Genocides in history

have been labeled genocide in the popular press have not

been so designated.[2]
M. Hassan Kakar[3] argued that the denition should include political groups or any group so dened by the perpetrator. He prefers the denition from Chalk and Jonassohn: Genocide is a form of one-sided mass killing in
which a state or other authority intends to destroy a group
so dened by the perpetrator.[4]
Some critics of the international denition argued that
the denition was inuenced by Joseph Stalin to exclude
political groups.[5][6]

Skulls of victims of the Rwandan Genocide

According to R. J. Rummel, genocide has multiple meanings. The ordinary meaning is murder by a government
of people due to their national, ethnic, racial, or religious group membership. The legal meaning is dened by
CCPG. This includes actions such as preventing births or
forcibly transferring children to another group. Rummel
created the term democide to include assaults on political
groups.[7]

Genocide is the deliberate and systematic destruction, in

whole or in part, of an ethnic, racial, religious or national
group. The term was coined in 1944 by Raphael Lemkin.
It is dened in Article 2 of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG)
of 1948 as any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical,
racial or religious group, as such: killing members of the
group; causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; deliberately inicting on the groups
conditions of life, calculated to bring about its physical
destruction in whole or in part; imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; [and] forcibly
transferring children of the group to another group.[1]

In this article, atrocities that have been characterized as

genocide by some reliable source are included, whether or
not this is supported by mainstream scholarship. The acts
may involve mass killings, mass deportations, politicides,
democides, withholding of food and/or other necessities
of life, death by deliberate exposure to invasive infectious
disease agents or combinations of these. Thus examples
The preamble to the CPPCG states that genocide is a listed may constitute genocide by the United Nations defcrime under international law, contrary to the spirit and inition, or by one of the alternate interpretations.
aims of the United Nations and condemned by the civilized world and that at all periods of history genocide
1.1 Genocide vs other types of mass killing
has inicted great losses on humanity.[1]
Determining what historical events constitute a genocide
and which are merely criminal or inhuman behavior is
not a clear-cut matter. In nearly every case where accusations of genocide have circulated, partisans of various
sides have ercely disputed the details and interpretation
of the event, often to the point of depicting wildly dierent versions of the facts.

See also: List of wars and anthropogenic disasters by

death toll
Some advocate for a very loose denition of genocide
which essentially means the premeditated mass killing
of civilians. This is already covered under Crimes
Against Humanity under extermination, for a list of nongenocidal mass killings refer to the following:

Alternate denitions

Mass killings under Communist regimes

Anti-communist mass killings

See also: Genocide denitions

The debate continues over what legally constitutes geno- Another grey area is Ethnic cleansing in which one ethcide. One denition is any conict that the International nic group forcefully expels another ethnic group from
Criminal Court has so designated. Many conicts that the land they occupy and then repopulates it sometimes
1

2 PREWORLD WAR I

killing the expelled ethnic groups members in the pro Famines under Japanese Imperialism such as durcess for the sake of ethnic purity. Some genocides ining the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies
volve Ethnic cleansing though not all Ethnic cleansings
and the Vietnamese Famine of 1945
are genocides. Some events are debated on whether they
The Great Irish Famine
constitute Ethnic cleansing or genocide. Ethnic cleansing
are not technically genocide unless there is an expressed
The North Korean Famine
intent to destroy in whole or in part the ethnic groups that
is being expelled, though some may argue land is heavily tied to national identity and thus separating an ethnic
group from its historical home land may constitute a type 2 PreWorld War I
of cultural genocide. Ethnic cleansing is also a Crime
Against Humanity. For a list of Ethnic cleansings refer to See also: Genocide of indigenous peoples Pre-1948
the following:
examples
List of ethnic cleansings
Then there are War crimes. War crimes do not necessarily entail mass killing (though some do such as the
Asian Holocaust by Imperial Japan.) and may include
things such as disturbing peace treaties and using illegal
weapons. For a list of War crimes that covers both mass
killings and non-mass killings refer to the following:
List of war crimes
Some notable examples of Mass Killings of civilians during war include:

According to Adam Jones, if a dominant group of people has little in common with a marginalized group of
people, it is easy for the dominant group to dene the
other as subhuman. As a result, the marginalized group
might be labeled as a threat that must be eliminated.[8]
Jones continues: The diculty, as Frank Chalk and Kurt
Jonassohn pointed out in their early study, is that such historical records as exist are ambiguous and undependable.
While history today is generally written with some fealty
to 'objective' facts, most previous accounts aimed rather
to praise the writers patron (normally the leader) and to
emphasize the superiority of ones own gods and religious
beliefs.[9]

Chalk and Jonassohn: Historically and anthropologically peoples have always had a name for themselves. In
The Asian Holocaust committed by Imperial Japan a great many cases, that name meant 'the people' to set
the owners of that name o against all other people who
The Destruction of Afghanistan during the Soviet
were considered of lesser quality in some way. If the difInvasion
ferences between the people and some other society were
The Blockade famine and other atrocities during the particularly large in terms of religion, language, manners,
customs, and so on, then such others were seen as less
Nigerian Civil War
than fully human: pagans, savages, or even animals.[10]

Slavery is a Crime Against Humanity though it is not

considered genocide. There are examples of forced labor being used to execute Jews during the holocaust by
the Extermination through labour policy of Nazi Germany but in general slavery is not considered genocide.
However, there are slave labor systems which have killed
millions of people due to inhumane treatment and war
was waged in order to capture people so they could
be enslaved, a particularly infamous example being the
Atlantic and Arabian slave trades which some refer to as
the Maafa or Black Holocaust.
Some famines such as those under communist and colonial regimes were manmade, and have been compared
with the case of the holodomor. These have been recognized to some extent as genocides and holocausts. Examples of such famines include:
The Great Chinese Famine
The Soviet famine of 193233

2.1 Before 1490

Hypotheses suggesting that genocidal violence may have
caused the extinction of Neanderthals have been offered by several authors, including Jared Diamond[11]
and Ronald Wright.[12] However, several scholars have
formed alternative ideas as to why the Neanderthals died
o, with there being no clear consensus viewpoint in the
scientic community.[13]
Scholars of antiquity dierentiate between genocide and
gendercide, in which males were killed but the children
(particularly the girls) and women were incorporated into
the conquering group. Jones notes, Chalk and Jonassohn
provide a wide-ranging selection of historical events such
as the Assyrian Empire's root-and branch depredations in
the rst half of the rst millennium BCE, and the destruction of Melos by Athens during the Peloponnesian War
(fth century BCE), a gendercidal rampage described by
Thucydides in his 'Melian Dialogue'".[14] The Old Testa-

2.2

1490 to 1914

ment documents the destruction of the Midianites, taking place during the life of Moses in the 2nd millennium
BCE. The Book of Numbers chapter 31 recounts that an
army of Israelites killed every Midianite man but captured the women and children as plunder. These were
later killed at the command of Moses, with the exception
of girls who have not slept with a man. The total number
killed is not recorded but the number of surviving girls is
recorded as thirty two thousand.

3
dered the extermination of the Wu Hu, especially the Jie
people, during the WeiJie war in the fourth century AD.
People with racial characteristics such as high-bridged
noses and bushy beards were killed; in total, 200,000
were reportedly massacred.[26]

2.2 1490 to 1914

Ben Kiernan has labelled the destruction of Carthage at

the end of the Third Punic War (149146 BCE) The
First Genocide.[14]

Pope Innocent III excommunicating the Albigensians (left), and

an Albigensian massacre by crusaders

A 2010 study suggests that a group of Anasazi in the The Hamidian massacres were massacres of Armenians in the
American Southwest were killed in a genocide that took Ottoman Empire during the mid-1890s, with estimates of the
dead ranging from 80,000 to 300,000.
place circa 800 CE.[15][16]
Raphael Lemkin, the coiner of the term 'genocide', referred to the 12091220 Albigensian Crusade ordered by
Pope Innocent III against the heretical Cathar population
of the French Languedoc region as one of the most con- 2.3
clusive cases of genocide in religious history.[17]
Quoting Eric Margolis, Jones observes that in the 13th
century the Mongol armies under Genghis Khan were
genocidal killers [18] who were known to eradicate whole
nations.[19] He ordered the extermination of the Tata
Mongols, and all Kankalis males in Bukhara taller than a
wheel[20] using a technique called measuring against the
linchpin. Rosanne Klass referred to the Mongols rule of
Afghanistan as genocide.[21]
Similarly, the Turko-Mongol conqueror Tamerlane was
known for his extreme brutality and his conquests were
accompanied by genocidal massacres.[22] William Rubinstein wrote: In Assyria (13934) Tamerlane
got around he killed all the Christians he could
nd, including everyone in the, then, Christian city
of Tikrit, thus virtually destroying Assyrian Church of
the East. Impartially, however, Tamerlane also slaughtered Shi'ite Muslims, Jews and heathens.[23] Christianity in Mesopotamia was hitherto largely conned to those
Assyrian communities in the north who had survived the
massacres.[24] Tamerlane also conducted large-scale massacres of Georgian and Armenian Christians, as well as of
Arabs, Persians and Turks.[25]
Ancient Chinese texts record that General Ran Min or-

Africa

2.3.1 Congo
Main article: Atrocities in the Congo Free State
The Congo Free State in central Africa was privately controlled by Leopold II of Belgium who extracted a fortune
from the land by the use of forced labor of natives. Under
his regime there were 2 to 15 million deaths among the
Congolese people.[27][28][29][30] Deliberate killings, abusive punishments, and general exploitation were major
causes of the deaths. As in the colonization of the Americas, new diseases hitherto unknown in the region, also
led to a considerable number of deaths. Because the main
motive for the killings was nancial gain, it has been debated whether the term genocide describes these atrocities
well; however, Robert Weisbord wrote in the Journal of
Genocide Research in 2003 that attempting to eliminate a
portion of the population is enough to qualify as genocide
under the UN convention.[30] Reports of the atrocities led
to a major international scandal in the early 20th century,
and Leopold was ultimately forced in 1908 by the Belgian
government to relinquish control of the colony to the civil
administration.[31][32]

4
2.3.2

2 PREWORLD WAR I
French conquest of Algeria

be shot. I will no longer accept women or children, I will

drive them back to their people [to die in the desert] or let
Main article: French conquest of Algeria
them be shot at.[40] Olusoga and Erichsen write: It is an
Ben Kiernan wrote in his book Blood and Soil: A World almost unique document: an explicit, written declaration
of intent to commit genocide.[41]
2.3.4 Zulu Kingdom
Main article: Mfecane

Pacication of Algeria

Between 1810 and 1828, the Zulu kingdom under Shaka

Zulu laid waste to large parts of present-day South Africa
and Zimbabwe. Zulu armies often aimed not only at defeating enemies but at their total destruction. Those exterminated included prisoners of war, women, children
and even dogs.[42] (Controversial) estimates for the death
toll range from 1 million to 2 million.[43][44][45][46]

History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to

Darfur on the French conquest of Algeria, that within 2.4
3 decades of the French conquest of Algeria in 1830,
war, famine and disease had reduced the original population from 3 million by a gure ranging from 500,000
to 1,000,000.[33]
'By 1875, the French conquest was complete. The war had killed approximately
825,000 indigenous Algerians since 1830. A
long shadow of genocidal hatred persisted, provoking the French author to protest in 1882
that in Algeria, we hear it repeated every
day that we must expel the native and if necessary destroy him. As a French statistical
journal urged ve years later, the system of
extermination must give way to a policy of
penetration.[34]

Americas

Mass grave burial of Native Americans at the Wounded Knee

Massacre in 1890

In response to France's recognition of Armenian Genocide Turkey accused France of committing genocide See also: Genocide of indigenous peoples Colonization
and genocide in the Americas
against 15% of Algeria's population.[35][36]
2.3.3

German South-West Africa

Main article: Herero and Namaqua genocide

Over the course of more than four centuries from the

1490s into the 1900s, Europeans and white Americans
engaged in an unbroken string of genocide campaigns
against the native peoples of the Americas.[47] The indigenous peoples of the Americas have experienced massacres, torture, terror, sexual abuse, systematic military
occupations, removals of Indigenous peoples from their
ancestral territories, forced removal of Native American
children to military-like boarding schools, allotment, and
a policy of termination.[48]

The Herero and Namaqua peoples of present-day

Namibia endured a genocidal persecution between 1904
and 1907 while their homeland was under colonial rule
as German South-West Africa.[37] Large percentages of
their populations perished in a brutal scorched earth campaign led by German General Lothar von Trotha. An es- From the earliest years of colonialism, conquistadores
timated 10,000 Namaqua were killed,[38] with estimates like Vasco Nez de Balboa would brazenly advocate
for the Herero ranging from 60,000 and 100,000.[39]
genocide against the native population.[49] In the 1700s,
A copy of Trothas Extermination Order survives in the British militia like William Trent and Simeon Ecuyer
Botswana National Archives. The order states every gave Smallpox-exposed blankets to Native American
Herero, with or without a gun, with or without cattle, will emissaries as gifts at Fort Pitt, to Convey the Smallpox

2.4

Americas

to the Indians, in one of the most famously documented

cases of germ warfare. While it is uncertain how successful such attempts were against the target population,[50]
historians have noted that, history records numerous instances of the French, the Spanish, the English, and later
on the American, using smallpox as an ignoble means
to an end. For smallpox was more feared by the Indian
than the bullet: he could be exterminated and subjugated
more easily and quickly by the death-bringing virus than
by the weapons of the white man.[51] The British High
Commander Jeery Amherst authorized the intentional
use of disease as a biological weapon against indigenous
populations during the Pontiacs Rebellion, saying, You
will Do well to try to Innoculate the Indians by means
of Blanketts, as well as to try Every other method that
can serve to Extirpate this Execreble Race, and instructing his subordinates, I need only Add, I Wish to Hear
of no prisoners should any of the villains be met with
arms.[52][53] When smallpox swept the northern plains
of the US in 1837, Secretary of War Lewis Cass ordered
that the Mandan (along with the Arikara, the Cree, and
the Blackfeet) not be given smallpox vaccinations, which
had been provided to other tribes in other areas.[54][55][56]

5
lations lacking immunity to disease. In the case of the
Jewish Holocaust, no one denies that more Jews died of
starvation, overwork, and disease under Nazi incarceration than died in gas ovens, yet the acts of creating and
maintaining the conditions that led to those deaths clearly
constitute genocide.[60]

Historian David Stannard writes that by the year 1769, the

destruction of the American aboriginals population down
to just one-third of one percent of the total American
population of 76 million was the most massive genocide
in world history, and there was, at last, almost no one left
to kill.[47] According to anthropologist Russell Thornton, for the American Indians the arrival of the Europeans marked the beginning of a long holocaust, although
it came not in ovens, as it did for the Jews. The res
that consumed North America Indians were the fevers
brought on by newly encountered diseases, the ashes of
settlers and soldiers guns, the ravages of rewater, the
ames of villages and elds burned by the scorched-earth
policy of vengeful Euro-Americans.[61] David Quammen likened colonial American practices toward Native
Americans to those of Australia toward its aboriginal
populations, calling both genocide.[62] Some authors, inSome historians disagree that genocide, dened as a cluding Holocaust scholar David Cesarani, have argued
crime of intent, should be used to describe the colo- that United States government policies in furtherance of
nization experience. Staord Poole, a research historian, its so-called Manifest Destiny constituted genocide.[63]
wrote: There are other terms to describe what happened Several works on the subject were released around the
in the Western Hemisphere, but genocide is not one of year 1992 to coincide with the 500th anniversary of
them. It is a good propaganda term in an age where Columbus voyage. In 2003, Venezuelan President Hugo
slogans and shouting have replaced reection and learnChvez urged Latin Americans to not celebrate the
ing, but to use it in this context is to cheapen both the Columbus Day holiday. Chavez blamed Columbus for
word itself and the appalling experiences of the Jews and
spearheading the biggest invasion and genocide ever
Armenians, to mention but two of the major victims of seen in the history of humanity.[64]
this century.[57] Political scientist Guenter Lewy says the
label of genocide is not applicable and views the sad fate
of the Native Americans as not a crime but a tragedy, 2.4.1 Argentina
involving an irreconcilable collision of cultures and values. [...] The new Americans, convinced of their cul- Main article: Conquest of the Desert
tural and racial superiority, were unwilling to grant the
original inhabitants of the continent the vast preserve of
The Conquest of the Desert was a military campaign
land required by the Indians way of life.[58] Noble David
directed mainly by General Julio Argentino Roca in
Cook, writing about the Black Legend and the conquest
the 1870s, which established Argentine dominance over
of the Americas wrote, There were too few Spaniards
Patagonia, then inhabited by indigenous peoples, killing
to have killed the millions who were reported to have
more than 1,300.[65]
died in the rst century after Old and New World contact. Cook acknowledged that it is impossible to factor Contemporary sources indicate that it was a deliberate
out and weigh precisely each of the causes that led to the genocide by the Argentine government.[66] Others percollapse of Amerindian society. We might ask, Did the ceived the campaign as intending to suppress only groups
Spanish lance lead to the death of 2 percent of the In- of aboriginals that refused to submit to the government
dians, the arquebus 5 percent, the dog 12? ... Almost and carried out attacks on European settlements.[67][68]
all sources provide that sickness made conquest and foreign domination easier, not just for the Spanish but for
all European states.[59] Native American Studies profes- 2.4.2 Canada
sor Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz says, Proponents of the default position emphasize attrition by disease despite other See also: Ethnocide
causes equally deadly, if not more so. In doing so they
refuse to accept that the colonization of America was The Indian (Aboriginal) residential schools were primargenocidal by plan, not simply the tragic fate of popu- ily active following the passage of the Indian Act in

2 PREWORLD WAR I

1876, until 1996, and were designed to remove children from the inuence of their families and culture,
and assimilate them into the dominant Canadian culture.
Over the course of the systems existence, about 30% of
native children, or roughly 150,000, were placed in residential schools nationally; at least 6,000 of these students died while in attendance.[69][70] The system has
been described as cultural genocide: killing the Indian
in the child.[71][72][73] The Executive Summary of the
Truth and Reconciliation Commission found that physical genocide, biological genocide, and cultural genocide
all occurred: physical, through abuse; biological, through
the disruption of reproductive capacity; and cultural,
through forced assimilation.[74][75] Part of this process
during the 1960s through the 1980s, dubbed the Sixties
Scoop, was investigated and the child seizures deemed
genocidal by Judge Edwin Kimelman, who wrote, You
took a child from his or her specic culture and you
placed him into a foreign culture without any [counselling] assistance to the family which had the child.
There is something dramatically and basically wrong with
that.[76]

land and lifestyle into ecosystems that could not support them and that led to undernourishment and eventually starvation.[81] While some scholars believe that the
Beothuk primarily died out due to the elements noted
above, another theory is that Europeans conducted a
sustained campaign of genocide against them.[82] They
were ocially declared extinct after the death of
Shanawdithit in 1829 in the capital, St. Johns, where she
had been taken.

