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ESDEPWG15A
STRUCTURALSYSTEMS:OFFSHORE

Lecture15A.1:OffshoreStructures:
GeneralIntroduction
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
Toidentifythebasicvocabulary,tointroducethemajorconceptsforoffshoreplatformstructures,andtoexplainwherethebasicstructural
requirementsfordesignaregenerated.
PREREQUISITES
None.
SUMMARY
Thelecturestartswithapresentationoftheimportanceofoffshorehydrocarbonexploitation,thebasicstepsinthedevelopmentprocess(from
seismicexplorationtoplatformremoval)andtheintroductionofthemajorstructuralconcepts(jacketbased,GBSbased,TLP,floating).The
majorcodesareidentified.
Forthefixedplatformconcepts(jacketandGBS),thedifferentexecutionphasesarebrieflyexplained:design,fabricationandinstallation.
Specialattentionisgiventosomeprinciplesoftopsidedesign.
Abasicintroductiontocostaspectsispresented.
Finallytermsareintroducedthroughaglossary.

1.INTRODUCTION
Offshoreplatformsareconstructedtoproducethehydrocarbonsoilandgas.Thecontributionofoffshoreoilproductionintheyear1988tothe
worldenergyconsumptionwas9%andisestimatedtobe24%in2000.
Theinvestment(CAPEX)requiredatpresenttoproduceonebarrelofoilperday($/B/D)andtheproductioncosts(OPEX)perbarrelare
depictedinthetablebelow.
Condition

CAPEX$/B/D

OPEX$/B

Average

40008000

MiddleEast

5003000

NonOpec

300012000

NorthSea

1000025000

510

Deepwater

1500035000

1015

Conventional

Offshore

Worldoilproductionin1988was63millionbarrel/day.Thesefiguresclearlyindicatethechallengefortheoffshoredesigner:agrowing
contributionisrequiredfromoffshoreexploitation,averycapitalintensiveactivity.
Figure1showsthedistributionoftheoilandgasfieldsintheNorthSea,amajorcontributiontotheworldoffshorehydrocarbons.Italso
indicatestheonshorefieldsinEngland,theNetherlandsandGermany.

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2.OFFSHOREPLATFORMS
2.1IntroductionofBasicTypes
Theoverwhelmingmajorityofplatformsarepiledjacketwithdeckstructures,allbuiltinsteel(seeSlides1and2).

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Slide1:JacketbasedplatformSouthernsectorNorthSea

Slide2:JacketbasedplatformNorthernsectorNorthSea
Asecondmajortypeisthegravityconcretestructure(seeFigure2),whichisemployedintheNorthSeaintheNorwegianandBritishsectors.

Athirdtypeisthefloatingproductionunit.

2.2Environment
Theoffshoreenvironmentcanbecharacterizedby:
waterdepthatlocation
soil,atseabottomandindepth
windspeed,airtemperature
waves,tideandstormsurge,current
ice(fixed,floes,icebergs)
earthquakes(ifnecessary)
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Thetopsidestructurealsomustbekeptclearofthewavecrest.Theclearance(airgap)usuallyistakenatapproximately1,50m,butshouldbe
increasedifreservoirdepletionwillcreatesignificantsubsidence.

2.3Construction
Theenvironmentaswellasfinancialaspectsrequirethatahighdegreeofprefabricationmustbeperformedonshore.Itisnecessarytodesign
tolimitoffshoreworktoaminimum.Theoverallcostofamanhouroffshoreisapproximatelyfivetimesthatofanonshoremanhour.The
costofconstructionequipmentrequiredtohandleloads,andthecostforlogisticsarealsoamagnitudehigheroffshore.
Thesefactorscombinedwiththesizeandweightoftheitems,requirethatadesignermustcarefullyconsiderallconstructionactivities
betweenshopfabricationandoffshoreinstallation.

