the process of amine
precursor uptake and decarboxylation.
86.Cushings syndrome a group of clinical and metabolic disorders
characterized by adrenocortical hyperfunction; is associated with excess
production of glucocorticoids and/or androgens.
87.Erythroblastosis fetalis also called Hemolytic disease of the fetus and
newborn; marked by anemia accompanied by normoblastic hyperplasia and
may be followed by congestive heart failure (hydrops) and intrauterine death.
88.Gestational diabetes any glucose intolerance in pregnant woman,
regardless of the state of glucose tolerance antepartum or postpartum.
89.Fetal lung maturity marked by production of surface-active phospholipid
compounds called surfactant.
90.Toxemia of pregnancy also called Preeclampsia; a syndrome
characterized by hypertension of 140 mmHg systolic or higher or 90 mmHg
diastolic or higher, with proteinuria greater than 0.3 g/L in a 24-hour urine
specimen that occurs after 20 weeks of gestation in previously normotensive
women.
91.Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) also called Thiamine pyrophosphate; an essential
cofactor of enzymes involved in carbohydrate amino acid intermediary
metabolism, and is important in brain function.

92.Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) normally forms two coenzymes: Flavin

mononucleotide and Flavin adenine dinucleotide; has an important role in
electron transport in several oxidative systems.
93.Niacin also called Nicotinic acid; has a major role in the formation of NAD
and its phosphate, which are important in intermediary metabolism and in
large number of oxidation-reduction reactions.
94.Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) a coenzyme that participates in more than 100
transamination, decarboxylations, and other reactions, including the initial
steps of porphyrin synthesis, glycogen mobilization, amino acid
transsulfuration, and neurotransmitter synthesis.
95.Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) a complex cobalt-containing molecule,
synthesized only by bacteria
96.Vitamin C (Ascorbate) a powerful reducing agent that is involved in many
oxidation-reduction reactions in the transfer of protons.
97.Folate generic name for compounds related to folic acid (pteroylglutamic
acid); plays a coenzyme role in one-carbon transfer reactions.
98.Pantothemic acid -part of coenzyme A (CoA) and of acyl carrier protein
(ACP)
99.Biotin a coenzyme for several carboxylase enzymes: pyruvate carboxylase,
acytl CoA, and carboxylase.
100.
Troponin (Tn) - a regulatory complex of three proteins that resides at
regular intervals in the thin filament of striated muscle.
101.
-Lipoprotein (low-density lipoprotein [LDL]) - migrates with a
characteristic sharp leading cathodal edge and feathery trailing region more
anodally.
102.
Catalyst - accelerates the rate of a chemical reaction.
103.
ACIDPHOSPHATASE(EC3.1.3.2) - belong to the hydrolase class
of enzymes and occur as several isoenzymes with a common enzymatic
function (the hydrolytic breakdown of phosphate monoesters).
104.
ANGIOTENSIN-CONVERTINGENZYME (EC3.4.15.1) - also
known as kininase II and peptidyl-dipeptidase A, belongs to the hydrolase
class of enzymes and is usually involved in the hydrolysis of peptide bonds at
a free C-terminus, releasing the dipeptide His-Leu in the reaction.
105.
Liver - the largest and most complex organ of the gastrointestinal
tract.
106.
Bilirubin - the major metabolite of heme, the ironbinding tetrapyrrole
ring found in hemoglobin, myoglobin, and cytochromes.
107.
Ammonia - is derived mainly from amino acid and nucleic acid
metabolism.
108.
-Glutamyl Transferase - enzyme that regulates the transport of
amino acids across cell membranes by catalyzing the transfer of a glutamyl
group from glutathione to a free amino acid.
109.
Fetoprotein (AFP) - is synthesized by embryonic hepatocytes and
fetal yolk sac cells and peaks in the second trimester of pregnancy, reaching
levels that constitute up to one third of fetal serum protein.
110.
Cirrhosis of the liver - is a condition that results in parenchymal
fibrosis and hepatocytic nodular regeneration and can be caused by