2.4.3

During the American Indian Wars, the American Army

carried out a number of massacres and forced relocations of Indigenous peoples, acts that some scholars say
constitute genocide. The Sand Creek Massacre, which
caused outrage in its own time, has been called genocide. General John Chivington led a 700-man force
of Colorado Territory militia in a massacre of 70163
peaceful Cheyenne and Arapaho, about two-thirds of
whom were women, children, and infants. Chivington
and his men took scalps and other body parts as trophies, including human fetuses and male and female
genitalia.[84] In defense of his actions Chivington stated,

Haiti

Jean-Jacques Dessalines, the rst ruler of an independent Haiti, ordered the killing of the white population of
French creoles on Haiti, which culminated in the 1804
Haiti massacre. According to Philippe Girard, when the
genocide was over, Haitis white population was virtually
non-existent.[77]
2.4.4

Mexico

The Caste War of Yucatn (approx. 18471901) against

the population of European descent, called Yucatecos,
who held political and economic control of the region.
Adam Jones wrote: Genocidal atrocities on both sides
cost up to 200,000 killed.[78]

2.4.6 Peru
The indigenous rebellions of Tpac Amaru II and Tpac
Katari against the Spanish between 1780 and 1782, cost
over 100,000 colonists lives in Peru and Upper Peru
(present-day Bolivia).[83]
2.4.7 United States
Further information: Genocide of indigenous peoples
United States colonization and westward expansion

Damn any man who sympathizes with

Indians! ... I have come to kill Indians, and
believe it is right and honorable to use any
means under Gods heaven to kill Indians. ...
Kill and scalp all, big and little; nits make lice.
- Col. John Milton Chivington, U.S.
Army[85]

In 1835, Don Ignacio Zuniga, commander of the presidios of northern Sonora, asserted that since 1820 the
Apaches had killed at least ve thousand settlers for taking and or stealing land and in self defence. The state of
Sonora then oered a bounty on Apache scalps in 1835.
Beginning in 1837 Chihuahua state also oered a bounty
of 100 pesos per warrior, 50 pesos per woman and 25 A study by Gregory Michno concluded that of 21,586
tabulated casualties in a selected 672 battles and skirpesos per child.[79]
mishes, military personnel and settlers accounted for
6,596 (31%), while indigenous casualties totaled about
2.4.5 Newfoundland
14,990 (69%) for the period 185090. Michnos study
almost exclusively uses Army estimates. His follow-up
Main articles: Beothuk and Twillingate
book Forgotten Battles and Skirmishes covers over 300
additional ghts not included in these statistics.[86] AcThe Beothuks attempted to avoid contact with Euro- cording to the U.S. Bureau of the Census (1894), bepeans in Newfoundland by moving from their tradi- tween 1789 and 1846, The Indian wars under the govtional settlements.[80] The Beothuks were put into a ernment of the United States have been more than 40 in
position where they were forced from their traditional number. They have cost the lives of about 19,000 white

2.5

Asia

men, women and children, including those killed in individual combats, and the lives of about 30,000 Indians.
The actual number of killed and wounded Indians must
be very much higher than the given... Fifty percent additional would be a safe estimate...[87] In the same 1894
report, the Census Bureau dismissed assertions that millions of Native Americans once inhabited what is now
the United States, insisting instead that North America
in 1492 was an almost empty continent, and guesstimating that aboriginal populations could not have exceeded
much over 500,000, whereas modern scholarship now
estimates more than 10 million.[88][89]

7
wiped out. In one such series of conicts, the so-called
Mendocino War and the subsequent Round Valley War,
the entirety of the Yuki people was brought to the brink
of extinction, from a previous population of some 3,500
people to fewer than 100. According to Russell Thornton,
estimates of the pre-Columbian population of California
was at least 310,000, and perhaps as much as 705,000.
By 1849, due to Spanish and Mexican colonization and
epidemics this number had decreased to 100,000. But
from 1849 and up until 1890 the Indigenous population
of California had fallen below 20,000, primarily because
of the killings.[98] In An American Genocide, The United
States and the California Catastrophe, 1846-1873, Historian Benjamin Madley recorded the numbers of killings
of California Indians between 1846 and 1873. He found
evidence that during this period at least 9,400 to 16,000
California Indians were killed by non-Indians. Most of
these killings occurred in more than 370 massacres (dened as the intentional killing of ve or more disarmed
combatants or largely unarmed noncombatants, including
women, children, and prisoners, whether in the context of
a battle or otherwise).[99] 10,000 Indians were also kidnapped and sold as slaves.[100]

Chalk and Jonassohn argued that the deportation of the

Cherokee tribe along the Trail of Tears would almost
certainly be considered an act of genocide today.[90]
The Indian Removal Act of 1830 led to the exodus. About 17,000 Cherokeesalong with approximately 2,000 Cherokee-owned black slaveswere removed from their homes.[91] The number of people who
died as a result of the Trail of Tears has been variously estimated. American doctor and missionary Elizur Butler,
who made the journey with one party, estimated 4,000
deaths.[92] Historians David Stannard[93] and Barbara
Mann[94] have noted that the army deliberately routed the
march of the Cherokee to pass through areas of known
2.5 Asia
cholera epidemic, such as Vicksburg. Stannard estimates
that during the forced removal from their homelands, fol2.5.1 Afghanistan
lowing the Indian Removal Act signed into law by President Andrew Jackson in 1830, 8000 Cherokee died,
Main article: Hazaras
about half the total population.[93]
Archaeologist and anthropologist Ann F. Ramenofsky
writes, "Variola Major can be transmitted through contaminated articles such as clothing or blankets. In the
nineteenth century, the U. S. Army sent contaminated
blankets to Native Americans, especially Plains groups,
to control the Indian problem.[95] While specic responsibility for the 1836-40 smallpox epidemic remains in
question, scholars have asserted that the Great Plains
epidemic was started among the tribes of the upper
Missouri River by failure to quarantine steam boats on
the river,[51] and Captain Pratt of the St. Peter was
guilty of contributing to the deaths of thousands of innocent people. The law calls his oense criminal negligence. Yet in light of all the deaths, the almost complete
annihilation of the Mandans, and the terrible suering
the region endured, the label criminal negligence is benign, hardly betting an action that had such horrendous
consequences.[96] Leading genocide expert Dirk Moses
attributes the genocide of many Native American tribes
including the Mandans, to governmental assimilationist
policies that coexisted with ocially or unocially sanctioned eorts to eradicate, diminish, or forcibly evict the
'savages.'"[97]

Abdur Rahman's subjugation of the Hazara ethnic group

in the late nineteenth century due to their erce rebellion against the Afghan king gave birth to an intense
feeling of hatred between the Pashtun and the Hazara
that would last for years to come. Massive forced displacements, especially in Oruzgan and Daychopan, continued as lands were conscated and populations were
expelled or ed. Some 35,000 families ed to northern Afghanistan, Mashhad (Iran) and Quetta (Pakistan).
It is estimated that more than 60%[101] of the Hazara
were either massacred or displaced during Abdur Rahmans campaign against them. Hazara farmers were often forced to give up their property to Pashtuns[101] and as
a result many Hazara families had to move seasonally to
the major cities in Afghanistan, Iran, or Pakistan in order
to nd jobs and sources of income. Quetta in Pakistan
is home to the third largest settlements of Hazara outside
Afghanistan.
2.5.2 Dzungar genocide

Main article: Dzungar genocide

The U.S. colonization of California started in earnest in
1849, and resulted in a large number of state-subsidized The Dzungar (or Zunghar), Oirat Mongols who lived in
massacres by colonists against Native Americans in the an area that stretched from the west end of the Great
territory, causing several entire ethnic groups to be Wall of China to present-day eastern Kazakhstan and

2 PREWORLD WAR I

from present-day northern Kyrgyzstan to southern Siberia

(most of which is located in present-day Xinjiang), were
the last nomadic empire to threaten China, which they
did from the early 17th century through the middle of the
18th century.[102] After a series of inconclusive military
conicts that started in the 1680s, the Dzungars were subjugated by the Manchu-led Qing dynasty (16441911) in
the late 1750s. According to Qing scholar Wei Yuan,
40 percent of the 600,000 Zunghar people were killed
by smallpox, 20 percent ed to Russia or sought refuge
among the Kazakh tribes and 30 percent were killed by
the Qing army of Manchu Bannermen and Khalkha Mongols.[103][104]
Historian Michael Edmund Clarke has argued that the
Qing campaign in 175758 amounted to the complete destruction of not only the Zunghar state but of
the Zunghars as a people.[105] Historian Peter Perdue has attributed the decimation of the Dzungars to
a deliberate use of massacre and has described it as
an ethnic genocide.[106] Mark Levene, a historian of
genocide,[107] has stated that the extermination of the
Dzungars was arguably the eighteenth century genocide
par excellence.[108]

2.5.3

Japanese colonization of Hokkaido

See also: Shakushains Revolt and Menashi-Kunashir

Rebellion
The Ainu are an indigenous people in Japan
(Hokkaid).[109] In a 2009 news story, Japan Today
reported, Many Ainu were forced to work, essentially
as slaves, for Wajin (ethnic Japanese), resulting in the
breakup of families and the introduction of smallpox,
measles, cholera and tuberculosis into their community.
In 1869, after the Battle of Hakodate during the Boshin
War, the new Meiji government renamed the Republic
of Ezo as Hokkaido, which were formed by former
members of the Tokugawa shogunate, and together
with lands where the Ainu lived, were unilaterally
incorporated into Japan. It banned the Ainu language,
took Ainu land away, and prohibited salmon shing and
deer hunting.[110] Roy Thomas wrote: Ill treatment of
native peoples is common to all colonial powers, and, at
its worst, leads to genocide. Japans native people, the
Ainu, have, however, been the object of a particularly
cruel hoax, because the Japanese have refused to accept
them ocially as a separate minority people.[111] In
2004, the small Ainu community living in Russia wrote
a letter to Vladimir Putin, urging him to recognize
Japanese behavior against the Ainu people as genocide,
which Putin declined to do.[112]

2.5.4 Ottoman Empire

Further information: Hamidian massacres
The Massacres of Badr Khan were conducted by Kurdish
and Ottoman forces against the Assyrian Christian population of the Ottoman Empire between 1843 and 1847,
resulting in the slaughter of more than 10,000 indigenous
Assyrian civilians of the Hakkari region, with many thousands more sold into slavery.[113][114]
Between 1894 and 1896 a series of ethno-religiously motivated Anti-Christian pogroms known as the Hamidian
massacres were conducted against the ancient Armenian
and Assyrian Christian populations by the forces of the
Ottoman Empire.[115] The massacres mainly took place
in what is today south eastern Turkey, north eastern
Syria and northern Iraq. The death toll is estimated
to have been as high as 325,000 people,[116][117] with a
further 546,000 Armenians and Assyrians made destitute by forced deportations of survivors from cities, and
the destruction or theft of almost 2500 of their farmsteads towns and villages. Hundreds of churches and
monasteries were also destroyed or forcibly converted
into mosques.[118]
During the April Uprising in Bulgaria against Ottoman
rule, over 15,000 non-combatant Bulgarian civilians were
massacred by the Ottoman army between 1876 and 1878,
with the worst single instance being the Batak massacre.[119][120]
The Adana massacre occurred in the Adana Vilayet of
the Ottoman Empire in April 1909. A massacre of
Armenian and Assyrian Christians in the city of Adana
and its surrounds amidst the Ottoman countercoup of
1909 led to a series of anti-Christian pogroms throughout the province.[121] Reports estimated that the Adana
Province massacres resulted in the deaths of as many as
30,000 Armenians and 1,500 Assyrians.[122][123][124]

2.5.5 Russian Empire

Circassians Main article: Ethnic cleansing of Circassians
Further information: Russo-Circassian War
The Russian Tsarist Empire waged war against Circassia
in the Northwest Caucasus for more than one hundred
years, trying to replace Circassias hold along the Black
Sea coast. After a century of insurgency and war and
failure to end the conict, the Tsar ordered the expulsion
of most of the Muslim population of the North Caucasus. Many Circassians, Western historians, Turks and
Chechens claimed that the events of the 1860s constituted
one of the rst modern genocides, in which a whole population was eliminated in order to satisfy the desires (in
this case economic) of a powerful country.

2.6

Europe

Antero Leitzinger agged the aair the 19th centurys

largest genocide.[125] Some estimates cite that approximately 1-1.5 million Circassians were killed and most
of the Muslim population was deported. Ossete Muslims and Kabardins generally did not leave. The modern
Circassians and Abazins are descended from those who
managed to escape the onslaught and another 1.5 million Circassians and others later returned . This eectively annihilated (or deported) 90% of the nation.[126]
Tsarist documents recorded more than 400,000 Circassians killed, 497,000 forced to ee and only 80,000 were
left in their native area.[127] Circassians were viewed as
tools by the Ottoman government, and settled in restive
areas whose populations had nationalist yearnings- Armenia, the Arab regions and the Balkans. Many more Circassians were killed by the policies of the Balkan states,
primarily Serbia and Bulgaria, which became independent at that time. Still more Circassians were forcefully
assimilated by nationalist Muslim states (Turkey, Syria,
Iraq, etc.) who looked upon non-Turk/Arab ethnicity as
a foreign presence and a threat.

Mass shootings at Nantes, 1793

the French Revolution was the rst modern genocide.[129]

Sechers claims caused a minor uproar in France and
mainstream authorities rejected Sechers claims.[130][131]
Timothy Tackett countered that the Vende was a
tragic civil war with endless horrors committed by both
sidesinitiated, in fact, by the rebels themselves. The
Vendeans were no more blameless than were the republicans. The use of the word genocide is wholly inaccurate and inappropriate.[132] However, historians Frank
Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn consider the Vende a case of
genocide.[133] Historian Pierre Chaunu called the Vende
the rst ideological genocide.[134] Adam Jones estimates
that 150,000 Vendeans died in what he also considers a
genocide.[135]

In May 1994, the then Russian President Boris Yeltsin admitted that resistance to the tsarist forces was legitimate,
but he did not recognize the guilt of the tsarist government for the genocide.[127] In 1997 and 1998, the leaders
of Kabardino-Balkaria and of Adygea sent appeals to the
Duma to reconsider the situation and to apologize, without response. In October 2006, the Adygeyan public or- 2.6.2 Ireland
ganizations of Russia, Turkey, Israel, Jordan, Syria, the
USA, Belgium, Canada and Germany sent the president
of the European Parliament a letter with a request to recognize the genocide.
On 5 July 2005, the Circassian Congress, an organisation that unites representatives of the various Circassian
peoples in the Russian Federation, called on Moscow to
acknowledge and apologize for the genocide.[128]
Siberia Further information: Genocide of indigenous
peoples Russian Empires conquest of Siberia

Irelands Holocaust mural on the Ballymurphy Road, Belfast.

Vietnam Further information: Genocide of indige- An Gorta Mr, Britains genocide by starvation, Irelands holonous peoples Vietnamese conquest of Champa and the caust 18451849, over 1,500,000 deaths.
Central Highlands

2.6

Europe

2.6.1

France

Main article: War in the Vende

In 1986, Reynald Secher argued that the actions of the
French republican government during the revolt in the
Vende (17931796), a popular mostly Catholic uprising
against the anti-clerical Republican government during

War of the Three Kingdoms See also: Cromwellian

conquest of Ireland and Cromwellian Plantation
Toward the end of the War of the Three Kingdoms
(16391651), the English Rump Parliament sent the New
Model Army to Ireland to subdue and take revenge on
the Catholic population of the country and to prevent
Royalists loyal to Charles II from using Ireland as a base
to threaten England. The force was initially under the
command of Oliver Cromwell and it was later under the

10
command of other parliamentary generals. The Army
sought to secure the country, but also to conscate the
lands of Irish families that had been involved in the ghting. This became a continuation of the Elizabethan policy
of encouraging Protestant settlement of Ireland, because
the Protestant New Model army soldiers could be paid in
conscated lands rather than in cash.[136]

2 PREWORLD WAR I
the impact and human cost in Ireland where one-third
of the population was entirely dependent on the potato
for food was exacerbated by a host of political, social,
and economic factors that remain the subject of historical
debate.[141][142]
During the Famine, Ireland produced enough food, ax,
and wool to feed and clothe double its nine million
people.[143] When Ireland had experienced a famine in
178283, ports were closed to keep Irish-grown food in
Ireland to feed the Irish. Local food prices promptly
dropped. Merchants lobbied against the export ban,
but government in the 1780s overrode their protests.
There was no such export ban in the 1840s.[144] Some
historians[145][146] have argued that in this sense the
famine was articial, caused by the British governments
choice not to stop exports.[143]

During the Interregnum (16511660), this policy was enhanced with the passing of the Act of Settlement of Ireland in 1652. Its goal was a further transfer of land from
Irish to English hands.[136] The immediate war aims and
the longer term policies of the English Parliamentarians
resulted in an attempt by the English to transfer the native population to the western fringes to make way for
Protestant settlers. This policy was reected in a phrase
attributed to Cromwell: To Hell or to Connaught and
has been described by historians as ethnic cleansing, if Francis A. Boyle claimed that the governments actions
not genocide.[137]
violated sections (a), (b), and (c) of Article 2 of the CPPCG and constituted genocide in a legal opinion to the
Commission on Holocaust Education on 2
Great Irish Famine Main article: Great Irish Famine New Jersey[147][148][149]
May
1996.
Charles E. Rice has also alleged
A small minority of historians regard the Irish Potato
that the British had committed genocide, also based on
this retrospective application of Article 2.[150]
The claims were contested by Peter Gray, who concluded
that UK government policy was not a policy of deliberate
genocide, but a dogmatic refusal to admit that the policy
was wrong. James S. Donnelly, Jr., split the dierence,
writing, while genocide was not in fact committed, what
happened ... had the look of genocide to a great many
Irish.[149][151]
Cecil Woodham-Smith claimed that while the export policy embittered the Irish, this did not implicate the policy
in genocide, but rather in excessive parsimony obtuseness, short-sightedness, and ignorance.[152]
Irish historian Cormac O' Grada rejects the term, stating that the English exhibited no desire to exterminate
the Irish and that the challenges for providing relief were
enormous.[145][153]
W.D. Rubinstein also rejected the genocide claim.[23]
Notably William Smith O'Brien, speaking on the subject
of charity in a speech to the Repeal Association in February 1845, applauded the fact that the universal sentiment
on the subject of charity was that they would accept no
English charity. Despite Irish objections, a very considerably amount of relief supplies were in fact sent from
England to Ireland.
Great Irish Famine

Famine (18451852) as an example of genocide. During the famine approximately 1 million people died and
a million more emigrated from Ireland,[138] causing the
islands population to fall by between 20% and 25%.[139]
The proximate cause of famine was a potato disease commonly known as potato blight.[140] Although blight ravaged potato crops throughout Europe during the 1840s,

2.7 Oceania
2.7.1 Australia
Further information: Australian genocide debate and
Genocide of indigenous peoples Colonization of Australia and Tasmania

2.7

Oceania

According to one report published in 2009, in 1789

11
2.7.2 New Zealand

In the early 19th century, Ngti Mutunga and Ngti Tama

(local Mori tribes) massacred the Moriori people. The
Moriori were the indigenous people of the Chatham Islands (Rekohu in Moriori, Wharekauri in Mori), east of
the New Zealand archipelago in the Pacic Ocean. These
people lived by a code of non-violence and passive resistance (see Nunuku-whenua), which led to their nearextinction at the hands of Taranaki Mori invaders in the
1830s.[168]

Australian frontier wars

the British deliberately spread smallpox from the First

Fleet in order to counter overwhelming native tribes near
Sydney in New South Wales. In his book An Indelible
Stain, Henry Reynolds described this act as genocide.[154]
However the majority of scholars disagree that the initial
smallpox was the result of deliberate biological warfare
and have suggested other causes.[155][156][157]
The Black War was a period of conict between British
colonists and Tasmanian Aboriginals in Van Diemens
Land (now Tasmania) in the early 19th century. The conict, in combination with introduced diseases and other
factors, had such devastating impacts on the Tasmanian
Aboriginal population that it was reported the Tasmanian
Aborigines had been exterminated.[158][159] Historian Georey Blainey wrote that by 1830, Disease had killed
most of them but warfare and private violence had also
been devastating.[160] In the 19th century, smallpox was
the principal cause of Aboriginal deaths.[161]
Lemkin and most other comparative genocide scholars
present the extinction of the Tasmanian Aborigines as
a textbook example of a genocide, while the majority
of Australian experts are more circumspect.[162][163] Detailed studies of the events surrounding the extinction
have raised questions about some of the details and interpretations in earlier histories.[162][164] Curthoys concluded, It is time for a more robust exchange between
genocide and Tasmanian historical scholarship if we are
to understand better what did happen in Tasmania.[165]
On the Australian continent during the colonial period (17881901), the population of 500,000750,000
Australian Aborigines was reduced to fewer than
50,000.[166][167] Most were devastated by the introduction
of alien diseases after contact with Europeans, while perhaps 20,000 were killed by massacres and ghting with
colonists.[166]

In 1835, some Ngti Mutunga and Ngti Tama from the

Taranaki region of North Island invaded the Chathams.
On 19 November 1835, the Rodney, a European ship
hired by the Mori, arrived carrying 500 Mori armed
with guns, clubs, and axes, followed by another ship with
400 more warriors on 5 December 1835. They proceeded
to enslave some Moriori and kill and cannibalise others. Parties of warriors armed with muskets, clubs and
tomahawks, led by their chiefs, walked through Moriori
tribal territories and settlements without warning, permission or greeting. If the districts were wanted by the
invaders, they curtly informed the inhabitants that their
land had been taken and the Moriori living there were
now vassals.[169]
A council of Moriori elders was convened at the settlement called Te Awapatiki. Despite knowing of the
Mori predilection for killing and eating the conquered,
and despite the admonition by some of the elder chiefs
that the principle of Nunuku was not appropriate now,
two chiefsTapata and Toreadeclared that the law
of Nunuku was not a strategy for survival, to be varied
as conditions changed; it was a moral imperative.[170]
A Moriori survivor recalled: "[The Maori] commenced
to kill us like sheep.... [We] were terried, ed to the
bush, concealed ourselves in holes underground, and in
any place to escape our enemies. It was of no avail; we
were discovered and killed men, women and children
indiscriminately. A Mori conqueror explained, We
took possession... in accordance with our customs and
we caught all the people. Not one escaped...[171]
After the invasion, Moriori were forbidden to marry
Moriori, or to have children with each other. All became
slaves of the invaders. Many Moriori women had children by their Maori masters. A small number of Moriori women eventually married either Maori or European
men. Some were taken from the Chathams and never returned. Only 101 Moriori out of a population of about
2,000 were left alive by 1862.[172] Although the last Moriori of unmixed ancestry, Tommy Solomon,[173] died in
1933, several thousand mixed-ancestry Moriori are alive
today.