2.4Codes
Structuraldesignhastocomplywithspecificoffshorestructuralcodes.TheworldwideleadingstructuralcodeistheAPIRP2A[1].The
recentlyissuedLloydsrules[2]andtheDnVrules[3]arealsoimportant.
Specificgovernmentrequirementshavetobecompliedwith,e.g.intherulesofDepartmentofEnergy(DoE),NorwegianPetroleum
Direktorate(NPD).ForthedetaildesignofthetopsidestructuretheAISCcode[4]isfrequentlyused,andtheAWScode[5]isusedfor
welding.
IntheUKthePiperalphadiasterhasledtoacompletelynewapproachtoregulationoffshore.Theresponsibilityforregulatorycontrolhas
beenmovedtotheHealthandSafetyExecutive(HSE)andtheoperatorhastoproduceaformalsafetyassessment(TSA)himselfinsteadof
complyingwithdetailedregulations.

2.5CertificationandWarrantySurvey
Governmentauthoritiesrequirethatrecognizedbodiesappraisetheaspectsofstructuralintegrityandissueacertificatetothatpurpose.
Themajorcertificationbodiesare:
DetnorskeVeritas(DnV)
LloydsRegisterofShipping(LRS)
AmericanBureauofShipping(ABS)
BureauVeritas(BV)
GermanischerLloyd(GL)
Theirrequirementsareavailabletothedesigner[2,3,6,7,8].
Insurancecompaniescoveringtransportandinstallationrequirethestructurestobereviewedbywarrantysurveyorsbeforeacceptance.The
warrantysurveyorsapplystandards,ifavailable,onaconfidentialbasis.

3.OFFSHOREDEVELOPMENTOFANOIL/GASFIELD
3.1Introduction
Thedifferentrequirementsofanoffshoreplatformandthetypicalphasesofanoffshoredevelopmentaresummarizedin[9].Afterseveral
initialphaseswhichincludeseismicfieldsurveying,oneormoreexplorationwellsaredrilled.Jackupdrillingrigsareusedforthispurpose
forwaterdepthsupto100120mfordeeperwaterfloatingrigsareused.Theresultsarestudiedandtheeconomicsandrisksofdifferent
developmentplansareevaluated.Factorsinvolvedintheevaluationmayincludenumberofwellsrequired,fixedorfloatedproduction
facilities,numberofsuchfacilities,andpipelineortankeroffloading.
Assoonasexploitationisdecidedandapproved,therearefourmaintechnicalactivities,priortoproduction:
engineeringanddesign
fabricationandinstallationoftheproductionfacility
drillingofproductionwells,taking23months/well
providingtheoffloadingsystem(pipelines,tankers,etc.).
Thedrillingandconstructioninteractionisdescribedbelowfortwotypicalfixedplatformconcepts.

3.2JacketBasedPlatformforShallowWater
Firstthejacketisinstalled.Thewellsarethendrilledbyajackupdrillingunitstandingclosebywithacantileverrigextendingoverthe
jacket.Slide3showsajackupdrillingunitwithacantileverrig.(Inthisinstanceitisengagedinexploratorydrillingandisthereforeworking
inisolation.)

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Slide3:Cantilevereddrillingrig:Selfelevating(jackup)explorationdrillingplatform.
Designandconstructionofthetopsideareprogressedparalleltothedrilling,allowingproductiontostartsoonafterdeckinstallation.For
furtherwells,thejackupdrillingunitwillbecalledonceagainandwillreachoverthewellareaoftheproductiondeck.
Asanalternativetothisconceptthewellsareoftenaccommodatedinaseparatewellheadplatform,linkedbyabridgetotheproduction
platform(seeSlide1).

3.3JacketandGravityBasedPlatformforDeepWater
Thewellsaredrilledfromadrillingrigonthepermanentplatform(seeSlide2).Drillingstartsaftertheplatformisbuiltandcompletely
installed.Consequentlyproductionstartsbetweenoneandtwoyearsafterplatforminstallation.
Inrecentyearspredrilledwellshavebeenusedtoallowanearlierstartoftheproduction.Inthiscasetheplatformhastobeinstalledexactly
abovethepredrilledwells.