alcoholism, panhepatic hepatitis, chronic active hepatitis, toxins and drugs,

and diseases of the biliary tract
111.
Posthepatic biliary obstruction - refers to blockage of the
intrahepatic and extrahepatic ducts and/or to blockage of bilirubin excretion
from the hepatocyte into the canaliculi, leading to backflow of bile into the
hepatocyte and ultimately into the circulation.
112.
Acute fulminant hepatic failure - an uncommon but highly fatal
condition, massive destruction of liver tissue results in complete liver failure.
113.
Macroamylasemia - not a disease, but an acquired benign condition
that is more frequent in men and is usually discovered incidentally in the fifth
through seventh decades
114.
Pilocarpine - is introduced into the skin by iontophoresis to stimulate
locally increased sweat gland secretion.
115.
Acute Pancreatitis - acute reversible inflammation is due to
enzymatic necrosis.
116.
Pancreatitis - is an inflammation of the pancreas caused by injury to
acinar cells due to activation of digestive enzymes within the pancreatic
parenchyma
117.
Lactose Tolerance Test - provides a presumptive diagnosis of lactase
deficiency.
118.
Malabsorption - is the pathologic state of impaired nutrient
absorption in the gastrointestinal tract.
119.
Insulinomas - are derived from cells and produce insulin that
induces clinically significant hypoglycemia.
120.
Gastrinomas - are gastrin-secreting non cell pancreatic tumors that
cause a syndrome of intractable peptic ulcer disease and gastric acid
hypersecretion.
121.
Thin-Layer Chromatography - allows direct qualitative detection of
drugs in a panoramic way.
122.
High-Performance Liquid Chromatography - allows quantitative
detection of drugs and allows sharper separation of these same drugs.
123.
GASCHROMATOGRAPHY MASSSPECTROSCOPY - the gold
standard for the identification of volatile compounds
124.
LIQUIDCHROMATOGRAPHY MASSSPECTROSCOPY - detects
Nonvolatile compounds
125.
Endocrine system - is a finely tuned servo-system in which the
hypothalamus, the pituitary, and various endocrine glands communicate
through an intricate scheme of feedback inhibition and stimulation.
126.
Pituitary gland - also known as the hypophysis; is located within the
confines of the sella turcica; it is connected by the infundibular stalk to the
median eminence of the hypothalamus.
127.
PROLACTIN - is a polypeptide produced by the lactotrophs of the
pituitary; it is responsible for the initiation and maintenance of lactation.
128.
Idiopathic growth hormone deficiency - the most common cause
of GH deficiency (GHD) in children
129.
Pituitary adenoma - is the most common etiology in adult-onset GHD
130.
Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone - a glycoprotein consisting of two
monocovalently linked and subunits

131.
Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone - is a modified tripeptide
(pyroglutamyl-histidyl-proline-amide) derived from a large prepro-TRH
molecule
132.
Vitamins - organic molecules are required in trace amounts for health,
growth, and reproduction
133.
Vitamin A - is derived from two compound classes: preformed vitamin
A, retinol, and related compounds; and the precursors carotene and related
carotenoids.
134.
VitaminE(Tocopherol) - fatsoluble antioxidant, or freeradical
scavenger, inactivates oxygen freeradicals.
135.
VitaminD(Cholecalciferol) - plays an essential role as a
hormone in the control of calcium and phosphorus metabolism.
136.
VitaminK(Phytomenadione) - promotes clotting and is involved
in the activation of important proteins in blood coagulation, prothrombin (II),
factor VII, factor IX, and factor X, as well as protein C and protein S
137.
Chromium (Cr) - is known to enhance the action of insulin
138.
Cobalt (Co) - is essential for humans only as an integral part of
vitamin B12 (cobalamin)
139.
Copper (Cu) - is the third most abundant trace element in the human
body, following zinc and iron. It is a very effective cation in reactions that
involve electron transfer and binding to organic molecules
140.
MANGANESE - is associated with the formation of connective and
bony tissue and carbohydrate and lipid metabolism.
141.
Molybdenum (Mo) - is incorporated into metalloenzymes and several
important enzymes, including sulfite oxidase and xanthine dehydrogenase.
142.
Selenium (Se) - is a constituent of glutathione peroxidase that is
associated with vitamin E in its functions.
143.
Dietary iodine - is normally ingested as iodide and is the basic
element in the synthesis of thyroid hormones
144.
Zinc (Zn) - is second to iron as the most abundant trace element in
the body. It is the most common catalytic metal ion in the cytoplasm of cells.
145.
Ion-Selective electrode - this technique is used to measure the
concentrations of specific ions by an electrochemical method.
146.
Triglycerides - heterogeneous group of triesters of fatty acids with
glycerol
147.
Kidney - the most important organ in the maintenance of normal fluid
volume and composition.
148.
Glomerular filtration rate - can be estimated from a determination
of creatinine clearance, which requires measurement of creatinine in both
plasma and a timed urine specimen
149.
hypertonic solution - is one that shrinks the cells
150.
hypotonic solution - is one that causes swelling of the cells
151.
Renal clearance - relates the rate of urinary excretion of material to
the plasma concentration of that material
152.
Hypokalemia - occurs by one of three main mechanisms: intracellular
shift, reduced intake, or increased loss

153.
Hyperkalemia - may be caused by one of three mechanisms: (1) shift
of potassium from the cells to the ECF (2) increased potassium intake, or (3)
reduced renal potassium excretion