12

3 TWENTIETH CENTURY (FROM WORLD WAR I)

Twentieth century (from World

War I)

Ermeni Kym) refers to the deliberate and systematic

destruction of the Armenian population of the Ottoman
Empire during and just after World War I. It was implemented through wholesale massacres and deportations,
3.1 World War I through World War II
with the deportations consisting of forced marches under
conditions designed to lead to the death of the deportees.
In 1915, during World War I, the concept of crimes The total number of resulting deaths is generally held to
against humanity was introduced into international rela- have been between one and one and a half million.[182]
tions for the rst time when the Allied Powers sent a letter
The genocide began on 24 April 1915, when Ottoman
to the government of the Ottoman Empire, a member of
authorities arrested some 250 Armenian intellectuals and
the Central Powers, protesting massacres that were taking
community leaders in Constantinople. Thereafter, the
place within the Empire.[174]
Ottoman military uprooted Armenians from their homes
and forced them to march for hundreds of miles, without food and water, to the desert of what is now Syria.
3.1.1 Ottoman Empire/Turkey
Massacres ignored age and gender, with rape and other
[183]
The majorMain articles: Armenian Genocide, Assyrian Genocide, acts of sexual abuse being commonplace.
ity
of
Armenian
diaspora
communities
were
founded
as a
Greek genocide, and Dersim Massacre
result
of
these
events.
Mass
killings
continued
under
the
On 24 May 1915, the Allied Powers (Britain, France,
Republic of Turkey during the TurkishArmenian War
phase of Turkish War of Independence.[184]

Of this photo, the U.S. ambassador Henry Morgenthau, Sr.

wrote, Scenes like this were common all over the Armenian
provinces, in the spring and summer months of 1915. Death in
its several formsmassacre, starvation, exhaustiondestroyed
the larger part of the refugees. The Turkish policy was that of
extermination under the guise of deportation.[175]

Armenian civilians, escorted by armed Ottoman soldiers, are

marched through Kharpert to a prison in the nearby Mezireh district, April 1915.

Modern Turkey succeeded the Ottoman Empire in 1923

and vehemently denies that a genocide took place. It has
resisted calls in recent years by scholars, countries and international organizations to acknowledge the crime. The
Armenian genocide is the second most-studied case of
genocide after the Holocaust. Lemkin coined genocide
with the Armenian genocide in mind.[185]

and Russia) jointly issued a statement that for the rst

time ever explicitly charged a government with committing a "crime against humanity" in reference to that
regimes persecution of its Christian minorities, including
Armenians, Assyrians and Greeks.[176] Many researchers
consider these events to be part of the policy of planned
ethnoreligious purication of the Turkish state advanced Assyrians The Assyrian Genocide (also known as
by the Young Turks.[177] [178][179][180][181]
Sayfo or Seyfo; Aramaic:
or
Turkish:
Sryani
Soykrm)
was
committed
,
This joint statement stated, "[i]n view of these new crimes
of Turkey against humanity and civilization, the Allied against the Assyrian population of the Ottoman Empire
[186]
The
Governments announce publicly to the Sublime Porte that during the First World War by the Young Turks.
Assyrian
population
of
northern
Mesopotamia
(Tur
Abthey will hold personally responsible for these crimes all
Hakkari,
Van,
Siirt
region
in
modern-day
southeastdin,
members of the Ottoman Government, as well as those of
ern Turkey and Urmia region in northwestern Iran) was
their agents who are implicated in such massacres.[174]
forcibly relocated and massacred by Ottoman (Turkish
and allied Kurdish) forces between 1914 and 1920.[187]
Armenians The Armenian Genocide (Armenian: This genocide paralleled the Armenian Genocide and
, translit.: Hayots Greek genocide.[188][189] The Assyro-Chaldean National
Tseaspanout'youn; Turkish:
Ermeni Soykrm and Council stated in a 4 December 1922, memorandum that

3.2

Russian Empire and the Soviet Union

13

the total death toll is unknown, but it estimated that about Kingdom of Iraq Main article: Simele massacre
750,000 Assyrians died between 1914 and 1918.[190]
[191]

Greeks The Greek genocide

refers to the fate of
the Greek population of the Ottoman Empire during
and in the aftermath of World War I (191418). Like
Armenians and Assyrians, the Greeks were subjected
to various forms of persecution including massacres,
expulsions, and death marches by Young Turks.[192][189]
Mass killing of Greeks continued under the Turkish National Movement during the Greco-Turkish War phase of
the Turkish War of Independence.[193] George W. Rendel of the British Foreign Oce, among other diplomats, noted the massacres and deportations of Greeks
during the post-Armistice period.[194] Estimates of the
number of Anatolian Greeks killed range from 348,000
to 900,000.[195][196][197][198]
3.1.2

Maronite Christians

The Great Famine of Mount Lebanon occurred from

1915 to 1918. It was caused by the Ottoman policy of
acquiring all food products produced in the region for
the Ottoman army and administration, and the barring of
any produce from being sent to the Maronite Christian
population of Mount Lebanon, eectively condemning
them to starvation.[199] It was suggested at the time that
the starvation of the Maronites was a deliberately orchestrated Ottoman policy aimed at destroying the Maronites,
in keeping with the treatment of Armenians, Assyrians
and Greeks.[200] The death toll among Maronite Christians, mainly due to starvation and disease is estimated to
have been 200,000.[201]

The Simele massacre(Syriac:

pramta dSimele, Arabic: mabaat Summayl) was a
massacre committed by the armed forces of the Kingdom
of Iraq during a campaign which systematically targeted
the Assyrians of northern Iraq in August 1933. The term
is used to describe not only the massacre in Simele, but
also the killing spree that took place in 63 Assyrian villages in the Dohuk and Mosul districts which led to the
deaths of between 5,000[208] and 6,000[209][210] Assyrians. The Simele massacre inspired Raphael Lemkin to
create the concept of genocide.[211] In 1933, Lemkin delivered a presentation to the Legal Council of the League
of Nations conference on international criminal law in
Madrid, for which he prepared an essay on the Crime of
Barbarity as a crime against international law. The concept of the crime of barbarity evolved into the idea of
genocide, and it was based on the Simele massacre and
the Armenian Genocide, and it later included the Jewish
Holocaust.[212]

3.2 Russian Empire and the Soviet Union

3.2.1 Tsarist Russia
Main articles: Urkun and Anti-Jewish pogroms in the
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire has been accused of mass killings of
hundreds of thousands of Jews and Muslims through its
military and through riots.

Dersim Kurds The Dersim massacre refers to the

depopulation of Dersim in Turkish Kurdistan, in
193738, in which approximately 13,00040,000 Alevi
Kurds[202][203] were killed and thousands more were
driven into exile. A key component of the Turkication
process was a policy of massive population resettlement.
The main document, the 1934 Law on Resettlement,
was used to target the region of Dersim as one of its
rst test cases, with disastrous consequences for the local population.[204]
Many Kurds and some ethnic Turks consider the events
that took place in Dersim to constitute genocide. A
prominent proponent of this view is smail Beiki.[205]
Under international laws, the actions of the Turkish authorities were arguably not genocide, because they were
not aimed at the extermination of a people, but at resettlement and suppression.[206] A Turkish court ruled in 2011
that the events could not be considered genocide because
they were not directed systematically against an ethnic
group.[207] Scholars such as Martin van Bruinessen, have
instead talked of an ethnocide directed against the local
language and identity.[206]

Photo believed to show the victims, mostly Jewish children, of

a 1905 pogrom in Yekaterinoslav (todays Dnipropetrovsk in
Ukraine).

Jews in the Russian Empire From the end of the 19th

century through the early 20th century there was an escalating series of massacres and mass rapes of Jews in
the Russian Empire (mostly within the Pale of Settlement, what would become Ukraine, Poland and Belarus)
in what would become known as the Pogroms. This term
would be expanded in order to cover all ethno-religious
riots with a murderous intent. These Pogroms gained

14

3 TWENTIETH CENTURY (FROM WORLD WAR I)

their name from the Pogroms of the 1880s in which

dozens of Jews were killed.[213] The massacres became
bloodier over time and thousands were killed from 1903
through 1906[214] and tens to hundreds of thousands in
1917 through 1922.[215] The massacres are alleged to
have been either condoned or organized by the Russian
Empire's government.[216][217][218][219]
Muslims in the Russian Empire Hundreds of thousands to over a million Turkish and Kurdish civilians are
alleged to have been massacred by forces loyal to the
Russian Empire during World War I in reprisal for the
Armenian Genocide.[220][221]
In 1916 there was an uprising of Krygyzstanis against
Tsarist Russia in the territory now known as the Urkun.
A public commission in Kyrgyzstan called the crackdown of 1916 in which 100,000 to 270,000 Kyrgyzstanis were killed a genocide though Russia rejected this
characterization.[222] Russian sources put the death toll at
3,000.[223]
3.2.2

Soviet Union

Main articles: Human rights in the Soviet Union,

Population transfer in the Soviet Union, Droughts
and famines in Russia and the Soviet Union,
Decossackization, Great Purge, Gulag, Holodomor,
Srgn, and Polish operation of the NKVD
Multiple documented instances of unnatural mass death
occurred in the Soviet Union under Vladimir Lenin and
Joseph Stalin. These include Union-wide famines in the
early 1920s and early 1930s and deportations of ethnic
minorities.
Soviet diplomatic eorts removed the extermination of
political groups from the United Nations Convention on
Genocide. This left many of the Soviet atrocities outside the United Nations denition of genocide, because
the atrocities targeted political or economic groups rather
than the ethnic, racial, religious, or national groups listed
in the UN convention.
Decossackization Main article: Decossackization
During the Russian Civil War the Bolsheviks engaged in a genocidal campaign against the Don Cossacks.[224][225][226][227][228] The most reliable estimates indicate that out of a population of three million, between
300,000 and 500,000 were killed or deported in 1919
20.[229]

Starved peasants on a street in Kharkiv, 1933.

of Russia, the highest scale of death was in Ukraine. The

events there are referred to as the Holodomor and are
recognized as genocide by the governments of Australia,
Argentina, Georgia, Estonia, Italy, Canada, Lithuania,
Poland, the USA and Hungary. The famine was caused
by the conscation of the whole 1933 harvest in Ukraine,
Kazakhstan, the Kuban (a densely populated Russian region), and some other parts of the Soviet Union, leaving
the peasants too little to feed themselves. As a result, an
estimated ten million died, including over seven million in
Ukraine, one million in the North Caucasus and one million elsewhere.[230] American historian Timothy Snyder
wrote of 3.3 million Soviet citizens (mostly Ukrainians)
deliberately starved by their own government in Soviet
Ukraine in 19321933.[231]
In addition to the requisitioning of crops and livestock
in Ukraine, all food was conscated by Soviet authorities. Any and all aid and food was prohibited from entering the Ukrainian republic. Ukraines Yuschenko administration recognized the Holodomor as an act of genocide and pushed international governments to acknowledge this.[232] This move was opposed by the Russian government and some members of the Ukrainian parliament,
especially the Communists. A Ukrainian court found
Joseph Stalin, Vyacheslav Molotov, Lazar Kaganovich,
Stanislav Kosior, Pavel Postyshev, Vlas Chubar and
Mendel Khatayevich posthumously guilty of genocide
on 13 January 2010.[233][234] As of 2010, the Russian governments ocial position was that the famine
took place, but was not an ethnic genocide;[232] former
Ukrainian president Viktor Yanukovych supported this
position.[235][236] A ruling of 12 January 2010 by Kyivs
Court of Appeal declared the Soviet leaders guilty of
'genocide against the Ukrainian national group in 1932
33 through the articial creation of living conditions intended for its partial physical destruction.'"[237]

Holodomor Main article: Holodomor

Poles in the Soviet Union Main article: The Polish
During the Soviet famine of 193233 that aected Operation of the NKVD (19371938)
Ukraine, Kazakhstan and some densely populated regions

3.2

Russian Empire and the Soviet Union

Several scholars write that the killing, on the basis of nationality and politics, of more than 120,000 ethnic Poles
in the Soviet Union from 193738 was genocide.[238]
An NKVD ocial remarked that Poles living in the Soviet Union were to be completely destroyed. Under
Stalin the NKVDs Polish operation soon arrested some
144,000, of whom 111,000 were shot.[239][240]
In practice abandoning its 'ocial socialist' ideology of
the fraternity of peoples, the Soviets in the Great Terror
of 19371938 would target a national group as an enemy
of the state. During their Polish operation the NKVD hit
Soviet Poles and other Soviet citizens associated with
Poland, Polish culture, or Roman Catholicism. The Polish ethnic character of the operation quickly prevailed in
practice... . Stalin was pleased at cleaning out this Polish lth. Among the several dierent nationalities targeted in the Great Terror, ethnic Poles suered more
than any other group.[241] In 1940 the Soviets also killed
thousands of Polish POWs, among about 22,000 Polish
citizens shot in the Katyn forest and other places.[242][243]

15
(excluding the NKVD statistic), range from about
170,000 to 200,000,[250][251] thus ranging from over
a third of the total Chechen population to nearly half
being killed (of those that were deported, not counting those killed on the spot) in those 4 years alone.
Both the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria and the European Union Parliament marked it as genocide in
2004.[252]

Deportations of Lithuanians, Latvians and Estonians The mass deportations of up to 17,500 Lithuanians, 17,000 Latvians and 6,000 Estonians carried out by
Stalin were allegedly the start of another genocide. Added
to the killing of the Forest Brethren and the renewed
Dekulakization that followed the Soviet reconquest of
the Baltic states at the end of World War Two, the total
number deported to Siberia was 118,559 from Lithuania, 52,541 from Latvia, and 32,540 from Estonia.[253]
The high death rate of deportees during the rst few
years of exile, caused by the failure of Soviet authorities to provide suitable clothing and housing at their destination, led some sources to label the aair an act of
Chechnya Main article: Operation Lentil (Caucasus)
genocide.[254] Based on the Martens Clause and the principles of the Nuremberg Charter, the European Court
On 26 February 2004 the plenary assembly of the Euro- of Human Rights held that the March deportation conpean Parliament recognized the deportation of Chechen stituted a crime against humanity.[255][256] According to
people during Operation Lentil (23 February 1944), as an Erwin Oberlander, these deportations are a crime against
act of genocide, on the basis of the 1907 IV Hague Con- humanity, rather than genocide.[257]
vention: The Laws and Customs of War on Land and the
Lithuania began trials for genocide in 1997. Latvia and
CPPCG.[244]
Estonia followed in 1998.[258] Latvia has since convicted
The event began on 23 February 1944, when the entire four security ocers and in 2003 it sentenced a former
population of Checheno-Ingushetia was summoned to lo- KGB agent to ve years in prison. Estonia tried and concal party buildings where they were told they were to victed ten men and is investigating others. In Lithuania
be deported as punishment for their alleged collabora- by 2004 23 cases were before the courts, but as of the end
tion with the Germans. The inhabitants were rounded of the year none had been convicted.[259]
up and imprisoned in Studebaker trucks and sent to
In 2007 Estonia charged Arnold Meri (then 88 years old),
Siberia.[245][246]
a former Soviet Communist Party ocial and highly decorated former Red Army soldier, with genocide. Shortly
Many times, resistance was met with slaughter, and
after the trial opened, it was suspended because of Meris
in one such instance, in the aul of Khaibakh, about
frail health and then abandoned when he died.[260][261] A
700 people were locked in a barn and burned to
memorial in Vilnius, Lithuania, is dedicated to genocideath. By the next summer, Checheno-Ingushetia
dal victims of Stalin and Hitler,[262] and the Museum of
was dissolved; a number of Chechen and Ingush plaGenocide Victims in Lithuania, which opened on 14 Occenames were replaced with Russian ones; mosques
tober 1992 in the former KGB headquarters, chronicles
and graveyards were destroyed, and a massive camthe imprisonment and deportation of Lithuanians.[263]
paign to burn numerous historical Chechen texts was
nearly complete.[247]
[264][265][266]
and
[248] Throughout the North Caucasus, about 700,000 Crimean Tatars The ethnic cleansing
'deportation
of
the
Crimean
Tatars
from
Crimea
was
or[249]
of which
(according to Dalkhat Ediev, 724297,
Joseph
Stalin
as
a
form
of
collective
punishment
dered
by
the majority, 412,548, were Chechens, along with
96,327 Ingush, 104,146 Kalmyks, 39,407 Balkars for alleged collaboration with the Nazi occupation regime
and 71,869 Karachais). Many died on the trip, in Taurida Subdistrict during 19421943. The stateof exposure in Siberias extremely harsh environ- organized removal is known as the 'Srgnlik in Crimean
ment. The NKVD, supplying the Russian per- Tatar. A total of more than 230,000 people were despective, gives the statistic of 144,704 killed in ported (the entire ethnic Crimean Tatar population), of
19441948 alone (with a death rate of 23.5% for which more than 100,000 died from starvation or disease.
all groups). Estimates for Chechen deaths alone Ukraine recognizes the ethnic cleansing of the entire

16

3 TWENTIETH CENTURY (FROM WORLD WAR I)

Tatar population as an act of genocide.[267]

3.2.3

Japan

communist and he and his army wiped out many Tibetans in northeast and eastern Qinghai and destroyed
Tibetan Buddhist Temples.[272][273] Ma also patronized
the Panchen Lama, who was exiled from Tibet by the
Dalai Lama's government.

Main articles: Nanking massacre and Japanese war

crimes
During the Nanking massacre in the period of the Second 3.2.6 Germany and Nazi-occupied Europe

Main articles: The Holocaust, Racial policy of Nazi Germany, Nazi crimes against ethnic Poles, Generalplan Ost,
Persecution of homosexuals in Nazi Germany and the
Holocaust, and Persecution of Jehovahs Witnesses in
Nazi Germany

The corpses of massacred victims with a Japanese soldier standing nearby, Nanjing, 1937

Sino-Japanese War, the Japanese engaged in mass killings

of Chinese. Bradley Campbell described the Nanking
Massacre as a genocide, because the Chinese were unilaterally killed by the Japanese en masse during the aftermath, despite the successful and certain outcome of their
battle.[268]
Major deportation routes to the extermination camps in Europe.