4.JACKETSANDPILEFOUNDATION
4.1Introduction
Jackets,thetowerlikebracedtubularstructures,generallyperformtwofunctions:
Theyprovidethesubstructurefortheproductionfacility(topside),keepingitstableabovethewaves.
Theysupportlaterallyandprotectthe2630inchwellconductorsandthepipelineriser.
Theinstallationmethodsforthejacketandthepileshaveaprofoundimpactonthedesign.

4.2PileFoundation
Thejacketfoundationisprovidedbyopenendedtubularsteelpiles,withdiametersupto2m.Thepilesaredrivenapproximately4080m,
andinsomecases120mdeepintotheseabed.
Therearebasicallythreetypesofpile/jacketarrangement(seeFigure3):

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Pilethroughlegconcept,wherethepileisinstalledinthecornerlegsofthejacket.
Skirtpilesthroughpilesleevesatthejacketbase,wherethepileisinstalledinguidesattachedtothejacketleg.Skirtpilescanbegroupedin
clustersaroundeachofthejacketlegs.
Verticalskirtpilesaredirectlyinstalledinthepilesleeveatthejacketbaseallotherguidesaredeleted.Thisarrangementresultsinreduced
structuralweightandeasierpiledriving.Incontrastinclinedpilesenlargethefoundationatthebottom,thusprovidingastifferstructure.

4.3PileBearingResistance
Axialloadresistanceisrequiredforbearingaswellasfortension.Thepileaccumulatesbothskinfrictionaswellasendbearingresistance.
Lateralloadresistanceofthepileisrequiredforrestraintofthehorizontalforces.Theseforcesleadtosignificantbendingofthepilenearto
theseabed.
Number,arrangement,diameterandpenetrationofthepilesdependontheenvironmentalloadsandthesoilconditionsatthelocation.

4.4CorrosionProtection
Themostusualformofcorrosionprotectionofthebareunderwaterpartofthejacketaswellastheupperpartofthepilesinsoilisbycathodic
protectionusingsacrificialanodes.Asacrificialanode(approximate3kNeach)consistsofazinc/aluminiumbarcastaboutasteeltubeand
weldedontothestructures.Typicallyapproximately5%ofthejacketweightisappliedasanodes.
Thesteelworkinthesplashzoneisusuallyprotectedbyasacrificialwallthicknessof12mmtothemembers.

5.TOPSIDES
5.1Introduction
Themajorfunctionsonthedeckofanoffshoreplatformare:
wellcontrol
supportforwellworkoverequipment
separationofgas,oilandnontransportablecomponentsintherawproduct,e.g.water,parafines/waxesandsand
supportforpumps/compressorsrequiredtotransporttheproductashore
powergeneration
accommodationforoperatingandmaintenancestaff.
Therearebasicallytwostructuraltypesoftopside,theintegratedandmodularizedtopsidewhicharepositionedeitheronajacketorona
concretegravitysubstructure.

5.2JacketbasedTopsides
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5.2.1Concepts
Therearefourstructuralconceptsinpractice.Theyresultfromtheliftingcapacityofcranevesselsandtheloadoutcapacityattheyards:
thesingleintegrateddeck(uptoapprox100MN)
thesplitdeckintwofourlegunits
theintegrateddeckwithlivingquartermodule
themodularizedtopsideconsistingofmodulesupportframe(MSF)carryingaseriesofmodules.
Slide4showsanintegrateddeck(thoughexcludingthelivingquartersandhelideck)beingmovedfromitsassemblybuilding.

Slide4:Integratedtopsideduringloadout
5.2.2StructuralDesignforIntegratedTopsides
Forthesmallerdecks,uptoapproximately100MNweight,thesupportstructureconsistsoftrussesorportalframeswithdeletionof
diagonals.
Themoderateverticalloadandshearpercolumnallowsthetopsidetobesupportedbyverticalcolumns(decklegs)only,downtothetopof
thepiles(situatedatapproximately+4mto+6mL.A.T.(LowAstronomicTide).
5.2.3StructuralDesignforModularizedJacketbasedTopsides
Amajormodularizedtopsideweighs200to400MN.InthiscasetheMSFisaheavytubularstructure(Figure4),withlateralbracingdownto
thetopofjacket.

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5.3StructuralDesignforModularizedGravitybasedTopsides
Thetopsidestobesupportedbyagravitybasedsubstructure(seeFigure2)areinaweightrangeof200MNupto500MN.
Thebackboneofthestructureisasystemofheavyboxgirderswithaheightofapproximately10mandawidthofapproximately1215m
(seeFigure5).

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Thesubstructureofthedeckisrigidlyconnectedtotheconcretecolumnandactsasabeamsupportingthedeckmodules.Thisconnection
introduceswaveinducedfatigueinthedeckstructure.Arecentdevelopment,foreseenfortheNorwegianTrollplatform,istoprovidea
flexibleconnectionbetweenthedeckandconcretecolumn,thuseliminatingfatigueinthedeck[10].

6.EQUIPMENTANDLIVINGQUARTERMODULES
Equipmentmodules(2075MN)havetheformofrectangularboxeswithoneortwointermediatefloors.
Thefloorsaresteelplate(6,8or10mmthick)forroofandlowerfloor,andgratingforintermediatefloors.
Inlivingquartermodules(525MN)allsleepingroomsrequirewindowsandseveraldoorsmustbeprovidedintheouterwalls.This
requirementcaninterfereseriouslywithtrussarrangements.Floorsareflatorstiffenedplate.
Threetypesofstructuralconcepts,allavoidinginteriorcolumns,canbedistinguished:
conventionaltrussesinthewalls.
stiffenedplatewalls(socalledstressedskinordeckhousetype).
heavybaseframe(withwindbracingsinthewalls).

7.CONSTRUCTION
7.1Introduction
Thedesignofoffshorestructureshastoconsidervariousrequirementsofconstructionrelatingto:
1.fabrication.
2.weight.
3.loadout.
4.seatransport.
5.offshoreinstallation.
6.moduleinstallation.
7.hookup.
8.commissioning.
Adocumentedconstructionstrategyshouldbeavailableduringallphasesofthedesignandtheactualdesigndevelopmentshouldbe
monitoredagainsttheconstructionstrategy.
Constructionisillustratedbelowbyfourexamples.

7.2ConstructionofJacketsandTopsides
7.2.1LiftInstalledJackets
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Thejacketisbuiltinthevertical(smallerjackets)orhorizontalposition(biggerjackets)onaquayofafabricationsite.
Thejacketisloadedoutandseafastenedaboardabarge.Attheoffshorelocationthebargeismooredalongsideanoffshorecranevessel.
Thejacketisliftedoffthebarge,upendedfromthehorizontal,andcarefullysetdownontotheseabed.
Aftersettingdownthejacket,thepilesareinstalledintothesleevesand,drivenintotheseabed.Fixingthepilestothejacketcompletesthe
installation.
7.2.2LaunchInstalledJackets
Thejacketisbuiltinhorizontalposition.
Forloadouttothetransportbarge,thejacketisputonskidsslidingonastraighttrackofsteelbeams,andpulledontothebarge(Slide5).

Slide5:Jacketbeingloadedontobargebyskidding
Attheoffshorelocationthejacketisslidoffthebarge.Itimmersesdeeplyintothewaterandassumesafloatingpositionafterwards(see
Figure6).