3.2.4

Dominican Republic

In 1937, Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo ordered the

execution of Haitians living in the Dominican Republic.
The Parsley massacre, known in the Dominican Republic as El Corte (the Cutting), lasted approximately ve
days. Trujillo had his soldiers show parsley to suspected
Haitians and ask, What is this?" Spanish-speaking Dominicans would be able to pronounce the Spanish word
for parsley (perejil) perfectly. In Haitian Creole, the
word for parsley is persil. Those who mispronounced
perejil were assumed to be Haitian and slaughtered.
The program resulted in the deaths of 20,000 to 30,000
people.[269]
3.2.5

Republic of China and Tibet

In the 1930s, the Kuomintang's Republic of China government supported Muslim warlord Ma Bufang when he
launched seven expeditions into Golog, causing the deaths
of thousands of Tibetans.[270] Uradyn Erden Bulag called
the events that followed genocidal, while David Goodman
called them ethnic cleansing. One Tibetan counted the
number of times Ma attacked him, remembering the seventh attack that made life impossible.[271] Ma was anti-

Holocaust The Nazi Holocaust is widely recognized as

genocide. The term appeared in the indictment of 24
German leaders. Count three of the indictment stated that
all the defendants had conducted deliberate and systematic genocide namely, the extermination of racial and
national groups....[275]
The term the Holocaust (from the Greek hlos, whole
and kausts, burnt) is often used to describe the killing
of approximately six million European Jews, as part of
a program of deliberate extermination planned and executed by the National Socialist German Workers Party
in Germany led by Adolf Hitler.[276][277] Many scholars
do not include other groups in the denition of the Holocaust, reserving the term to refer only to the genocide of
the Jews.[278]
The Holocaust: Denition and Preliminary Discussion, Yad Vashem, The Holocaust, as presented in
this resource center, is dened as the sum total of
all anti-Jewish actions carried out by the German
regime between 1933 and 1945: from stripping the
German Jews of their legal and economic status in
the 1930s, to segregating and starving Jews in the

3.2

Russian Empire and the Soviet Union

17

various occupied countries, to the murder of close to

six million Jews in Europe. The Holocaust is part of
a broader aggregate of acts of oppression and murder of various ethnic and political groups in Europe
by the Germans.

[276][279][280][281][282]

or what the Germans called the

"Final Solution of the Jewish Question".

German police shooting women and children from the Mizocz

Ghetto, 14 October 1942

The Holocaust was accomplished in stages. Legislation to

remove the Jews from civil society was enacted years before the outbreak of World War II. Concentration camps
were established in which inmates were used as slave laborers until they died. Where the Third Reich conquered
new territory in Eastern Europe, specialized units called
Einsatzgruppen murdered Jews and political opponents in
mass shootings.[283] Jews and Romani were crammed into
ghettos before being transported in box cars by freight
train to extermination camps where, if they survived the
journey, the majority were killed in gas chambers. Every
arm of Germanys bureaucracy was involved in the logistics of the mass murder, turning the country into what one
Holocaust scholar has called a genocidal nation.[284]
This gives a total of over 3.8 million; of these, 8090%
were estimated to be Jews. These seven camps thus accounted for half the total number of Jews killed in the
entire Nazi Holocaust. Virtually the entire Jewish population of Poland died in these camps.[285]
Since 1945, the most commonly cited gure for the total number of Jews killed has been six million. The Yad
Vashem Holocaust Martyrs and Heroes Remembrance
Authority in Jerusalem, writes that there is no precise gure for the number of Jews killed,[294] but has been able to
nd documentation of more than three million names of
Jewish victims killed,[295] which it displays at its visitors
center. The gure most commonly used is the six million
attributed to Adolf Eichmann, a senior SS ocial.[296]
There were about eight to ten million Jews in the territories controlled directly or indirectly by Germany (the
uncertainty arises from the lack of knowledge about how
many Jews there were in the Soviet Union). The six million killed in the Holocaust thus represent 60 to 75 per-

Members of the Sonderkommando burn corpses in the re pits at

Auschwitz II-Birkenau.[297]

cent of these Jews. Of Polands 3.3 million Jews, about

90 percent were killed.[298] The same proportion were
killed in Latvia and Lithuania, but most of Estonia's Jews
were evacuated in time. Of the 750,000 Jews in Germany
and Austria in 1933, only about a quarter survived. Although many German Jews emigrated before 1939, the
majority of these ed to Czechoslovakia, France or the
Netherlands, from where they were later deported to their
deaths.
In Czechoslovakia, Greece, the Netherlands, and Yugoslavia, over 70 percent were killed. 50 to 70 percent were killed in Romania, Belgium and Hungary. It
is likely that a similar proportion were killed in Belarus
and Ukraine, but these gures are less certain. Countries with notably lower proportions of deaths include
Bulgaria, Denmark, France, Italy, and Norway. Albania
was the only country occupied by Germany that had a
signicantly larger Jewish population in 1945 than in
1939. About two hundred native Jews and over a thousand refugees were provided with false documents, hidden when necessary, and generally treated as honored
guests in a country whose population was roughly 60%
Muslim.[299] Additionally, Japan, as an Axis member,
had its own unique response to German policies regarding
Jews; see Shanghai Ghetto.
In addition to those who died in extermination camps, at
least half a million Jews died in other camps, including
the major concentration camps in Germany. These were
not extermination camps, but had large numbers of Jewish prisoners at various times, particularly in the last year
of the war as the Nazis withdrew from Poland. About
a million people died in these camps, and although the
proportion of Jews is not known with certainty, it was
estimated to be at least 50 percent. Another 800,000

18

3 TWENTIETH CENTURY (FROM WORLD WAR I)

to one million Jews were killed by the Einsatzgruppen

in the occupied Soviet territories (an approximate gure, since the Einsatzgruppen killings were frequently
undocumented).[300] Many more died through execution
or of disease and malnutrition in the ghettos of Poland
before they could be deported.

the pogroms and massacres in Romania and

Transitrien (over 200,000) and the deported
and murdered Jews from Albania and Norway,
Denmark and Italy, from Luxembourg and
Bulgaria.
Benz, Wolfgang The Holocaust: A German
Historian Examines the Genocide[301]

Non-Jewish victims Some scholars broaden the denition to include other German killing policies during the
war, including the mistreatment of Soviet POWs, crimes
against ethnic Poles, euthanasia of mentally and physically disabled Germans, persecution of Jehovahs Witnesses, the killing of Romani, and other crimes committed against ethnic, sexual, and political minorities.[314]
Using this denition, the total number of Holocaust victims is 11 million people. Donald Niewyk suggests that
the broadest denition, including Soviet deaths due to
war-related famine and disease, would produce a death
toll of 17 million. Overall, about 5.7 million (78 percent)
of the 7.3 million Jews in occupied Europe perished.[315]
This was in contrast to the ve to 11 million (1.4 percent
to 3.0 percent) of the 360 million non-Jews in Germandominated Europe.[316][317]
Jewish Holocaust death toll as a percentage of the total pre-war
Jewish population

Slavic population in the Soviet Union Main article:

In the 1990s, the opening of government archives in East- World War II casualties of the Soviet Union
ern Europe resulted in the adjustment of the death tolls The Nazi German government implemented Generalplan
published in the pioneering work by Hilberg, Dawidowicz and Gilbert (e.g. compare Gilberts estimation of two
million deaths in Auschwitz-Birkenau with the updated
gure of one million in the Extermination Camp data
box). As pointed out above, Wolfgang Benz has been
carrying out work on the more recent data. He concluded
in 1999:
The goal of annihilating all of the Jews
of Europe, as it was proclaimed at the conference in the villa Am Grossen Wannsee in
January 1942, was not reached. Yet the six
million murder victims make the holocaust a
unique crime in the history of mankind. The
number of victimsand with certainty the
following represent the minimum number in
each casecannot express that adequately.
Numbers are just too abstract. However they
must be stated in order to make clear the
dimension of the genocide: 165,000 Jews
from Germany, 65,000 from Austria, 32,000
from France and Belgium, more than 100,000
from the Netherlands, 60,000 from Greece,
the same number from Yugoslavia, more than
140,000 from Czechoslovakia, half a million
from Hungary, 2.2 million from the Soviet
Union, and 2.7 million from Poland. To these
numbers must be added all those killed in

Men hanged as partisans somewhere in the Soviet Union.

Ost for the colonization of Central and Eastern Europe.[318] Implementation of the plan necessitated
genocide[319] and ethnic cleansing on a vast scale to be
undertaken in territories occupied by Germany during
World War II.[319] The plan entailed the enslavement, expulsion, and partial destruction of most Slavic peoples in
Europe, whom the Nazis viewed as racially inferior and
non-Aryan.[319][320] The programme operational guidelines, prepared in the years 19391942, were based on
the policy of Lebensraum designed by Adolf Hitler and
the Nazi movement, as well as being a fulllment of the
Drang nach Osten (English: Drive towards the East) ideology of German expansion to the east. As such, it was

3.2

Russian Empire and the Soviet Union

19
der Ustae rule.[325] The Yad Vashem World Holocaust
Museum and Research Center concludes that more than
500,000 Serbs were murdered in horribly sadistic ways,
250,000 were expelled, and another 200,000 were forced
to convert.[326]
Some historians believe that crimes committed
against non-Serbs by Chetniks in Bosnia constitute
genocide.[327][328]

intended to be a part of the New Order in Europe.[319]

Poland Intelligenzaktion (anti-intelligentsia action)

was a highly secretive genocidal action of Nazi Germany against Polish elites (primarily intelligentsia; teachers, doctors, priests, community leaders etc.) in the early
stages of World War II. It was conducted as part of an
attempt to complete the Germanization of the western
regions of occupied Poland before their planned annexation. The operation took the lives of 100,000 Poles according to the Institute of National Remembrance.[329]

The civilian death toll in the regions occupied by Germany was estimated at 13.7 million. Philimoshin cited
sources from the Soviet era to support his gures, he used
the terms genocide and premeditated extermination
when referring to the deaths of 7.4 million civilians in
the occupied USSR caused by the direct, intentional actions of violence. Civilians killed in reprisals during the
Soviet partisan war account for a major part of the huge
toll. The report of Philimoshin lists the deaths of civilian forced laborers in Germany as totaling 2,164,313. G.
I. Krivosheev in the report on military casualties gives a
total of 1,103,300 dead POWs. The total of these two
gures is 3,267,613, which is in close agreement with estimates by western historians of about 3 million deaths of
prisoners in German captivity. In the occupied regions
Nazi Germany had a policy of forced conscation of food
that resulted in the famine deaths of an estimated 6% of
the population, 4.1 million persons.[321]

Adolf Hitler believed that the Polish elites might

cause Poles to disobey their new German masters so
he therefore decreed that they had to be eliminated
beforehand.[330] The aim was the elimination of Polish
societys elite, dened very broadly as: Polish nobles, intelligentsia, teachers, entrepreneurs, social workers, military veterans, members of national organisations, priests,
judges, political activists, and anyone who had attended
secondary school.[331] It was continued by the German
AB-Aktion operation in Poland in the mid-1940s, which
saw the massacre of Lww professors and the executions
of about 1,700 Poles in the Palmiry forest. Several
thousand civilians were executed or imprisoned. The
Einsatzgruppen were also responsible for the indiscriminate killing of Poles during the 1941 German invasion
of the Soviet Union (which itself had invaded a sizeable
portion of pre-WWII Polish territory, killing dozens of
thousands of imprisoned Poles in turn).[332]

A victim of starvation in besieged Leningrad in 1941

Croatia After the Nazi invasion of Yugoslavia, Croatian Nazis and fascists known as the Ustae established
a regime known as the Nezavisna Drava Hrvatska
(Independent State of Croatia) or NDH. Immediately
afterwards, the NDH launched a genocidal campaign
against Serbs, Jews and Romani people inside the borders
of the NDH. From 1941 to 1945, when Tito's partisans
liberated Croatia, the Ustae regime killed between at
least 300,000 to 350,000 people, mostly Serbs but including nearly 80,000 Roma and 35,000 Jews,[322] around
100,000 at the infamous Jasenovac concentration camp
alone. Helen Fein estimated that the Ustae killed almost
every Romani in the country.[323] The Ustae enacted a
policy that called for a solution to the Serbian problem
in Croatia. The solution, as promulgated by Mile Budak, was to kill one-third of the Serbs, expel one-third,
and convert [to Roman Catholicism] one-third.[324] According to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 320,000340,000 ethnic Serbs were murdered un-

Our strength is our quickness and our brutality.... I have given the order and will have
everyone shot who utters but one word of criticism that the aim of this war does not consist in reaching certain geographical lines, but
in the enemies physical elimination. Thus, for
the time being only in the east, I put ready my
Deaths Head units, with the order to kill without pity or mercy all men, women, and children of the Polish race or language... Adolf
Hitler, Obersalzberg Speech, given in 22 August 1939, a week before the invasion
Volhynia and Eastern Galicia The massacres of Poles
in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia were part of an ethnic
cleansing operation carried out by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) West in the Nazi-occupied regions
of Eastern Galicia (Nazi created Distrikt Galizien in
General Government), and UPA North in Volhynia (in

20

3 TWENTIETH CENTURY (FROM WORLD WAR I)

dierent areas that Nazi Germany conquered. In some
areas (e.g. Luxembourg and the Baltic countries), the
Nazis killed virtually the entire Romani population. In
other areas (e.g. Denmark, Greece), there is no record of
Romanis being subjected to mass killings.[341]

Massacres of Poles in Volhynia in 1943. Most Poles of Volhynia

(now in Ukraine) had either been murdered or had ed the area

Donald Niewyk and Frances Nicosia write that the death

toll was at least 130,000 of the nearly one million Romani in Nazi-controlled Europe.[342] Michael Berenbaum
writes that serious scholarly estimates lie between 90,000
and 220,000.[343] A study by Sybil Milton, senior historian at the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum, calculated a death toll of at least 220,000 and possibly
closer to 500,000, but this study explicitly excluded the
Independent State of Croatia where the genocide of Romanies was intense.[306][344] Martin Gilbert estimates a
total of more than 220,000 of the 700,000 Romani in
Europe.[345] Ian Hancock, Director of the Program of
Romani Studies and the Romani Archives and Documentation Center at the University of Texas at Austin, has argued in favor of a much higher gure of between 500,000
and 1,500,000, claiming the Romani toll proportionally
equaled or exceeded that of Jewish victims.[307][346]

Nazi created Reichskommissariat Ukraine), from March

1943 until the end of 1944. The peak took place
in July/August 1943 when a senior UPA commander,
Dmytro Klyachkivsky, ordered the liquidation of the entire male Polish population between 16 and 60 years of
age.[333][334] Despite this, most were women and children. The UPA killed 40,00060,000 Polish civilians
in Volhynia,[335] from 25,000[336] to 30,00040,000 in Disabled and mentally ill Main articles: Nazi euEastern Galicia.[335] The killings were directly linked with genics, Action T4, Erbkrank, Law for the Prevention of
the policies of the Bandera fraction of the Organization Hereditarily Diseased Ospring, and Schloss Hartheim
of Ukrainian Nationalists, whose goal, specied at the
Second Conference of the OUN-B, was to remove nonOur starting-point is not the individual,
Ukrainians from a future Ukrainian state.[337]
and we do not subscribe to the view that one
The massacres are recognized in Poland as ethnic cleansshould feed the hungry, give drink to the
ing with marks of genocide.[338] According to IPN
thirsty or clothe the nakedthose are not
prosecutor Piotr Zajc, the crimes have a character of
our objectives. Our objectives are entirely
genocide.[339]
dierent. They can be put most crisply in the
sentence: we must have a healthy people in
On 22 July 2016, the Parliament of Poland passed a resoorder to prevail in the world.
lution declaring 11 July a National Day of Remembrance
Joseph Goebbels, 1938.[347]
to honor the Polish victims murdered by Ukrainian na-

tionalists, and formally calling the massacres a Genocide.[340]

Between 1939 and 1941, 80,000 to 100,000 mentally ill
adults in institutions were killed; 5,000 children in institutions; and 1,000 Jews in institutions.[348] Outside the menRomani people Main article: Porajmos
tal health institutions, the gures are estimated to number
The treatment of the Romani was not consistent in the
20,000 (according to Dr. Georg Renno, the deputy director of Schloss Hartheim, one of the euthanasia centers)
or 400,000 (according to Franz Ziereis, the commandant
of Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp).[348] Another
300,000 were forcibly sterilized.[349] Overall it has been
estimated that over 270,000 individuals[305] with mental
disorders of all kinds were put to death, although their
mass murder has received relatively little historical attention. Along with the physically disabled, people suffering from dwarsm were persecuted as well. Many
were put on display in cages and experimented on by
the Nazis.[350] Despite not being formally ordered to take
part, psychiatrists and psychiatric institutions were at the
center of justifying, planning and carrying out the atrocMap of persecution of the Roma
ities at every stage, and constituted the connection to

3.4

Partition of India

the later annihilation of Jews and other undesirables

in the Holocaust.[351] After strong protests by the German Catholic and Protestant churches on 24 August 1941
Hitler ordered the cancellation of the T4 program.[352]
The program was named after Tiergartenstrae 4, the address of a villa in the Berlin borough of Tiergarten, the
headquarters of the General Foundation for Welfare and
Institutional Care,[353] led by Philipp Bouhler, head of
Hitlers private chancellery (Kanzlei des Fhrer der NSDAP) and Karl Brandt, Hitlers personal physician.

21
ported as missing and presumed dead. Many German
civilians were sent to internment and labor camps as well,
where they often died. The events are usually classied as either a population transfer,[357][358] or an ethnic
cleansing.[359][360][361][362] Felix Ermacora, among a minority of legal scholars, equated ethnic cleansing with
genocide,[363][364] and stated that the expulsion of the
Sudeten Germans therefore constituted genocide.[365]

3.4 Partition of India

Brandt was tried in December 1946 at Nuremberg, along

with 22 others, in a case known as United States of America vs. Karl Brandt et al., also known as the Doctors Trial. Main article: Partition of India
He was hanged at Landsberg Prison on 2 June 1948.
The Partition of India was the partition of the British Indian Empire[366] that led to the creation of the sovereign
3.3 Post World War 2 Eastern and Central states of the Dominion of Pakistan (which later split into
Pakistan and Bangladesh) and the Union of India (later
Europe
the Republic of India) on 15 August 1947. During the
Partition, one of British Indias greatest provinces, the
3.3.1 Ethnic cleansing of Germans
Punjab Province, was split along communal lines into
Main article: Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944 West Punjab and East Punjab (later split into the three
separate modern-day Indian states of Punjab, Haryana
1950)
[354][355][356]
and Himachal Pradesh). West Punjab was formed out of
After WWII ended, about 11-12 million
the Muslim majority districts of the former British Indian
Punjab Province while East Punjab was formed out of the
Hindu and Sikh majority districts of the former province.

Expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia

Germans were forced to ee from or were expelled from

several countries throughout Eastern and Central Europe
including Russia, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Hungary
and the prewar territory of Poland. A large amount of
them were also displaced when Germanys former eastern provinces were given to Poland as part of the Potsdam
Agreement, regardless of those annexed lands being ethnically, politically, and culturally German for nearly a
thousand years. The majority of these expelled and displaced Germans ended up in what remained of Germany, with some being sent to West Germany and others being sent to East Germany. The ethnic cleansing
of the Germans was the largest displacement of a single European population in modern history.[354][355] Estimates for the total number of those who died during
the removals range from 500,000 to 2,000,000, where
the higher gures include unsolved cases of persons re-

Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs who had co-existed for a millennium attacked each other in a retributive genocide[367]
of horric proportions, accompanied by arson, looting, rape and abduction of women. The Indian government claimed that 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women
were abducted, and the Pakistani government claimed
that 50,000 Muslim women were abducted during riots.
By 1949, there were governmental claims that 12,000
women had been recovered in India and 6,000 women
had been recovered in Pakistan.[368] By 1954 there were
20,728 recovered Muslim women and 9,032 Hindu and
Sikh women recovered from Pakistan.[369]
This partition triggered o what was one of the worlds
largest mass migrations in modern history.[370] Around
11.2 million people successfully crossed the India-West
Pakistan border, mostly through the Punjab. 6.5 million
Muslims migrated from India to West Pakistan and 4.7
million Hindus and Sikhs from West Pakistan arrived in
India. However many people went missing.
A study of the total population inows and outows in
the districts of the Punjab, using the data provided by the
1931 and 1951 Census has led to an estimate of 1.26 million missing Muslims who left western India but did not
reach Pakistan.[371] The corresponding number of missing Hindus/Sikhs along the western border is estimated
to be approximately 0.84 million.[372] This puts the total
number of missing people due to Partition-related migration along the Punjabi border at around 2.23 million.[372]
Nisid Hajari, in Midnights Furies (Houghton Miin

22

3 TWENTIETH CENTURY (FROM WORLD WAR I)

Harcourt) wrote:[373]
Gangs of killers set whole villages aame,
hacking to death men and children and the aged
while carrying o young women to be raped.
Some British soldiers and journalists who had
witnessed the Nazi death camps claimed Partitions brutalities were worse: pregnant women
had their breasts cut o and babies hacked
out of their bellies; infants were found literally
roasted on spits.
By the time the violence had subsided, Hindus and Sikhs
had been completely wiped out of Pakistans West Punjab and similarly Muslims were completely wiped out of
Indias East Punjab.[367]
Partition also aected other areas of the subcontinent besides the Punjab. Anti-Hindu riots took place in Hyderabad, Sind. On the 6th of January anti-Hindu riots
broke out in Karachi, leading to an estimate of 1100
casualties.[374] 776,000 Sindhi Hindus ed to India.[375]

1969.[379] The nature and extent of the removals have

been disputed within Australia, with opponents questioning the ndings contained in the Commission report and
asserting that the size of the Stolen Generation had been
exaggerated. The intent and eects of the government
policy were also disputed.[378]
3.5.2 Zanzibar
In 1964, towards the end of the Zanzibar Revolution
which led to the overthrow of the Sultan of Zanzibar and his mainly Arab government by local African
revolutionariesJohn Okello claimed in radio speeches
to have killed or imprisoned tens of thousands of the
Sultans enemies and stooges,[380] but estimates of
the number of deaths vary greatly, from hundreds to
20,000. The New York Times and other Western newspapers gave gures of 24,000;[381][382] the higher numbers possibly were inated by Okellos own broadcasts
and exaggerated media reports.[380][383][384] The killing
of Arab prisoners and their burial in mass graves was
documented by an Italian lm crew, lming from a helicopter, in Africa Addio.[385] Many Arabs ed to safety
in Oman[383] and by Okellos order no Europeans were
harmed.[386] The violence did not spread to Pemba.[384]
Leo Kuper described the killing of Arabs in Zanzibar as
genocide.[387]

Anti-Muslim riots also rocked Delhi. According to Gyanendra Pandeys recent account of the Delhi violence between 20,000 and 25,000 Muslims in the city lost their
lives.[376] Tens of thousands of Muslims were driven to
refugee camps regardless of their political aliations and
numerous historic sites in Delhi such as the Purana Qila,
Idgah and Nizamuddin were transformed into refugee
camps. At the culmination of the tensions in Delhi 3.5.3 Algeria
330,000 Muslims were forced to ee the city to Pakistan.
The 1951 Census registered a drop of the Muslim popula- Further information: Algerian War
tion in Delhi from 33.22% in 1941 to 5.33% in 1951.[377]

3.5

1951 onward

After independence was gained after the Algerian War

the Harkis (Muslims who supported the French during the
war) were seen as traitors by many Algerians, and many
of those who stayed behind suered severe reprisals after independence. French historians estimate that somewhere between 50,000 and 150,000 Harkis and members of their families were killed by the FLN or by lynch
mobs in Algeria, often in atrocious circumstances or after
torture.[388]

The CPPCG was adopted by the UN General Assembly

on 9 December 1948 and came into eect on 12 January 1951 (Resolution 260 (III)). After the necessary 20
countries became parties to the Convention, it came into
force as international law on 12 January 1951. At that
time however, only two of the ve permanent members
of the UN Security Council (UNSC) were parties to the
treaty, which caused the Convention to languish for over
3.5.4 Cambodia 1975-1979
four decades.

Further information: Cambodian genocide

3.5.1

Australia 19001969

In Cambodia, a genocide was carried out by the Khmer

Further information: Stolen Generation, History wars, Rouge (KR) regime led by Pol Pot between 1975 and
and Bringing them home
1979 in which an estimated one and a half to three million
people died.[389] The KR group had planned to create a
Sir Ronald Wilson was once the president of Australias form of agrarian socialism which was founded on the ideHuman Rights Commission. He stated that Australias als of Stalinism and Maoism. The KR policies of forced
program in which 2025,000 Aboriginal children were relocation of the population from urban centers, torture,
forcibly separated from their natural families[378] was mass executions, use of forced labor, malnutrition, and
genocide, because it was intended to cause the Aborig- disease led to the deaths of an estimated 25 percent of
inal people to die out. The program ran from 1900 to the total population (around 2 million people).[390][391]

3.6

Bangladesh Liberation War Genocide of 1971

23

The genocide ended following the Vietnamese invasion on 7 July 2006 to appear in the Spanish National Court afof Cambodia.[392] At least 20,000 mass graves, known as ter Spains Constitutional Court ruled in 2005 that Spanthe Killing Fields, have since been uncovered.[393]
ish courts could exercise universal jurisdiction over war
crimes committed during the Guatemalan Civil War.[402]
In May 2013, Rios Montt was found guilty of genocide
3.5.5 Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan 1979-1989
for killing 1,700 indigenous Ixil Mayans during 1982
83 by a Guatemalan court and sentenced to 80 years in
The Afghans were the victims of genocide by the So- prison.[403] However, on 20 May 2013, the Constitutional
viet Union.[394][395] The army of the Soviet Union killed Court of Guatemala overturned the conviction, voiding
large numbers of Afghans in order to suppress their all proceedings back to 19 April and ordering that the trial
resistance.[394] Up to 2 million Afghans lost their lives be reset to that point, pending a dispute over the recusal
during the Soviet occupation.[396]
of judges.[404][405] Ros Montts trial was supposed to resume in January 2015,[406] but it was suspended after a
judge was forced to recuse herself.[407] Doctors declared
3.5.6 Guatemala 19811983
Ros Montt unt to stand trial on 8 July 2015, noting that
unable to understand the charges brought
Main articles: Guatemalan civil war and Guatemalan he would be[408]
against
him.
genocide
During the Guatemalan civil war, between 140,000 and
3.5.7 India (Sikh Genocide of 1984)
The 1984 anti-Sikh riots or the 1984 Sikh Massacre or
the 1984 genocide of Sikhs was a series of pogroms directed against Sikhs in India, by anti-Sikh mobs, most
notably by members of the Congress party, in response
to the assassination of Indira Gandhi by her Sikh bodyguards. There were about 2800 deaths all over India, including 2100 in Delhi.The Central Bureau of Investigation, the main Indian investigating agency, is of the opinion that the acts of violence were organized with the support of the then Delhi police and some central governMemorial to the victims of the Ro Negro massacres
ment ocials. Rajiv Gandhi was sworn in as Prime Min200,000 people are estimated to have died and more than ister after his mothers death and, when asked about the
one million ed their homes and hundreds of villages riots, he said when a big tree falls, the earth shakes.
were destroyed. The ocially chartered Historical Clarication Commission attributed more than 93% of all documented human rights violations to Guatemalas military 3.5.8 Pakistan
government; and estimated that Maya Indians accounted
for 83% of the victims.[397] Although the war lasted from 3.6 Bangladesh Liberation War Genocide
1960 to 1996, the Historical Clarication Commission
of 1971
concluded that genocide might have occurred between
1981 and 1983, when the government and guerrilla had Main articles: 1971 Bangladesh genocide, Operation
the ercest and bloodiest combats and strategies, espe- Searchlight, and Bangladesh Liberation War
cially in the oil-rich area of Ixcn on the northern part of
Quich.[398] The total numbers of killed or "disappeared"
was estimated to be around 200,000,[399] although this is An academic consensus holds that the events that took
the Bangladesh Liberation War constituted
an extrapolation that was done by the Historical Clari- place during
[409]
genocide.
During the nine-month-long conict an escation Commission based on the cases that they docutimated
300,000
to 3 million people were killed and the
[400]
The
mented, and there were no more than 50,000.
Pakistani
armed
forces
raped between 200,000400,000
commission also found that U.S. corporations and govBangladeshi
women
and
girls in an act of genocidal
ernment ocials exercised pressure to maintain the
[410]
rape.
countrys archaic and unjust socio-economic structure,
and that the Central Intelligence Agency backed illegal A 2008 study estimated that up to 269,000 civilians died
counterinsurgency operations.[401]
in the conict; the authors noted that this is far higher than
[411]
In 1999, Nobel peace prize winner Rigoberta Mench two earlier estimates.
brought a case against the military leadership in a Spanish A case was led in the Federal Court of Australia on 20
Court. Six ocials, among them Efran Ros Montt and September 2006 for alleged war crimes, crimes against
scar Humberto Meja Victores, were formally charged humanity and genocide during 1971 by the Pakistani

24

3 TWENTIETH CENTURY (FROM WORLD WAR I)

Armed Forces and its collaborators:[412]

the countrys population. From a population of 300,000,

On 21 May 2007, at the request of the applicant the case an estimated 80,000 had been killed, in particular those
of the Bubi ethnic minority on Bioko associated with relwas discontinued.[413]
ative wealth and education.[421] Uneasy around educated
people, he had killed everyone who wore spectacles. All
schools were ordered closed in 1975. The economy col3.6.1 Burundi 1972 and 1993
lapsed and skilled citizens and foreigners emigrated.[422]
Main article: Burundian genocides
On 3 August 1979, he was overthrown by Teodoro
Obiang Nguema Mbasogo.[423] Macas Nguema was capAfter Burundi's independence in 1962, two events were tured and tried for genocide and other crimes along with
called genocide. The mass-killing of Hutus by the Tutsi 10 others. All were found guilty, four received terms of
army in 1972[414] and the killing of Tutsis by the Hutu imprisonment and Nguema and the other six were exe[424]
population in 1993 which was recognized as an act of cuted on 29 September.
genocide in the nal report of the International Commis- John B. Quigley noted at Macas Nguemas trial that
sion of Inquiry for Burundi presented to the United Na- Equatorial Guinea had not ratied the Genocide conventions Security Council in 2002.[415]
tion and that records of the court proceedings show that
there was some confusion over whether Nguema and his
co-defendants were tried under the laws of Spain (the for3.6.2 North Korea
mer colonial government) or whether the trial was justied on the claim that the Genocide Convention was part
Main articles: Human rights in North Korea and Prisons of customary international law. Quigley stated, The Main North Korea
cias case stands out as the most confusing of domestic
genocide prosecutions from the standpoint of the applicaSeveral million people in North Korea have died of ble law. The Macias conviction is also problematic from
starvation since the mid-1990s, with aid groups and hu- the standpoint of the identity of the protected group.[425]
man rights NGOs often stating that the North Korean
government has systematically and deliberately prevented
food aid from reaching the areas most devastated by food 3.6.4 Indonesia
shortages.[416] A further one million have died in North
Koreas political prison camps which are used to detain Main article: East Timorese genocide
dissidents and their entire families, including children, for
perceived political oences.[417]
In 2004, Yad Vashem called on the international com- Indonesian killings of 196566 Main articles:
munity to investigate political genocide in North Indonesian killings of 196566 and May 1998 riots of
Korea.[417]
Indonesia
In September 2011, a Harvard International Review article argued that North Korea was violating the UN Geno- In the mid-1960s, hundreds of thousands of leftists and
cide Convention by its systematic killing of half-Chinese those tied to the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI)
babies and members of religious groups.[418] North Ko- were massacred by the Indonesian military and right-wing
reas Christian population, which included 2530% of paramilitary groups after a failed coup attempt which was
the inhabitants of Pyongyang and was considered to be blamed on the Communists. At least 500,000 people
the center of Christianity in East Asia in 1945, has been were killed over a period of several months, with thousystematically massacred and persecuted; as of 2012 sands more being interred in prisons and concentration
50,00070,000 Christians were imprisoned in North Ko- camps under extremely inhumane conditions.[426][427][428]
reas concentration camps.[419]
The violence culminated in the fall of President Sukarno
and the commencement of Suharto's thirty-year authoritarian rule. Scholars such as Robert Cribb and Joshua
3.6.3 Equatorial Guinea
Oppenheimer have referred to these massacres as a
[429][430]
Francisco Macas Nguema was the rst President of genocide.
Equatorial Guinea, from 1968 until his overthrow in Western powers, including Great Britain, Australia
1979.[420] During his presidency, his country was nick- and the United States, aided and abetted the mass
named the Auschwitz of Africa. Nguemas regime was killings.[431][432][433][434][435] U.S. Embassy ocials procharacterized by its abandonment of all government func- vided kill lists to the Indonesian military which contained
tions except internal security, which was accomplished by the names of 5,000 suspected high-ranking members of
terror; he acted as chief judge and sentenced thousands the PKI.[436][437][438][439][440] Many of those accused of
to death. This led to the death or exile of up to 1/3 of being Communists were journalists, trade union leaders

3.6

Bangladesh Liberation War Genocide of 1971

and intellectuals.[440]
Methods of killing included beheading, evisceration, dismemberment and castration.[441] A top-secret CIA report
stated that the massacres rank as one of the worst mass
murders of the 20th century, along with the Soviet purges
of the 1930s, the Nazi mass murders during the Second World War, and the Maoist bloodbath of the early
1950s.[439]
West New Guinea/West Papua An estimated
100,000+ Papuans have died since Indonesia took control of West New Guinea from the Dutch Government in
1963.[442][443][444] An academic report alleged that contemporary evidence set out [in this report] suggests that
the Indonesian government has committed proscribed
acts with the intent to destroy the West Papuans as such,
in violation of the 1948 Convention on the Prevention
and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide and the
customary international law prohibition this Convention
embodies.[443]:75
East Timor East Timor was occupied by Indonesia
from 1975 to 1999 as an annexed territory with provincial status. A detailed statistical report prepared for
the Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor cited a lower range of 102,800
conict-related deaths in the period from 19741999,
namely, approximately 18,600 killings and 84,200 excess deaths from hunger and illness, including the Indonesian military using starvation as a weapon to exterminate the East Timorese,[445] most of which occurred during the Indonesian occupation.[445][446] Earlier estimates
of deaths during the occupation ranged from 60,000 to
200,000.[447]

25
Immediately following the Bangladesh independence war
of 1971, the Biharis living in Bangladesh were accused
of being traitors or pro-Pakistani by the Bengalis,
and an estimated 1,000 to 150,000 Biharis were killed
by Bengali mobs in what is described as Retributive
Genocide.[449][450] Mukti Bahini has been accused of
crimes against minority Biharis by the Government of
Pakistan. According to a white paper released by the
Pakistani government, the Awami League killed 30,000
Biharis and West Pakistanis. Bengali mobs were often
armed, sometimes with machetes and bamboo stas.[451]
300 Biharis were killed by Bengali mobs in Chittagong.
The massacre was used by the Pakistani Army as a justication to launch Operation Searchlight against the Bengali
nationalist movement.[452] Biharis were massacred in Jessore, Panchabibi and Khulna (where, in March 1972, 300
to 1,000 Biharis were killed and their bodies were thrown
into a nearby river.[453][454][455] Having generated unrest
among Bengalis,[456] Biharis became the target of retaliation. The Minorities at Risk project puts the number of
Biharis killed during the war at 1,000;[457] however, R.J.
Rummel cites a likely gure of 150,000.[458]

Indigenous Chakmas Main articles: Chittagong Hill

Tracts conict, Persecution of indigenous peoples in
Bangladesh, 2012 Ramu violence, and Persecution of
Buddhists

In Bangladesh, the persecution of the indigenous tribes of

the Chittagong Hill Tracts such as the Chakma, Marma,
Tripura and others, who are mainly Buddhists, has
been described as genocidal.[459][460][461][462][463] There
are also accusations of Chakmas being forced to leave
their religion, many of them children who have been abAccording to Sian Powell a UN report conrmed that the ducted for this purpose. The conict started soon after
Indonesian military used starvation as a weapon and em- Bangladeshi independence in 1971, when the Constituployed Napalm and chemical weapons, which poisoned tion imposed Bengali as the only sole language and a military coup happened in 1975. Subsequently, the governthe food and water supply.[445] Ben Kiernan wrote:
ment encouraged and sponsored the massive settlement
of Bangladeshis in the region, which changed the indigethe crimes committed ... in East Timor,
nous populations demographics from 98 percent in 1971
with a toll of 150,000 in a population of
to fty percent by 2000. The Bangladeshi government
650,000, clearly meet a range of sociologisent one third of its military forces to the region to supcal denitions of genocide ...[with] both politport the settlers, sparking a protracted guerilla war beical and ethnic groups as possible victims of
tween Hill tribes and the military.[460] During this congenocide. The victims in East Timor included
ict, which ocially ended in 1997, and during the subnot only that substantial 'part' of the Timorese
sequent period, a large number of human rights viola'national group' targeted for destruction betions against the indigenous peoples have been reported,
cause of their resistance to Indonesian annexwith violence against indigenous women being particuation...but also most members of the twentylarly extreme.[464]
thousand strong ethnic Chinese minority.[448]
Bengali soldiers and some fundamentalists settlers were
also accused of raping native Jumma (Chakma) women
3.6.5 Bangladesh
with impunity, with the Bangladeshi security forces dothe Jummas and instead
Biharis Main article: Persecution of Biharis in ing little or nothing to protect [465]
assisting
the
rapists
and
settlers.
Bangladesh
Although Bangladesh is an ocially secular country,[466]

26

3 TWENTIETH CENTURY (FROM WORLD WAR I)

the events leading up to East Pakistans secession a life sentence. Mengistu supported Robert Mugabe,
amounted to religious and ethnic genocide.[467]
the long-standing President of Zimbabwe, during his
leadership of Ethiopia.[474]
3.6.6

Argentina

Commemoration in Argentina

In September 2006, Miguel Osvaldo Etchecolatz, who

had been the police commissioner of the province of
Buenos Aires during the Dirty War (19761983), was
found guilty of six counts of murder, six counts of unlawful imprisonment and seven counts of torture in a federal court. The judge who presided over the case, Carlos
Rozanski, described the oences as part of a systematic
attack that was intended to destroy parts of society that
the victims represented and as such was genocide. Rozanski noted that CPPCG does not include the elimination of
political groups (because that group was removed at the
behest of Stalin), but instead based his ndings on 11 December 1946 United Nations General Assembly Resolution 96 barring acts of genocide when racial, religious,
political and other groups have been destroyed, entirely
or in part (which passed unanimously), because he considered the original UN denition to be more legitimate
than the politically compromised CPPCG denition.[468]
3.6.7

Michael Clough, a US attorney and longtime Ethiopia observer, told Voice of America in a statement released on
13 December 2006,[475]
The biggest problem with prosecuting
Mengistu for genocide is that his actions did
not necessarily target a particular group. They
were directed against anybody who was opposing his government, and they were generally
much more political than based on any ethnic
targeting. In contrast, the irony is the Ethiopian
government itself has been accused of genocide based on atrocities committed in Gambella. I'm not sure that they qualify as genocide
either. But in Gambella, the incidents, which
were well documented in a human rights report
of about 2 years ago, were clearly directed at a
particular group, the tribal group, the Anuak.
An estimated 150,000 university students, intellectuals
and politicians were killed during Mengistus rule.[476]
Amnesty International estimates that up to 500,000 people were killed during the Ethiopian Red Terror[477]
Human Rights Watch described the Red Terror as one
of the most systematic uses of mass murder by a state
ever witnessed in Africa.[469] During his reign it was not
uncommon to see students, suspected government critics
or rebel sympathisers hanging from lampposts. Mengistu
himself is alleged to have murdered opponents by garroting or shooting them, saying that he was leading by
example.[478]
3.6.8 Baathist Iraq
See also: Human rights in Saddam Husseins Iraq

Ethiopia
Genocide of Kurds

Ethiopia's former Soviet-backed Marxist dictator

Mengistu Haile Mariam was tried in an Ethiopian court,
in absentia, for his role in mass killings. Mengistus
charge sheet and evidence list covered 8,000 pages. The
evidence against him included signed execution orders,
videos of torture sessions and personal testimonies.[469]
The trial began in 1994 and on 12 December 2006
Mengistu was found guilty of genocide and other offences. He was sentenced to life in prison in January
2007.[470][471] Ethiopian law includes attempts to annihilate political groups in its denition of genocide.[472]
106 Derg ocials were accused of genocide during
the trials, but only 36 of them were present. Several
former Derg members have been sentenced to death.[473]
Zimbabwe refused to respond to Ethiopias extradition
request for Mengistu, which permitted him to avoid

See also: 1988 Anfal campaign

On 23 December 2005, a Dutch court ruled in a case

brought against Frans van Anraat for supplying chemicals to Iraq, that "[it] thinks and considers it legally and
convincingly proven that the Kurdish population meets
the requirement under the genocide convention as an ethnic group. The court has no other conclusion than that
these attacks were committed with the intent to destroy
the Kurdish population of Iraq. Because van Anraat supplied the chemicals before 16 March 1988, the date of the
Halabja poison gas attack he was guilty of a war crime but
not guilty of complicity in genocide.[479][480]
Marsh Arabs
See
Mesopotamian Marshes

also:

Draining

of

the

3.6

Bangladesh Liberation War Genocide of 1971

27
can be regarded as genocide in international law.

The water diversion plan for the Draining of the

Mesopotamian Marshes was accompanied by a series of
propaganda articles by the Iraqi regime directed against
the Ma'dan,[481] and the wetlands were systematically
converted into a desert, forcing the residents out of their
settlements in the region. The western Hammar Marshes
and the Qurnah or Central Marshes became completely
desiccated, while the eastern Hawizeh Marshes dramatically shrank. Furthermore, villages in the marshes were
attacked and burnt down and there were reports of the
water being deliberately poisoned.[482]

However, cultural genocide is also contested by academics such as Barry Sautman.[488] Tibetan is the everyday language of the Tibetan people.[489]

The Central Tibetan Administration and other Tibetan in

exile media claimed that approximately 1.2 million Tibetans have died of starvation, violence, or other indirect
causes since 1950.[490] White states In all, over one million Tibetans, a fth of the population, had died as a result of Chinese occupation up until the end of the Cultural
Revolution.[491] This gure has been refuted by Patrick
French, the former Director of the Free Tibet Campaign
The majority of the Madn were displaced either to areas in London.[492]
adjacent to the drained marshes, abandoning their tradi- Jones argued that the struggle sessions after the 1959
tional lifestyle in favour of conventional agriculture, or to Tibetan uprising may be considered genocide, based on
towns and camps in other areas of Iraq. An estimated the claim that the conict resulted in 92,000 deaths.[493]
80,000 to 120,000 ed to refugee camps in Iran.[483] The However, according to tibetologist Tom Grunfeld, the
Marsh Arabs, who numbered about half a million in the veracity of such a claim is dicult to verify.[494]
1950s, have dwindled to as few as 20,000 in Iraq. Only
1,600 of them were estimated to still be living on tradi- In 2013, Spains top criminal court decided to hear a
case brought by Tibetan rights activists who alleged that
tional dibins by 2003.[484]
Chinas former President Hu Jintao had committed genoBesides the general UN-imposed Gulf war sanctions, cide in Tibet.[495] Spains High Court dropped this case
there was no specic legal recourse for those displaced in June 2014.[496]
by the drainage projects, nor was there prosecution of
those involved. Article 2.c of the Genocide Convention
(to which Iraq had acceded in 1951[485] ) forbids deliberately inicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or 3.6.10 Brazil
in part. Additionally, the Saint Petersburg Declaration
says that the only legitimate object which States should
endeavour to accomplish during war is to weaken the military forces of the enemy, a provision potentially violated by the Ba'athist government as part of their campaign against the insurgents which had taken refuge in the
marshlands.[486]

3.6.9

Peoples Republic of China

Further information: History of Tibet (1950present)

See also: Genocide of indigenous peoples in Brazil

The Helmet Massacre of the Tikuna people took place in
1988 and was initially treated as homicide. During the
massacre four people died, nineteen were wounded, and
ten disappeared. Since 1994 the episode has been treated
by Brazilian courts as genocide. Thirteen men were convicted of genocide in 2001. In November 2004, after an
appeal was led before Brazils federal court, the man initially found guilty of hiring men to carry out the genocide
was acquitted, and the killers had their initial sentences
of 1525 years reduced to 12 years.[497]

In November 2005, during an investigation code-named

Operation Rio Pardo, Mario Lucio Avelar, a Brazilian
public prosecutor in Cuiab, told Survival International
that he believed that there were sucient grounds to prosecute for genocide of the Rio Pardo Indians. In November 2006 twenty-nine people were arrested with others
commander and the
The report of the International Commission of Jurists implicated, such as a former police
[498]
governor
of
Mato
Grosso
state.
(1960) claimed that there was only cultural genocide.
ICJ Report (1960) page 346: The committee found that In 2006 the Brazilian Supreme Federal Court (STF)
acts of genocide had been committed in Tibet in an at- unanimously rearmed that the crime known as the
tempt to destroy the Tibetans as a religious group, and Haximu massacre (perpetrated on the Yanomami Indithat such acts are acts of genocide independently of any ans in 1993)[499] was a genocide and that the decision of
conventional obligation. The committee did not nd that a federal court to sentence miners to 19 years in prison
there was sucient proof of the destruction of Tibetans for genocide in connection with other oenses, such as
as a race, nation or ethnic group as such by methods that smuggling and illegal mining, was valid.[499][500]
Tibet On 5 June 1959 Shri Purshottam Trikamdas, Senior Advocate, Supreme Court of India, presented a report on Tibet to the International Commission of Jurists
(an NGO). The press conference address on the report
states in paragraph 26:

28
3.6.11

3 TWENTIETH CENTURY (FROM WORLD WAR I)

Democratic Republic of Congo

During the Congo Civil War (19982003), pygmies were

hunted down and eaten by both sides in the conict,
who regarded them as subhuman.[501] Sinafasi Makelo,
a representative of Mbuti pygmies, asked the UN Security Council to recognize cannibalism as both a crime
against humanity and an act of genocide.[502] Minority
Rights Group International reported evidence of mass
killings, cannibalism and rape. The report, which labeled these events as a campaign of extermination, linked
the violence to beliefs about special powers held by the
Bambuti.[503] In Ituri district, rebel forces ran an operation code-named Eacer le tableau (to wipe the slate
clean). The aim of the operation, according to witnesses,
was to rid the forest of pygmies.[504]
Hutus In 2010 a report accused Rwanda's Tutsi-led
army of committing genocide against ethnic Hutus. The
report accused the Rwandan Army and allied Congolese
rebels of killing tens of thousands of ethnic Hutu refugees
from Rwanda and locals in systematic attacks between
1996 and 1997. The government of Rwanda rejected the
accusation.[505]
3.6.12

Somalia

United Nations Panel of Experts looking into these alleged violations found credible allegations, which if
proven, indicate that serious violations of international
humanitarian law and international human rights law
were committed both by the Government of Sri Lanka
and the LTTE, some of which would amount to war
crimes and crimes against humanity.[508] Some activists
and politicians also accused the Sri Lankan government
of carrying out genocide against the minority Sri Lankan
Tamil people, who are mostly Hindu, during and after the
war.[509]
Bruce Fein alleged that Sri Lankas leaders committed genocide,[510] along with Tamil Parliamentarian
Suresh Premachandran.[511] Refugees escaping Sri Lanka
also stated that they ed from genocide,[512] and various Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora groups echoed these
accusations.[513][514]
In 2009, thousands of Tamils protested in cities all over
the world against the atrocities. (See 2009 Tamil diaspora protests.)[515] Various diaspora activists formed a
group called Tamils Against Genocide to continue the
protest.[516] Legal action against Sri Lankan leaders for
alleged genocide has been initiated. Norwegian human
rights lawyer Harald Stabell led a case in Norwegian
courts against Sri Lankan President Rajapaksa and other
ocials.[517]

Politicians in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu also made

accusations of genocide.[518] In 2008 and 2009 the Chief
Minister of Tamil Nadu M. Karunanidhi repeatedly appealed to the Indian government to intervene to stop
the genocide of Tamils,[519] while his successor J. Jayalalithaa called on the Indian government to bring Rajapaksa before international courts for genocide.[520] The
womens wing of the Communist Party of India, passed
3.6.13 Sri Lanka
a resolution in August 2012 nding that Systematic sexual violence against Tamil women by Sri Lankan forces
See also: Alleged war crimes during the Sri Lankan Civil
constituted genocide, calling for an independent internaWar
tional investigation.[521]
The Sri Lankan military was accused of human rights
In January 2010, a Permanent Peoples Tribunal (PPT)
held in Dublin, Ireland, found Sri Lanka guilty of war
crimes and crimes against humanity, but found insucient evidence to justify the charge of genocide.[522][523]
The tribunal requested a thorough investigation as some
of the evidence indicated possible acts of genocide.[522]
Its panel found Sri Lanka guilty of genocide at its 7
10 December 2013 hearings in Berman, Germany. It
also found that the US and UK were guilty of complicity. A decision on whether India, and other states, had
also acted in complicity was withheld. PPT reported that
LTTE could not be accurately characterized as terrorist,
stating that movements classied as terrorist because of
their rebellion against a state, can become political entities recognized by the international community.[524][525]
Bodies of female minors killed in a military air raid on an or- The International Commission of Jurists stated that the
camps used to intern nearly 300,000 Tamils after the
phanage
wars end may have breached the convention against genoviolations during Sri Lanka's 26-year civil war.[507] A
In 2007 attacks on Somalias Bantu population and Jubba
Valley dwellers from 1991 onwards were reported, noting
that Somalia is a rare case in which genocidal acts were
carried out by militias in the utter absence of a governing
state structure.[506]

4.1

Ad hoc tribunals

cide.[526]

29
4.1.1 Bosnia and Herzegovina

In 2015, Sri Lankas Tamil majority Northern Provincial Council (NPC) passed a strongly worded resolu- See also: Bosnian genocide and Srebrenica massacre
In July 1995 Serbian forces killed more than
tion accusing successive governments in the island na[527]
tion of committing 'genocide' against Tamils.
The
resolution asserts that Tamils across Sri Lanka, particularly in the historical Tamil homeland of the NorthEast,
have been subject to gross and systematic human rights
violations, culminating in the mass atrocities committed
in 2009. Sri Lankas historic violations include over 60
years of state sponsored anti-Tamil pogroms, massacres,
sexual violence, and acts of cultural and linguistic destruction perpetrated by the state. These atrocities have
been perpetrated with the intent to destroy the Tamil people, and therefore constitute genocide.[528]
The Sri Lankan government denied the allegations of
genocide and war crimes.[529]

3.6.14

Myanmar

Main article: Persecution of Muslims in Myanmar

Myanmars government has been accused of crimes
against the Muslim Rohingya minority that are alleged
to amount to genocide. It has been alleged that Rohingya
are the primary targets of hate crimes and discrimination amounting to genocide fueled by extremist nationalist
Buddhist monks and Thein Sein's government. Muslim
groups have claimed that they were subjected to genocide, torture, arbitrary detention, cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment.[530][531]

Male mourners at the reburial ceremony for an exhumed victim

of the Srebrenica massacre.

8,000[532][533] Bosniaks (Bosnian Muslims), mainly

men and boys, in and around the town of Srebrenica
during the Bosnian War. The killing was perpetrated
by units of the Army of Republika Srpska (VRS)
under the command of General Ratko Mladi. The
Secretary-General of the United Nations described the
mass murder as the worst crime on European soil since
the Second World War.[534][535] A paramilitary unit from
Serbia known as the Scorpions, ocially part of the
Serbian Interior Ministry until 1991, participated in the
massacre,[536][537] along with several hundred Russian
and Greek volunteers.[538]

In 2001 the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) delivered its rst conviction for
the crime of genocide, against General Krsti for his role
3.6.15 ISIL
in the 1994 Srebrenica massacre (on appeal he was found
not guilty of genocide but guilty of aiding and abetting
See Genocide of Yazidis by ISIL, Genocide of Shias by ISIL,
genocide).[539]
and Genocide of Christians by ISIL
In February 2007 the International Court of Justice (ICJ)
returned a judgement in the Bosnian Genocide Case. It
upheld by the ndings by the ICTY that genocide had
been committed in and around Srebrenica but did not nd
4 International prosecution
that genocide had been committed on the wider territory
of Bosnia and Herzegovina during the war. The ICJ also
ruled that Serbia was not responsible for the genocide nor
4.1 Ad hoc tribunals
for aiding and abetting it, although it ruled that Serbia
and that
In 1951 only two of the ve permanent members of the could have done more to prevent the genocide
[540]
Before
this
Serbia
failed
to
punish
the
perpetrators.
UN Security Council (UNSC) were parties to the CPruling
the
term
Bosnian
Genocide
had
been
used
by
some
PCG: France and the Republic of China. The CPPCG
[541]
and human rights ocials.[542]
was ratied by the Soviet Union in 1954, the United King- academics
dom in 1970, the Peoples Republic of China in 1983
(having replaced the Taiwan-based Republic of China on
the UNSC in 1971), and the United States in 1988. In
the 1990s the international law on the crime of genocide
began to be enforced.

In 2010, Vujadin Popovi, Lieutenant Colonel and the

Chief of Security of the Drina Corps of the Bosnian Serb
Army, and Ljubia Beara, Colonel and Chief of Security of the same army, were convicted of genocide, extermination, murder and persecution by the ICTY for their

30

4 INTERNATIONAL PROSECUTION

role in the Srebrenice massacre and sentenced to a life in

prison.[543]
German courts handed down convictions for genocide
during the Bosnian War. Novislav Djajic was indicted for
participation in genocide, but the Higher Regional Court
failed to nd that there was sucient certainty for a criminal conviction for genocide. Nevertheless, Djajic was
found guilty of 14 cases of murder and one case of attempted murder.[544] At Djajics appeal on 23 May 1997,
the Bavarian Appeals Chamber found that acts of genocide were committed in June 1992, conned within the
administrative district of Foca.[545] The Higher Regional
Court (Oberlandesgericht) of Dsseldorf, in September
1997, handed down a genocide conviction against Nikola
Jorgic, a Bosnian Serb from the Doboj region who was
the leader of a paramilitary group located in the Doboj
region. He was sentenced to four terms of life imprisonment for his involvement in genocidal actions that took
place in regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina, other than
Srebrenica;[546] and On 29 November 1999, the Higher
Regional Court (Oberlandesgericht) of Dsseldorf condemned Maksim Sokolovic to 9 years in prison for aiding
and abetting the crime of genocide and for grave breaches
of the Geneva Conventions.[547]

Skulls at Choeung Ek memorial in Cambodia

Chinese (or Sino-Khmers), Chams and Thais, former

civil servants, former government soldiers, Buddhist
monks, secular intellectuals and professionals, and former city dwellers. Khmer Rouge cadres defeated in factional struggles were also liquidated in purges. Manmade famine and slave labor resulted in many hundreds
of thousands of deaths.[550] Craig Etcheson suggested that
the death toll was between 2 and 2.5 million, with a
most likely gure of 2.2 million. After 5 years of researching 20,000 grave sites, he concluded that these
mass graves contain the remains of 1,386,734 victims of
execution.[551] However, some scholars argued that the
4.1.2 Rwanda
Khmer Rouge were not racist and had no intention of exThe International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) terminating ethnic minorities or the Cambodian people;
is a court under the auspices of the United Nations for in this view, their brutality was the product of an extreme
the prosecution of oenses committed in Rwanda during version of communist ideology.[552]
the genocide that occurred there during April and May On 6 June 2003 the Cambodian government and the
1994, commencing on 6 April. The ICTR was created United Nations reached an agreement to set up the
on 8 November 1994 by the UN Security Council to re- Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia
solve claims in Rwanda, or by Rwandan citizens in nearby (ECCC), which would focus exclusively on crimes comstates, between 1 January and 31 December 1994. Over mitted by the most senior Khmer Rouge ocials during
the course of approximately 100 days from the assassina- the period of Khmer Rouge rule from 1975 to 1979.[553]
tion of President Juvnal Habyarimana on 6 April through The judges were sworn in in early July 2006.[554]
mid-July, at least 800,000 people were killed, according
The investigating judges were presented with the names
to a Human Rights Watch estimate.
of ve possible suspects by the prosecution on 18 July
As of mid-2011, the ICTR had convicted 57 people and 2007.[554][555]
acquitted 8. Another ten persons were still on trial while
one is awaiting trial. Nine remain at large.[548] The rst
Kang Kek Iew was formally charged with war crimes
trial, of Jean-Paul Akayesu, ended in 1998 with his conand crimes against humanity and detained by the
viction for genocide and crimes against humanity.[549]
Tribunal on 31 July 2007. He was indicted on
This was the worlds rst conviction for genocide, as decharges of war crimes and crimes against humanned by the 1948 Convention. Jean Kambanda, interim
ity on 12 August 2008.[556] His appeal was rejected
Prime Minister during the genocide, pleaded guilty.
on 3 February 2012, and he continued serving a sentence of life imprisonment.[557]
4.1.3

Cambodia

See also: The Killing Fields, Autogenocide, Tuol

Sleng Genocide Museum, Cambodian genocide, and
Cambodian genocide denial
The Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot, Ta Mok and other
leaders, organized the mass killing of ideologically suspect groups, ethnic minorities such as ethnic Vietnamese,

Nuon Chea, a former prime minister, was indicted

on charges of genocide, war crimes, crimes against
humanity and several other crimes under Cambodian law on 15 September 2010. He was transferred into the custody of the ECCC on 19 September 2007. His trial began on 27 June 2011.[558][559]
Khieu Samphan, a former head of state, was indicted

4.2

International Criminal Court

31

Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir, wanted by the ICC

Khieu Samphan at a public hearing before the Pre-Trial
Cambodia Tribunal on 3 July 2009.

on charges of genocide, war crimes, crimes against

humanity and several other crimes under Cambodian law on 15 September 2010. He was transferred
into the custody of the ECCC on 19 September
2007. His trial also began on 27 June 2011.[558][559]
Ieng Sary, a former foreign minister, was indicted on
charges of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity and several other crimes under Cambodian
law on 15 September 2010. He was transferred into
the custody of the ECCC on 12 November 2007.
His trial began on 27 June 2011.[558][559] He died in
March 2013.
Ieng Thirith, wife of Ieng Sary and a former minister for social aairs, was indicted on charges of
genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity and
several other crimes under Cambodian law on 15
September 2010. She was transferred into the custody of the ECCC on 12 November 2007. Proceedings against her have been suspended pending
a health evaluation.[559][560]

States Secretary of State Colin Powell on 9 September

2004 in testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations
Committee.[564] Since that time however, no other permanent member of the UN Security Council has followed
suit. In January 2005, an International Commission of
Inquiry on Darfur, authorized by UN Security Council
Resolution 1564 of 2004, issued a report stating that the
Government of the Sudan has not pursued a policy of
genocide.[565] Nevertheless, the Commission cautioned
that The conclusion that no genocidal policy has been
pursued and implemented in Darfur by the Government
authorities, directly or through the militias under their
control, should not be taken in any way as detracting from
the gravity of the crimes perpetrated in that region. International oences such as the crimes against humanity
and war crimes that have been committed in Darfur may
be no less serious and heinous than genocide.[565]

In March 2005, the Security Council formally referred

the situation in Darfur to the ICC, taking into account
the Commission report but without mentioning any specic crimes.[566] Two permanent members of the Security
Council, the United States and China, abstained from the
vote on the referral resolution.[567] As of his fourth report
to the Security Council, the Prosecutor found reasonable
Some of the international jurists and the Cambodian gov- grounds to believe that the individuals identied [in the
ernment disagreed over whether any other people should UN Security Council Resolution 1593] have committed
crimes against humanity and war crimes, but did not nd
be tried by the Tribunal.[555]
sucient evidence to prosecute for genocide.[568]

4.2

International Criminal Court

See also: International Criminal Court

The ICC can only prosecute crimes committed on or after
1 July 2002.[561]
4.2.1

Darfur, Sudan

See also: Second Sudanese Civil War and Darfur conict

The ongoing racial[562][563] conict in Darfur, Sudan,
which started in 2003, was declared genocide by United

In April 2007, the ICC issued arrest warrants against the

former Minister of State for the Interior, Ahmad Harun,
and a Janjaweed militia leader, Ali Kushayb, for crimes
against humanity and war crimes.[569] On 14 July 2008,
the ICC led ten charges of war crimes against Sudans
President Omar al-Bashir, three counts of genocide, ve
of crimes against humanity and two of murder. Prosecutors claimed that al-Bashir masterminded and implemented a plan to destroy in substantial part three tribal
groups in Darfur because of their ethnicity.[570] On 4
March 2009 the ICC issued a warrant for al-Bashirs arrest for crimes against humanity and war crimes, but not
genocide. This is the rst warrant issued by the ICC
against a sitting head of state.[571]

32

6 NOTES

See also
Anti-Mongolianism State-sponsored genocides
by the Russian Empire/Soviet Russia, Imperial
China/Communist China
Black genocide the notion that African Americans
have been subject to genocide
Command responsibility
Crimes against humanity

[8] Jones 2006, p. 3 footnote 5 cites Helen Fein, Genocide: A

Sociological Perspective, (London: Sage, 1993), p. 26
[9] Jones 2006, p. 3.
[10] Chalk & Jonassohn 1990, p. 28.
[11] Diamond 1992.
[12] Wright 2004, pp. 24, 37.
[13] Gail Glover (24 February 2014). Neanderthals may have
faced extinction long before modern humans emerged.
Phys.org. Retrieved 13 February 2016.