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Twoparallelheavyverticaltrussesinthejacketstructurearerequired,capableoftakingthesupportreactionsduringlaunching.Toreduce
forcesandmomentsinthejacket,rockerarmsareattachedtothesternofthebarge.
Thenextphaseistouprightthejacketbymeansofcontrolledfloodingofthebuoyancytanksandthensetdownontotheseabed.Self
upendingjacketsobtainaverticalpositionafterthelaunchontheirown.Pilingandpile/jacketfixingcompletestheinstallation.
7.2.3TopsidesforaGravityBasedStructure(GBS)
Thetopsideisassembledabovetheseaonatemporarysupportnearayard.Itisthentakenbyabargeofsuchdimensionsastofitbetweenthe
columnsofthetemporarysupportandbetweenthecolumnsoftheGBS.TheGBSisbroughtinadeepfloatingconditioninashelteredsite,
e.g.aNorwegianfjord.ThebargeispositionedbetweenthecolumnsandtheGBSisthendeballastedtomatewithandtotakeoverthedeck
fromthebarge.ThefloatingGBSwithdeckisthentowedtotheoffshoresiteandsetdownontotheseabed.
7.2.4JacketTopsides
Fortopsidesuptoapproximately120MN,thetopsidemaybeinstalledinonelift.Slide6showsa60MNtopsidebeinginstalledbyfloating
cranes.

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Slide6:Installationof60MNK12BPtopsidebyfloatingcrane
Forthemodularizedtopside,firsttheMSFwillbeinstalled,immediatelyfollowedbythemodules.

7.3OffshoreLifting
Liftingofheavyloadsfrombarges(Slide6)isoneoftheveryimportantandspectacularconstructionactivitiesrequiringafocusonthe
problemwhenconceptsaredeveloped.Weatherwindows,i.e.periodsofsuitableweatherconditions,arerequiredfortheseoperations.
7.3.1CraneVessel
Liftingofheavyloadsoffshorerequiresuseofspecializedcranevessels.Figure7providesinformationonatypicalbig,dualcranevessel.
Table1(page16)listssomeofthemajoroffshorecranevessels.

7.3.2Slingarrangement,SlingsandShackles
Forlifting,steelwireropesinafourslingarrangementareusedwhichdirectlyrestinthefourpointhookofthecranevessel,(seeFigure8).
Theheaviestslingavailablenowhasadiameterofapproximately350mm,abreakingloadofapproximately48MN,andasafeworkingload
(SWL)of16MN.Shacklesareavailableupto10MNSWLtoconnectthepadeyesinstalledatthemodule'scolumns.Duetothespace
required,connectingmorethanoneshackletothesamecolumnisnotveryattractive.Sowhentheslingloadexceeds10MN,padearsbecome
anoption.
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Table1MajorOffshoreCraneVessels
Operator

Name

Mode

Type

Liftingcapacity(Tonnes)

Heerema

Thor

Monohull

Fix

2720

Rev

1820

Fix

2720

Rev

2450

Fix

4536+3628=8164

Rev

3630+2720=6350

Fix

3630+2720=6350

Rev

3000+2000=5000

Fix

4000

Rev

3800

Fix

1820

Rev

1450

Fix

3360

Rev

2450

Odin
Hermod
Balder
McDermott DB50
DB100
DB101

Monohull
Semisub
Semisub
Monohull
Semisub
Semisub

DB102

Semisub

Rev

6000+6000=12000

Micoperi

M7000

Semisub

Rev

7000+7000=14000

ETPM

DLB1601 Monohull

Rev.

1600

Notes:
1.Ratedliftingcapacityinmetrictonnes.
2.Whenthecranevesselsareprovidedwithtwocranes,thesecranesaresituatedatthevesselssternorbowatapproximately60m
distancec.t.c.
1.3.Rev=Loadcapabilitywithfullyrevolvingcrane.
Fix=Loadcapabilitywithcranefixed.

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7.4SeaTransportandSeaFastening
Transportationisperformedaboardaflattopbargeor,ifpossible,onthedeckofthecranevessel.
Themodulerequiresfixingtothebarge(seeFigure9)towithstandbargemotionsinroughseas.Theseafasteningconceptisdeterminedby
thepositionsoftheframinginthemoduleaswellasofthe"hardpoints"inthebarge.

7.5Loadout
7.5.1Introduction
Forloadoutthreebasicmethodsareapplied:
skidding
platformtrailers
shearlegs.
7.5.2Skidding
Skiddingisamethodfeasibleforitemsofanyweight.Thesystemconsistsofaseriesofsteelbeams,actingastrack,onwhichagroupofskids
witheachapproximately6MNloadcapacityisarranged.Eachskidisprovidedwithahydraulicjacktocontrolthereaction.
7.5.3PlatformTrailers
Specializedtrailerunits(seeFigure10)canbecombinedtoactasoneunitforloadsupto6075MN.Thewheelsareindividuallysuspended
andintegratedjacksallowadjustmentupto300mm.

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Theloadcapacityovertheprojectedgroundareavariesfromapproximately55to85kN/sq.m.
Theunitscandriveinalldirectionsandnegotiatecurves.
7.5.4Shearlegs
Loadoutbyshearlegsisattractiveforsmalljacketsbuiltonthequay.Smallerdecks(upto1012MN)canbeloadedoutonthedecklegspre
positionedonthebarge,thusallowingdeckanddecklegtobeinstalledinoneliftoffshore.

7.6PlatformRemoval
Inrecentyearsplatformremovalhasbecomecommon.Themodeofremovaldependsstronglyontheregulationsofthelocalauthorities.
Provisionforremovalshouldbeconsideredinthedesignphase.

8.STRUCTURALANALYSIS
8.1Introduction
Themajorityofstructuralanalysesarebasedonthelineartheoryofelasticityfortotalsystembehaviour.Dynamicanalysisisperformedfor
thesystembehaviourunderwaveattackifthenaturalperiodexceeds3seconds.Manyelementscanexhibitlocaldynamicbehaviour,e.g.
compressorfoundations,flarestacks,cranepedestals,slenderjacketmembers,conductors.

8.2InplacePhase
Threetypesofanalysisareperformed:
Survivalstate,underwave/current/windattackwith50or100yearsrecurrenceperiod.
Operationalstate,underwave/current/windattackwith1or5yearsrecurrenceperiod,underfulloperation.
Fatigueassessment.
Accidental.
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Alltheseanalysesareperformedonthecompleteandintactstructure.Assessmentsatdamagedstructures,e.g.withonememberdeleted,and
assessmentsofcollisionsituationsareoccasionallyperformed.

8.3ConstructionPhase
Themajorphasesofconstructionwhenstructuralintegritymaybeendangeredare:
Loadout
Seatransport
Upendingofjackets
Lifting.

9.COSTASPECTS
9.1Introduction
Theeconomicfeasibilityofanoffshoreprojectdependsonmanyaspects:capitalexpenditure(CAPEX),tax,royalties,operationalexpenditure
(OPEX).
Inatypicaloffshorefielddevelopment,onethirdoftheCAPEXisspentontheplatform,onethirdonthedrillingofwellsandonethirdonthe
pipelines.
Costestimatesareusuallypreparedinadeterministicapproach.Recentlycostestimatingusingaprobabilisticapproachhasbeendeveloped
andadoptedinmajoroffshoreprojects.
TheCAPEXofaninstalledoffshoreplatformtopsideamountstoapproximately20ECU/kg.

9.2CapitalExpenditure(CAPEX)
ThemajorelementsintheCAPEXforanoffshoreplatformare:
projectmanagementanddesign
materialandequipmentprocurement
fabrication
transportandinstallation
hookupandcommissioning.

9.3OperationalExpenditure(OPEX)
IntheNorthSeaapproximately20percentofOPEXarerequiredforoffshoreinspection,maintenanceandrepair(IMR).
TheamounttobespentonIMRovertheprojectlifecanadduptoapproximatelyhalftheoriginalinvestment.
IMRistheareainwhichthestructuralengineermakesacontributionbyeffortindesign,selectionofmaterial,improvedcorrosionprotection,
accessibility,basicprovisionsforscaffolding,avoidingjacketattachmentsdangeroustodivers,etc.