Democide murder by government, includes histor[14] Jones 2006, p. 5.

ical genocides and politicides
Genocide of Christians by ISIL
Genocide of Shias by ISIL
Genocide of Yazidis by ISIL
Human rights
International humanitarian law
International law
List of events named massacres
List of genocides by death toll
Mass killings under Communist regimes

Notes

[1] Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the

Crime of Genocide. Oce of the United Nations High
Commissioner for Human Rights. 12 January 1951.
Archived from the original on 11 December 2005. Note:
ethnical, although unusual, is found in several dictionaries.
[2] Debate continues over what constitutes genocide. Blogwatch. Worldfocus. 5 February 2009. Retrieved 17
November 2012.
[3] M. Hassan Kakar Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion and
the Afghan Response, 19791982 University of California press 1995 The Regents of the University of California.
[4] Chalk & Jonassohn 1990.
[5] Robert Gellately & Ben Kiernan (2003). The Specter of
Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 267. ISBN
0-521-52750-3.
[6] Staub, Ervin. The Roots of Evil: The Origins of Genocide
and Other Group Violence. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press. p. 8. ISBN 0-521-42214-0.
[7] Rummel 1998, p. Democide versus genocide; which is
what?.

[15] Potter, James M.; Jason P. Chuipka (2010). Perimortem

mutilation of human remains in an early village in the
American Southwest: A case for ethnic violence (PDF).
Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 29 (4): 507
523. doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2010.08.001. Retrieved 18 May
2012.
[16] How genocide wiped out a Native American population.
Msnbc.com. 20 September 2010. Archived from the original on 23 September 2010.
[17] Raphael Lemkin (2012). Steven Leonard Jacobs, ed.
Lemkin on Genocide. Lexington Books. p. 71. ISBN
978-0-7391-4526-5. Retrieved 14 February 2016.
[18] Jones 2006, p. 3, footnote 4.
[19] Jones 2006, p. 4 note 12.
[20] Paul Kahn (1 January 1998). The Secret History of the
Mongols: The Origin of Chinghis Khan. Cheng & Tsui.
ISBN 978-0-88727-299-8.
[21] The Encyclopedia of Genocide, ABC-CLIO, 1999, page
48, article Afghanistan, Genocide of
[22] Totten, Bartrop & Jacobs 2008, p. Genocides in history at
Google Books.
[23] Rubinstein 2004, p. Genocides in history at Google Books.
[24] History of the Nestorians.
[25] The Turco-Mongol Invasions. Rbedrosian.com. Retrieved 2012-05-22.
[26]

Jin
,

Shu
,

Original
,
,

text

[27] Forbath, Peter (1977). The River Congo: The Discovery,

Exploration and Exploitation of the Worlds Most Dramatic
Rivers. Harper & Row. p. 278. ISBN 978-0-06-1224904.
[28] Wertham, Fredric (1968). A Sign For Cain: An Exploration of Human Violence. ISBN 978-0-7091-0232-8.
[29] Hochschild, Adam (2006). King Leopolds Ghost: A Story
of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa. ISBN
978-1-74329-160-3.
[30] Weisbord 2003, p. 3545.

33

[31] Crowe 2013, p. 17.

[32] Vanthemsche 2012, p. 41.
[33] Ben Kiernan,Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide
and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur, Yasle University
Press 2007 p.364-365.
[34] Kiernan 2007 p.374.
[35] Chrisas, Angelique. Turkey accuses France of genocide
in Algeria. The Guardian.
[36] Turkey accuses France of genocide in colonial Algeria.
BBC News.
[37] Cooper 2006, p. 113126.
[38] Friedrichsmeyer, Lennox & Zantop 1998, p. 110.
[39] Sarkin-Hughes 2008, p. 5.
[40] Olusoga & Erichsen 2010, p. 1501.
[41] Olusoga & Erichsen 2010, p. 151.
[42] Jones 2006, pp. 78.
[43] Eugene Walter, Terror and Resistance (1969)
[44] Major Charters, Royal Artillery, Notices of the Cape
And Southern Africa, Since The Appointment, As Governor, Of Major-Gen. Sir Geo. Napier. United Service
Journal and Naval and Military Magazine, London: W.
Clowes and Son, 1839, Part III, p.24
[45] Encyclopdia Britannica, 15th edition
[46] Victor Hanson (18 December 2007). Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power.
Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 313. ISBN 9780-307-42518-8.
[47] Stannard 1993, pp. 1467.
[48] Yes, Native Americans Were the Victims of Genocide;
History News Network; Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz; May 12,
2016
[49] Kiernan 2007, p. 81
[50] David Dixon (2005). Never Come to Peace Again: Pontiacs Uprising and the Fate of the British Empire in North
America. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 152155.
ISBN 978-0-8061-3656-1. Retrieved 16 February 2016.
Michael N. McConnell (1997). A Country Between: The
Upper Ohio Valley and Its Peoples, 1724-1774. University
of Nebraska Press. pp. 195196. ISBN 0-8032-8238-9.
Retrieved 16 February 2016.
Gregory Evans Dowd (2004). War under Heaven: Pontiac, the Indian Nations, and the British Empire. Johns
Hopkins University Press. p. 190. ISBN 978-0-80187892-3. Retrieved 16 February 2016.
For historians who describe this specic attempt at intentional infection as successful, see:
Haughty Conquerors":
William R. Nester (2000).
Amherst and the Great Indian Uprising of 1763. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-27596770-3. Retrieved 16 February 2016.

Francis Jennings (1990). Empire of Fortune: Crowns,

Colonies, and Tribes in the Seven Years War in America.
Norton. pp. 447448. ISBN 978-0-393-30640-8. Retrieved 16 February 2016.
[51] The Eect of Smallpox on the Destiny of the Amerindian;
Esther Wagner Stearn, Allen Edwin Stearn; University of
Minnesota; 1945; Pgs. 13-20, 73-94, 97
[52] Henderson, Donald A. et al.
Smallpox as a Biological Weapon.
Medical and Public Health
Management.
JAMA 1999, 281(22):21272137.
doi:10.1001/jama.281.22.2127
[53] d'Errico, Peter. Jerey Amherst and Smallpox Blankets.
[54] Kotar, S.L.; Gessler, J.E. (2013). Smallpox: A History.
McFarland. p. 111. ISBN 9780786493272.
[55] Washburn, Kevin K. (February 2006). American Indians, Crime, and the Law. Michigan Law Review. 104:
709, 735.
[56] Valencia-Weber, Gloria (January 2003). The Supreme
Courts Indian Law Decisions: Deviations from Constitutional Principles and the Crafting of Judicial Smallpox
Blankets. University of Pennsylvania Journal of Constitutional Law. 5: 405, 40809.
[57] Staord Poole, quoted in Robert Royal (1992). 1492 and
all that: political manipulations of history. Ethics and Public Policy Center. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-89633-174-7.
[58] Guenter Lewy (2007). Were American Indians the Victims of Genocide?". History News Network. Retrieved
2013-08-28.
[59] Noble David Cook (13 February 1998). Born to Die: Disease and New World Conquest, 14921650. Cambridge
University Press. pp. 914. ISBN 978-0-521-62730-6.
[60] An Indigenous Peoples History of the United States; Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz; Beacon Press; 2014; Pgs. 41-42
[61] American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population
History Since 1492; Russell Thornton; University of Oklahoma Press; 1987; Pages xv-xviii
[62] Quammen, David (2003). Monster of God: the maneating predator in the jungles of history and the mind. New
York: W.W. Norton. p. 252. ISBN 0-393-05140-4.
[63] David Cesarani; Sarah Kavanaugh (1 January 2004).
Holocaust: Critical Concepts in Historical Studies. Psychology Press. p. 381. ISBN 978-0-415-27510-1.
[64] Columbus 'sparked a genocide'". BBC News. 12 October 2003. Retrieved 2006-10-21.
[65] Carlos A. Floria and Csar A. Garca Belsunce, 1971.
Historia de los Argentinos I and II; ISBN 84-599-5081-6.
[66] Andermann, Jens. Argentine Literature and the 'Conquest of the Desert', 18721896: Violence. Birkbeck,
University of London. Retrieved 25 November 2016. It
is this sudden acceleration, this abrupt change from the
discourse of 'defensive warfare' and 'merciful civilization'
to that of 'oensive warfare' and of genocide, which is
perhaps the most distinctive mark of the literature of the
Argentine frontier.

34

6 NOTES

[67] Rock, =David (2002). State Building and Political Movements in Argentina, 18601916. Stanford University
Press. pp. 9394. ISBN 978-0-8047-4466-9.

[87] Russell Thornton (1987). American Indian Holocaust and

Survival: A Population History Since 1492. University of
Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-2220-5.

[68] Civilizacin o genocidio, un debate que nunca se cierra

by Cacho Fernndez Qollasuyu Tawaintisuyu Indymedia
(Spanish)

[88] Pre-Columbian Population; US News and World Report;

Lewis Lord; 1997

[69] Residential School History: A Legacy of Shame (PDF).

Wabano Centre for Aboriginal Health. 2000. Retrieved
28 June 2016.

[89] Bureau of the Census (1894). Report on Indians taxed and

Indians not taxed in the United States (except Alaska). p.
28.

[70] Tasker, John Paul (29 May 2015). Residential schools

ndings point to 'cultural genocide,' commission chair
says. CBC. Retrieved 1 July 2016.

[90] Arthur Grenke (1 January 2005). God, Greed, and

Genocide: The Holocaust Through the Centuries. New
Academia Publishing, LLC. p. 161. ISBN 978-09767042-0-1.

[71] The Residential School System. Indigenous Foundations. UBC First Nations and Indigenous Studies. Retrieved 28 June 2016.

[91] Carter (III), Samuel (1976). Cherokee sunset: A nation

betrayed: a narrative of travail and triumph, persecution
and exile. New York: Doubleday, p. 232.

[72] Luxen, Micah (24 June 2016). Survivors of Canadas

'cultural genocide' still healing. BBC. Retrieved 28 June
2016.

[92] Francis Paul Prucha (1995). The Great Father: The

United States Government and the American Indians. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 241 note 58. ISBN 08032-8734-8. Retrieved 16 February 2016.
John Ehle (1989). Trials of Tears: The Rise and Fall of
the Cherokee Nation. Anchor Books. pp. 390392. ISBN
978-0-385-23954-7. Retrieved 16 February 2016.
William L. Anderson (1992). Cherokee Removal: Before
and After. University of Georgia Press. pp. 7593. ISBN
978-0-8203-1482-2. Retrieved 16 February 2016.

[73] First Steps With First Nations (PDF). Brethren in Christ

Canada. April 2012. Retrieved 28 June 2016.
[74] Honouring the Truth, Reconciling for the Future - Summary of the Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation
Commission of Canada (PDF). The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. 31 May 2015. Retrieved
28 June 2016.

[93] Stannard 1993, p. 124.

[75] More voices on Truth and Reconciliation Commission.

Toronto Star. Retrieved 2016-02-04.

[94] Mann 2009.

[76] Genocide; Szumski, Bonnie; Greenhaven Press; 2001;

Pgs. 155-8

[95] Vectors of Death: The Archaeology of European Contact;

University of New Mexico Press; 1987; p. 147-148

[77] Robins & Jones 2009.

[96] Rotting Face: Smallpox and the American Indian; R. G.

Robertson; Caxton Press; 2001 Pgs. 80-83; 298-312

[78] Robins & Jones 2009, p. 50.

[79] James L. Haley (1981). Apaches: A History and Culture Portrait. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 5051.
ISBN 0806129786
[80] {Margaret Conrad, History of the Canadian Peoples fth
edition pg 256257}

[97] Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and

Subaltern Resistance in World History; Berghahn Series;
Volume 12 of Studies on war and genocide; A. Dirk
Moses; Berghahn Books, 2008; Pgs 443-445
[98] Thornton 1987, pp. 107-109.
[99] Madley 2016, p.11, p.351

[81] {http://www.heritage.nf.ca/aboriginal/beo_extinction.
html}

[100] Pritzker, Barry. 2000, A Native American Encyclopedia:

History, Culture, and Peoples. Oxford University Press,
[82] Knowles, RP; Tomplins J; Worthen WB (2003). Modern
p. 114
Drama: Dening the Field. University of Toronto Press.
[101] ( ,2014.
).
pp. 169. ISBN 0-8020-8621-7.
. :ISBN 9936801504.
[83] Robins & Jones 2009, p. 1.
[102] Chapters 37 of Perdue 2005 describe the rise and fall of
[84] United States Congress Joint Committee on the Conduct
the Dzungar empire and its relations with other Mongol
of the War, 1865 (testimonies and report)
tribes, the Qing dynasty, and the Russian empire.
[85] Brown, Dee (2001) [1970].
War Comes to the [103] Wei
Cheyenne. Bury my heart at Wounded Knee. Macmiltory
lian. pp. 8687. ISBN 978-0-8050-6634-0.
"

Yuan,
of
the
,
,

[86] Michno, Gregory (2003). Encyclopedia of Indian wars: [104] Perdue 2005, p. 285.
western battles and skirmishes, 18501890. Mountain
Press Publishing. p. 353. ISBN 0-87842-468-7.
[105] Clarke 2004, p. 37.

Qing

Military
Dynasty,
,

hisvol.4.
"

35

[106] Perdue 2005, pp. 283285.

[123] Adalian, Rouben Paul (2010). Adana Massacre.

Historical Dictionary of Armenia. Scarecrow Press. pp.
[107] Dr. Mark Levene, Southampton University, see Areas
7071. ISBN 9780810874503. Retrieved 28 August
where I can oer Postgraduate Supervision. Retrieved
2013.
2009-02-09.
[124] David Gaunt, The Assyrian Genocide of 1915, Assyrian
Genocide Research Center, 2009
[108] Levene 2008, p. 188.
[109] Philippa Fogarty (6 June 2008). Recognition at last for [125] Antero Leitzinger (14 December 2004). The Circassian
Genocide. Global Politician. Archived from the original
Japans Ainu. BBC News. Retrieved 16 February 2016.
on 9 November 2013.
[110] Andy Sharp (1 March 2009). Tokyos thriving Ainu
[126] 145th Anniversary of the Circassian Genocide and the
community keeps traditional culture alive. Japan Today.
Sochi Olympics Issue. Reuters. 22 May 2009. Archived
Retrieved 16 February 2016.
from the original on 2012-07-02. Retrieved 28 November
2009.
[111] Roy Thomas (1989). Japan: The Blighted Blossom.
I.B.Tauris. p. 227. ISBN 978-1-85043-125-1. Retrieved [127]
16 February 2016.
[128]
[112] Vladimir Yampolski (8 December 2004).
- [The
tragedy of the Ainu - The tragedy of the Russian Far East] [129]
(in Russian). kamtime.ru. Retrieved 15 February 2016.
[113] Aboona, H (2008), Assyrians, Kurds, and Ottomans: in[130]
tercommunal relations on the periphery of the Ottoman
Empire, Cambria Press, ISBN 978-1-60497-583-3.

Goble 2005.
(Russian) Circassian Genocide. The Circassian Congress.
2008
Secher, Reynald. A French Genocide: The Vende, University of Notre Dame Press, (2003), ISBN 0-268-028656.

[114] Gaunt & Be-awoce 2006, p. 32

Berger, Stefan; Donovan, Mark; Passmore, Kevin

(January 1999). Writing National Histories: Western Europe Since 1800. Routledge. ISBN 978-0415-16427-6.

[115] Adalian, Rouben Paul (2010), Historical Dictionary of

Armenia (2nd ed.), Lanham, MD: Scarecrow, p. 154.

Franois Lebrun, " La guerre de Vende : massacre

ou gnocide ? ", L'Histoire, Paris, n78, May 1985,
p.93 to 99 et no. 81, September 1985, p. 99 to 101.

[116] Akam, Taner (2006) A Shameful Act: The Armenian

Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility p.
42, Metropolitan Books, New York ISBN 978-0-80507932-6
[117] Angold, Michael (2006), OMahony, Anthony, ed., Cambridge History of Christianity, 5. Eastern Christianity,
Cambridge University Press, p. 512, ISBN 978-0-52181113-2.
[118] Cleveland, William L. (2000). A History of the Modern
Middle East (2nd ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview. p. 119.
ISBN 0-8133-3489-6.
[119] Bulgaria in the Encyclopdia Britannica, 11th Ed.
(Cambridge, 1911.)
[120] Religion, Ethnicity and Contested Nationhood in the Former Ottoman Space, Editors J. Rgen Nielsen, Jrgen S.
Nielsen, Publisher BRILL, 2011, ISBN 9004211330, p.
282.
[131]
[121] Raymond H. Kvorkian, The Cilician Massacres, April
1909 in Armenian Cilicia, eds. Richard G. Hovannisian
and Simon Payaslian. UCLA Armenian History and Culture Series: Historic Armenian Cities and Provinces, 7.
Costa Mesa, California: Mazda Publishers, 2008, pp.
339-69.
[132]

Paul Tallonneau (1993). Les Lucs et le gnocide

venden: comment on a manipul les textes. Editions Hcate. ISBN 978-2-86913-051-7.
Claude Petitfrre, La Vende et les Vendens, Editions Gallimard/Julliard, 1982.
Voir Jean-Clment Martin, La Vende et la France,
Le Seuil, 1987.
Hugh Gough, Genocide & the Bicentenary: the
French Revolution and the revenge of the Vende,
(Historical Journal, vol. 30, 4, 1987, pp. 97788.)
p. 987.
Vovelle, Michel (1987). Bourgeoisies de province et
Revolution. Presses Universitaires de Grenoble. p.
quoted in Fhr.
Price, Roger (1993). A Concise History of France.
Cambridge University Press. p. 107.
Fhr, Ferenc (1990). The French Revolution and
the birth of modernity. University of California
Press. p. 62.
Claude Langlois, " Les hros quasi mythiques de la
Vende ou les drives de l'imaginaire ", in F. Lebrun,
1987, p. 426434, et " Les drives vendennes de
l'imaginaire rvolutionnaire ", AESC, n3, 1988, p. 771
797.
Voir l'intervention de Timothy Tackett, dans French Historical Studies, Autumn 2001, p. 572.

[122] Adalian, Rouben Paul (2012). The Armenian Genocide. In Totten, Samuel; Parsons, William S. Century [133] ^ Jonassohn, Kurt and Karin Solveig Bjeornson Genocide
Routledge.
pp.
11756.
ISBN
of Genocide.
and Gross Human Rights Violations p. 208, 1998, Trans9780415871914. Retrieved 28 August 2013.
action Publishers

36

6 NOTES

[134] Levene, Mark, Genocide in the Age of the Nation State:

The rise of the West and the coming of Genocide p. 118

of 'passive' supporters of the rebellionwere to be

spared their lives but not their property.