10.DEEPWATERDEVELOPMENTS
Deepwaterintroducesawiderangeofextradifficultiesfortheoperator,thedesignerandconstructorofoffshoreplatforms.
Fixedplatformshaverecentlybeeninstalledinwaterof410m.depth,i.e."Bullwinkle"developedbyShellOilforaGulfofMexicolocation.
Thejacketweighednearly500MN.
ThemaximumdepthofwateratplatformsitesintheNorthSeaisapproximately220matpresent.ThedevelopmentoftheTrollfieldsituated
inapproximately305mdeepwaterisplannedfor1993.
IntheGulfofMexicoandoffshoreCaliforniaseveralfixedplatformsinwaterdepthsof250350mareinoperation(Cerveza,Cognac).
Exxonhasaguyedtowerplatform(Lena)inoperationin300mdeepwater.
Anoptionfordeeperlocationsistousesubseawellswithflowlinestoanearby(approximatelymaximum10km)fixedplatformatasmaller
waterdepth.Alternativelysubseawellsmaybeusedwithflexibleriserstoafloatingproductionunit.Subseawellsarenowfeasiblefor300
900mdeepwater.ThedeepestwellshavebeendevelopedoffBrasilinmoderateweatherconditions.
Thetensionlegplatform(TLP)seemstobethemostpromisingdeepwaterproductionunit(Figure11).Itconsistsofasemisubmersible
pontoon,tiedtotheseabedbyverticalprestressedtethers.ThefirstTLPwasHuttonintheNorthSeaandrecentlyTLPJollietwasinstalledat
a530mdeeplocationintheGulfofMexico.NorwegianSnorreandHeidrunfieldshavebeendevelopedwithTLPsaswell.

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11.CONCLUDINGSUMMARY
Thelecturestartswiththepresentationoftheimportanceofoffshorehydrocarbonexploitation,thebasicstepsinthedevelopment
process(fromseismicexplorationtoplatformremoval)andtheintroductionofthemajorstructuralconcepts(jacketbased,GBSbased,
TLP,floating).
Themajorcodesareidentified.
Forthefixedplatformconcepts(jacketandGBS),thedifferentexecutionphasesarebrieflyexplained:design,fabricationand
installation.Specialattentionisgiventotheprinciplesoftopsidedesign.
Abasicintroductiontocostaspectsispresented.
Finallytermsareintroducedwithinaglossary.

12.GLOSSARYOFTERMS
AIRGAPClearancebetweenthetopofmaximumwaveandundersideofthetopside.
CAISSONSSeeSUMPS
CONDUCTORSThetubularprotectingandguidingthedrillstringfromthetopsidedownto40to100mundertheseabottom.Afterdrillingit
protectsthewellcasing.
G.B.S.Gravitybasedstructure,sittingflatlyontheseabottom,stablethroughitsweight.
HOOKUPConnectingcomponentsorsystems,afterinstallationoffshore.
JACKETTubularsubstructureunderatopside,standinginthewaterandpilefounded.
LOADOUTTheoperationofbringingtheobject(module,jacket,deck)fromthequayontothetransportationbarge.
PADEARS(TRUNNIONS)Thickwalledtubularstubs,directlyreceivingslingsandtransverselyweldedtothemainstructure.
PADEYESThickwalledplatewithhole,receivingthepinoftheshackle,weldedtothemainstructure.
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PIPELINERISERThepipingsectionwhichrisesfromtheseabedtotopsidelevel.
SEAFASTENINGThestructuretokeeptheobjectrigidlyconnectedtothebargeduringtransport.
SHACKLESConnectingelement(bow+pin)betweenslingsandpadeyes.
SLINGSCableswithsplicedeyedatbothends,foroffshorelifting,theupperendrestinginthecranehook.
SPREADERTubularframe,usedinliftingoperation.
SUBSEATEMPLATEStructureatseabottom,toguideconductorspriortojacketinstallation.
SUMPSVerticalpipesfromtopsidedownto510mbelowwaterlevelforintakeordischarge.
TOPSIDETopside,thecompactoffshoreprocessplant,withallauxiliaries,positionedabovethewaves.
UPENDINGBringingthejacketinverticalposition,priortosetdownontheseabottom.
WEATHERWINDOW
Aperiodofcalmweather,definedonbasisofoperationallimitsfortheoffshoremarineoperation.
WELLHEADAREAAreaintopsidewherethewellheadsarepositionedincludingthevalvesmountedonitstop.

13.REFERENCES
[1]APIRP2A:Recommendedpracticeforplanning,designingandconstructingfixedoffshoreplatforms.
AmericanPetroleumInstitute18thed.1989.
Thestructuraloffshorecode,governsthemajorityofplatforms.
[2]LRSCodeforoffshoreplatforms.
LloydsRegisterofShipping.
London(UK)1988.
Regulationsofamajorcertifyingauthority.
[3]DnV:Rulesfortheclassificationoffixedoffshoreinstallations.
DetNorskeVeritas1989.
Importantsetofrules.
[4]AISC:Specificationforthedesign,fabricationanderectionofstructuralsteelforbuildings.
AmericanInstituteofSteelConstruction1989.
Widelyusedstructuralcodefortopsides.
[5]AWSD1.190:StructuralWeldingCodeSteel.
AmericanWeldingSociety1990.
Thestructuraloffshoreweldingcode.
[6]DnV/MarineOperations:Standardforinsurancewarrantysurveysinmarineoperations.
DetnorskeVeritasJune1985.
Regulationsofamajorcertifyingauthority.
[7]ABS:Rulesforbuildingandclassingoffshoreinstallations,Part1Structures.
AmericanBureauofShipping1983.
Regulationsofamajorcertifyingauthority.
[8]BV:Rulesandregulationsfortheconstructionandclassificationofoffshoreplatforms.
BureauVeritas,Paris1975.
Regulationsofamajorcertifyingauthority.
[9]ANON:Aprimerofoffshoreoperations.
PetexPubl.AustinU.S.A2nded.1985.
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Fundamentalinformationaboutoffshoreoilandgasoperations.
[10]AGJBerkelderetal:Flexibledeckjoints.
ASME/OMAEconferenceTheHague1989Vol.IIpp.753760.
PresentsinterestingnewconceptinGBSdesign.

14.ADDITIONALREADING
1.BS6235:Codeofpracticeforfixedoffshorestructures.
BritishStandardsInstitution1982.
Importantcode,mainlyfortheBritishoffshoresector.
2.DoEOffshoreinstallations:Guidanceondesignandconstruction,U.K.DepartmentofEnergy1990.
GovernmentalregulationsforBritishoffshoresectoronly.
3.UEG:Designoftubularjoints(3volumes).
UEGOffshoreResearchPubl.U.R.331985.
Importanttheoreticalandpracticalbook.
4.J.Wardenier:Hollowsectionjoints.
DelftUniversityPress1981.
Theoreticalpublicationontubulardesignincludingpracticaldesignformulae.
5.ARSEM:Designguidesforoffshorestructuresweldedtubularjoints.
EditionTechnip,Paris(France),1987.
Importanttheoreticalandpracticalbook.
6.D.Johnston:Fielddevelopmentoptions.
Oil&GasJournal,May51986,pp132142.
Goodpresentationondevelopmentoptions.
7.G.I.Claumetal:OffshoreStructures:Vol1:ConceptualDesignandHydrimechanicsVol2StrengthandSafetyforStructuraldesign.
SpringerVerlag,London1992.
Fundamentalpublicationonstructuralbehaviour.
8.W.J.Graff:Introductiontooffshorestructures.
GulfPublishingCompany,Houston1981.
Goodgeneralintroductiontooffshorestructures.
9.B.C.Gerwick:Constructionofoffshorestructures.
JohnWiley&Sons,NewYork1986.
Uptodatepresentationofoffshoredesignandconstruction.
10.T.A.Doodyetal:Importantconsiderationsforsuccessfulfabricationofoffshorestructures.
OTCpaper5348,Houston1986,pp531539.
Valuablepaperonfabricationaspects.
11.D.I.Karsanetal:Aneconomicstudyonparametersinfluencingthecostoffixedplatforms.
OTCpaper5301,Houston1986,pp7993.
GoodpresentationonoffshoreCAPEXassessment.
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