[135] Jones, Adam. Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction, [138] Ross, David (2002). Ireland: History of a Nation. New
Lanark: Geddes & Grosset. p. 226. ISBN 1-84205-164p. 7 Routledge/Taylor & Francis Publishers, (2006)
4.
[136] John Walsh (April 2004). ""To Hell or to Connaught
Oliver Cromwells Settlement of Ireland. Irish Cultural [139] Kinealy 1995, p. 357.
Society. Archived from the original on 11 October 2007.
[140] Grda 2000, p. 7.
[137] genocidal or near-genocidal:
[141] Woodham-Smith 1964, p. 19.
O'Leary, Brendam; McGarry, John (24 November
1995). Albert Breton, ed. Regulating nations and
ethnic communities. Cambridge University Press. p.
248. ISBN 978-0-521-48098-7. Oliver Cromwell
oered the Irish Catholics a choice between genocide and forced mass population transfer. They
could go 'To Hell or to Connaught!'
Tim Pat Coogan (5 January 2002). The Troubles: Irelands Ordeal and the Search for Peace.
Palgrave Macmillan. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-31229418-2. The massacres by Catholics of Protestants, which occurred in the religious wars of the
1640s, were magnied for propagandist purposes to
justify Cromwells subsequent genocide.
Peter Berresford Ellis (9 February 2007).
Eyewitness to Irish History. John Wiley & Sons.
ISBN 978-0-470-05312-6. It was to be the
justication for Cromwells genocidal campaign
and settlement.
Levene 2005 Considered overall, an Irish population collapse from 1.5 or possibly over 2 million inhabitants at the onset of the Irish wars in 1641, to
no more than 850,000 eleven years later represents
an absolutely devastating demographic catastrophe.
Undoubted the largest proportion of this massive
death toll did not arise from direct massacre but
from hunger and then bubonic plagues, especially
from the outbreak between 1649 and 1652. Even
so, the relationship to the worst years of the ghting is all too apparent.
[The Act of Settlement of Ireland], and the parliamentary legislation which succeeded it the following year, is the nearest thing on paper in the English,
and more broadly British, domestic record, to a programme of state-sanctioned and systematic ethnic
cleansing of another people. The fact that it did not
include 'total' genocide in its remit, or that it failed
to put into practice the vast majority of its proposed
expulsions, ultimately, however, says less about the
lethal determination of its makers and more about
the political, structural and nancial weakness of
the early modern English state. For instance, though
the Act begins rather ominously by claiming that it
was not its intention to extirpate the whole Irish nation, it then goes on to list ve categories of people who, as participators in or alleged supporters
of the 1641 rebellion and its aftermath, would automatically be forfeit of their lives. It has been
suggested that as many as 100,000 people would
have been liable under these headings. A further
ve categoriesby implication an even larger body

[142] Kinealy 1995, pp. xviii, 23.

[143] Finnegan & McCarron 2000.
[144] Kinealy 1995, p. 354.
[145] Grda, Economic History Society, Cormac (1995). The
great Irish famine. New studies in economic and social
history (illustrated, reprinted ed.). Cambridge University
Press. pp. 4, 68. ISBN 978-0-521-55787-0. [page 4]
While no academic historian takes seriously any more the
claim of 'genocide', the issue of blame remains controversial. [page 68] In sum the Great Famine of the 1840s, instead of being inevitable and inherent in the potato economy, was a tragic ecological accident. Irelands experience during these years supports neither the complacency
exemplied by the Whig view of political economy nor the
genocide theories formerly espoused by a few nationalist
historians.
[146] Kevin Kenny (2003). New directions in Irish-American
history. History of Ireland and the Irish diaspora (illustrated ed.). University of Wisconsin Press. p. 246. ISBN
978-0-299-18714-9. And, while few, if any, historians in
Ireland today would endorse the idea of British genocide
(in the sense of conscious intent to slaughter), this does
not mean that government policies, whether adopted or
rejected, had no impact on starvation, disease, mortality
and emigration.
[147] Boyle, Francis A. Francis A. Boyle: The Irish Famine
was Genocide. History News Network. Retrieved 18
July 2015.
[148] Mullin, James (28 April 2006). Irish Famine Education
and the Holocaust 'Straw Man'". American Chronicle.
Archived from the original on 18 May 2006.
[149] The Great Irish Famine. Approved by the New Jersey Commission on Holocaust Education on 10 September
1996. Nebraska Department of Education. 26 November
1998. Archived from the original on 18 August 2000.
[150] Mullin, James V.The New Jersey Famine Curriculum:
a report Eire-Ireland:Journal of Irish Studies, SpringSummer, 2002
[151] Irish Famine Unit VI Genocide. Nebraska Department
of Education. 26 November 1998. Archived from the
original on 18 August 2000.
[152] Woodham-Smith 1964, p. 410.
[153] Grda 2000, p. 10.

37

[154] Flood, Dr Josephine, The Original Australians: Story of

the Aboriginal People, published by Allen & Unwin, 2006,
p125.
[155] Flood, Dr Josephine, The Original Australians, p. 126.

The French, British and Russian joint declaration (original source of the telegram), Washington,
D.C.: The Department of State
[175] Morgenthau, Henry (1918). Ambassador Morgenthaus
Story. Garden City, New York: Doubleday.

[156] Macknight, C. C. Macassans and the Aboriginal past

in Archaeologia Oceania | publication-date=1986 | vol- [176] Midlarsky, Manus I, The Killing Trap: Genocide in the
ume=21 | pages=6975
Twentieth Century, p. 342

[157] John Connor, The Australian Frontier Wars, 17881838, [177] Jones 2010, pp. 171172 A resolution was placed beUNSW Press, 2002, p29.
fore the IAGS membership to recognize the Greek and
Assyrian/Chaldean components of the Ottoman genocide
[158] Bonwick 1870.
against Christians, alongside the Armenian strand of the
genocide (which the IAGS has already formally acknowl[159] Clive Turnbull (2003). Black War: The Extermination of
edged). The result, passed emphatically in December
the Tasmanian Aborigines. Lansdowne. pp. 128132.
2007 despite not inconsiderable opposition, was a reso[160] Georey Blainey (1 January 1980). A Land Half Won.
lution which I co-drafted, reading as follows:... (IAGS
Macmillan. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-333-29949-4.
resolution is on page 172)
[161] Glynn & Glynn 2004, p. Genocides in history at Google [178] Resolution by the International Association of Genocide
Books.
Scholars (PDF). IAGS. December 2007.
[162] Curthoys 2008, p. Genocides in history at Google Books. [179] Genocide Resolution approved by Swedish Parliament
full text. Armenia NEWS.am. 15 March 2010. Re[163] Levene 2005, p. Genocides in history at Google Books.
trieved 15 February 2016.
[164] Reynolds, Henry (2004). A. Dirk Moses, ed. Genocide in
Tasmania?. Berghahn Books. p. Genocides in history at [180] Gaunt, David. Massacres, Resistance, Protectors: MuslimChristian Relations in Eastern Anatolia during World War
Google Books. ISBN 978-1-57181-410-4.
I. Piscataway, N.J.: Gorgias Press, 2006.
[165] Curthoys 2008, p. Genocides in history at Google Books.
[181] Schaller, Dominik J.; Zimmerer, Jrgen (2008). Late
Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Em[166] Kiernan 2002, p. 163.
pire and Young Turkish population and extermination
[167] Madley 2008, p. 77.
policies introduction. Journal of Genocide Research.
10 (1): 714. doi:10.1080/14623520801950820.
[168] Solomon, Mui; Denise Davis (2 September 2011).
Moriori. Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. [182] Dadrian, Vahakn N (1995), The History of the Armenian
Retrieved 2014-03-07.
Genocide: Ethnic Conict from the Balkans to Anatolia to
[169] King 2000, pp. 5960.
[170] King 2000.
[171] Diamond, Jared (1997). Guns, Germs, and Steel: The
Fates of Human Societies. New York: W. W. Norton. p.
53.
[172] Kopel, Gallant & Eisen 2003.
[173] Tommy Solomon of Chatham Island. educationresources.co.nz. 7 April 2006. Retrieved 15 February
2016.
[174] 1915 declaration:
Armation of the United States Record on the Armenian Genocide Resolution, 106th Congress, 2nd
Session, House of Representatives;

the Caucasus, Oxford: Berghahn.

Balakian, Peter (2003), The Burning Tigris: The
Armenian Genocide and Americas Response, New
York: HarperCollins.
Bloxham, Donald (2005), The Great Game of
Genocide: Imperialism, Nationalism, and the Destruction of the Ottoman Armenians, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Akam, Taner (2012), The Young Turks Crime
Against Humanity: The Armenian Genocide and
Ethnic Cleansing in the Ottoman Empire, Princeton:
Princeton University Press
[183] Kieser, Hans-Lukas; Schaller, Dominik J (2002), Der
Vlkermord an den Armeniern und die Shoah [The Armenian Genocide and the Shoah] (in German), Chronos, p.
114, ISBN 3-0340-0561-X

Armation of the United States Record on the Armenian Genocide Resolution (Introduced in House [184] Christopher J. Walker (1980). Armenia, the Survival of a
of Representatives), 109th Congress, 1st SesNation. St. Martins Press. ISBN 978-0-312-04944-7.
sion; H.res.316, House Committee/Subcommittee:
International Relations actions, 14 June 2005, re Akam, Taner (2007). A Shameful Act: The Armetrieved 15 September 2005. Status: Ordered to be
nian Genocide and the Question of Turkish ResponReported by the Yeas and Nays: 40 7.
sibility. p. 327.

38

6 NOTES

[185] Freeman, Michael. 1995. Genocide, Civilisation and [196] Jones 2010, p. 166: An estimate of the Pontian Greek
Modernity. The British Journal of Sociology 46(2): 207
death toll at all stages of the anti-Christian genocide is
223.)
about 350,000; for all the Greeks of the Ottoman realm
taken together, the toll surely exceeded half a million, and
[186] Aprim, Frederick A. (January 2005). Assyrians: the conmay approach the 900,000 killed that a team of US retinuous saga. F.A. Aprim. p. 40.
searchers found in the early postwar period. Most surviving Greeks were expelled to Greece as part of the tumul[187] Ye'or, Bat; Kochan, Miriam; Littman, David (2002).
tuous population exchanges that set the seal on a heavily
Islam and Dhimmitude: Where Civilizations Collide. FairTurkied state.
leigh Dickinson University Press. pp. 14849. ISBN 0[197] Taner Akcam (21 August 2007). A Shameful Act: The
8386-3943-7. OCLC 47054791.
Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility. Henry Holt and Company. p. 107. ISBN 978-1[188] Jones 2006, p. Genocides in history at Google Books.
4668-3212-1.
[189] Betts, Paul (17 August 2010). Years of Persecution, Years
of Extermination: Saul Friedlander and the Future of [198] Rummel 1998, p. Chapter 5.
Holocaust Studies. Continuum. pp. 214. ISBN 978[199] BBC sta (26 November 2014). Six unexpected WW1
1-4411-2987-1. Retrieved 17 November 2012. Already
battlegrounds. BBC News (BBC). BBC News Services.
in the period 191214, the Young Turk leadership aimed
Retrieved 24 January 2016.
to replace the multi-ethnic and multi-confessional.... The
elimination of the Armenian, Assyrian, and Greek popu- [200] Ghazal, Rym (14 April 2015). Lebanons dark days of
lations was an integral part of the Young Turk struggle for
hunger: The Great Famine of 191518. The National.
...
Retrieved 24 January 2016.
[190] Yacoub, Joseph (1985), La question assyro-chaldenne, [201] Harris 2012, p.174
les Puissances europennes et la SDN (19081938) [The
Assyro-Chaldean question: the European Powers and the [202] Turkeys Alevis 'under the shadow of military tanks, Al
Jazeera
League of Nations, 190838] (thse) (in French), Lyon,
p. 156, 4 vol.
[203] A Modern History of the Kurds: Third Edition p. 209,
David McDowall
[191] International Genocide Scholars Association Ocially
Recognizes Assyrian, Greek Genocides, Assyrian International News Agency, 15 December 2007, retrieved 2007- [204] Andreopoulos 1988, p. 11.
12-15
[205] Besiki, smail (1990), Tunceli Kanunu (1935) ve Dersim
Jenosidi (in Turkish), Belge Yaynlar
[192] Jones 2010.
[193] Rummel, Rudolph (1994), Death by Government
[194] Rendel, GW (20 March 1922), Turkish Massacres and
Persecutions of Minorities since the Armistice (memorandum), Foreign Oce

[206] van Bruineen 1994.

[207] Saymaz, Ismail (14 March 2011). Turkish prosecutor
refuses to hear Dersim 'genocide' claim. Hrriyet Daily
News. Retrieved 24 November 2011.
[208] Zubaida 2000, p. 370

[195] Jones 2010, pp. 15051: By the beginning of the First

World War, a majority of the regions ethnic Greeks still
lived in present-day Turkey, mostly in Thrace (the only remaining Ottoman territory in Europe, abutting the Greek
border), and along the Aegean and Black Sea coasts.
They would be targeted both prior to and alongside the
Armenians of Anatolia and the Assyrians of Anatolia
and Mesopotamia The major populations of Anatolian Greeks include those along the Aegean coast and
those in Cappadocia (central Anatolia), but not the Greeks
of the Thrace region west of the Bosphorus A Christian genocide framing acknowledges the historic claims
of Assyrian and Greek peoples, and the movements now
stirring for recognition and restitution among Greek and
Assyrian diasporas. It also brings to light the quite staggering cumulative death toll among the various Christian groups that were targeted for genocide of the 1.5
million Greeks of Asia minor Ionians, Pontians, and
Cappadocians approximately 750,000 were massacred
and 750,000 were exiled. Pontian deaths alone totaled
353,000.

[209] Displaced persons in Iraqi Kurdistan and Iraqi refugees

in Iran (PDF). dh.org. International Federation for Human Rights. January 2003. Retrieved 23 September
2011.
[210] DeKelaita, Robert (22 November 2009). The Origins and Developments of Assyrian Nationalism (PDF).
Committee on International Relations Of the University of
Chicago. Assyrian International News Agency. Retrieved
23 September 2011.
[211] Sargon Donabed (1 February 2015). Reforging a Forgotten History: Iraq and the Assyrians in the 20th Century.
Edinburgh University Press. pp. 110. ISBN 978-07486-8605-6.
[212] Raphael Lemkin. EuropeWorld. 22 June 2001.
Archived from the original on 2010-04-16. Retrieved 23
September 2011.
[213] New York Times (January 28, 1882)

39

[214] Weinberg, Robert. The Revolution of 1905 in Odessa: [230] Conquest, Robert (1986). The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet
Blood on the Steps. 1993, p. 164.
Collectivization and the Terror-Famine. London: Oxford
University Press. p. 306. ISBN 0-19-505180-7.
[215] https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/
[231] Roberto Muehlenkamp (20 October 2010). What
pogroms.html#4
Part Of The Word Genocide Do You Not Understand?:
Bloodlands, by Timothy Snyder (page 412)". holocaust[216] "".
controversies.blogspot.de. Retrieved 13 February 2016.
[217] CFCA - The Coordination Forum for Countering Anti[232] Fawkes, Helen (24 November 2006). Legacy of famine
semitism.
divides Ukraine. News. BBC.
[218] Archived copy. Archived from the original on 21 March
[233] Holodomor famine, Stalin, Ukraine. RT. 14 January
2012. Retrieved December 13, 2012.
2010.
[219] VIRTUAL KISHINEV - 1903 Pogrom.
[220]

[221]

[222]
[223]

[234] Sentence to Stalin, his comrades for organizing

Holodomor takes eect in Ukraine. Kyiv Post. 21
Rummel, R.J. Statistics Of Russian Democide Estimates,
January 2010. Archived from the original on 23 January
Calculations, And Sources. STATISTICS OF DEMO2011.
CIDE.
Who calculated from
[235] Ukraine must not blame neighbors for famine
McCarthy, Justin (1983). MUSLIMS AND MINORITIES:
Yanukovych, RIA Novosti, RU, 16 January 2010
THE POPULATION OF OTTOMAN ANATOLIA AND
THE END OF THE EMPIRE. New York University Press. [236] Yanukovych: Famine of 1930s was not genocide against
Ukrainians, Kyiv Post, 27 April 2010, archived from the
p. 138.
original on 2010-11-22
Czaplicka, M.A. (1918). THE TURKS OF CENTRAL
ASIA IN HISTORY AND AT THE PRESENT TIME: [237] Interfax-Ukraine (27 April 2010). Our Ukraine Party:
Yanukovych violated law on Holodomor of 19321933.
AN ETHNOLOGICAL ENQUIRY INTO THE PANKyiv Post. Archived from the original on 2010-05-01. ReTURANIAN PROBLEM, AND BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
trieved 10 August 2010.
MATERIAL RELATING TO THE EARLY TURKS AND
THE PRESENT TURKS OF CENTRAL ASIA. Oxford: At [238] Sommer 2010, pp. 4178.
The Clarendon Press. pp. 1617.
link:
https://archive.org/stream/ [239] Norman M. Naimark, Stalins Genocides (Princeton University 2010), NKVD at pp. 8586 (arrested, shot), quote
turksofcentralas00czapuoft#page/16/mode/2up
at 85.
Commission Calls 1916 Tsarist Mass Killings Of Kyrgyz
[240] Wendy Z. Goldman, Inventing the Enemy: Denunciation
Genocide Print Share. Radio Free Europe.
and Terror in Stalins Russia New York: Cambridge University Press 2011), p. 217.
Krugosvet Encyclopaedia. Article on Sturmer.

[224] Heller, Mikhail; Nekrich, Aleksandr (January 1988). [241] Timothy Snyder, Bloodlands. Europe between Hitler
and Stalin (New York: Basic Books 2010), pp. 93
Utopia in power: the history of the Soviet Union from 1917
(quote: fraternity); 94 (quote: Soviet Poles); 96
to the present. Summit Books. ISBN 978-0-671-64535-9.
(Stalin quote); 103104 (quote: ethnic Poles). In the
Polish operation Snyder lists 143,810 arrested, 111,091
[225] Nicolas Werth, Karel Bartoek, Jean-Louis Pann, Jeanexecuted, mostly Poles (p. 103). Other operations tarLouis Margolin, Andrzej Paczkowski, Stphane Courtois.
geted Latvians, Estonians, Finns (p. 104), and the BeThe Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Represlarusian intelligentsia (p. 98).
sion. Harvard University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-67407608-7 pp. 89
[242] Naimark, Stalins Genocides (Princeton Univ. 2010):
Katyn killings, pp. 9192.
[226] Orlando Figes (1997). A Peoples Tragedy: The Russian
Revolution, 18911924. Pimlico. p. 660. ISBN 978-0- [243] Norman Davies, Heart of Europe. The past in Polands
7126-7327-3.
present (Oxford University 1984, 2001) pp. 5859
(Katyn), p. 422 (Soviet President Gorbachev sent Pol[227] Donald Rayeld (2004). Stalin and His Hangmen: The
ish President Jaruzelski documentary evidence re Katyn
Tyrant and Those who Killed for Him. Random House.
proving that the mass murder of c.25,000 Polish ocers
p. 83. ISBN 978-0-375-50632-1.
had been perpetrated by the Soviet NKVD in 1940).
[228] R. J. Rummel. Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocides and [244] Chechnya: European Parliament recognises the genocide
Mass Murders Since 1917. Transaction Publishers. p.
of the Chechen People in 1944. Unrepresented Nations
Genocides in history at Google Books. ISBN 978-1-4128and Peoples Organization. 27 February 2004. Retrieved
2750-8.
13 February 2016.
[229] Robert Gellately (11 November 2009). Lenin, Stalin, and [245] John B. Dunlop (28 September 1998). Russia Confronts
Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf Doubleday
Chechnya: Roots of a Separatist Conict. Cambridge UniPublishing Group. ISBN 978-0-307-53712-6.
versity Press. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-521-63184-6.

40

6 NOTES

[246] Gammer 2006, p. 170

[247] Gammer 2006, p. 182
[248] Jaimoukha 2004, p. 212

[261] Estonian Red Army veteran dies amidst genocide trial.

28 March 2009. Archived from the original on 14 June
2012.
[262] Genocide in Lithuania. people.cohums.ohio-state.edu.
Archived from the original on 11 September 2006.

[249] Ediev, Dalkhat. Demogracheskie poteri deportirovannykh narodov SSSR, Stavropol 2003, Table 109, p. 302 [263] Peiktenis, Eugenijus. Lithuanian Museum of Genocide
Victims. Genocide and Resistance Research Centre of
[250] Aleksandr Nekrich (1 November 1981). The Punished
Lithuania. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
Peoples: The Deportation and Fate of Soviet Minorities at
the End of the Second World War. W. W. Norton, Incor[264] Levene, Mark (2013). Annihilation: Volume II: The Europorated. ISBN 978-0-393-00068-9.
pean Rimlands 19391953. Oxford University Press. p.
333. ISBN 9780199683048.
John B. Dunlop (28 September 1998). Russia Con-

[251]
[252]

[253]

[254]

fronts Chechnya: Roots of a Separatist Conict.

[265] Naimark 2002, p. 104
Cambridge University Press. pp. 6270. ISBN
978-0-521-63619-3.
[266] Kohl, Philip L.; Kozelsky, Mara; Ben-Yehuda, Nachman (2008). Selective Remembrances: Archaeology in the
Gammer.The Lone Wolf and the Bear, pp166-171
Construction, Commemoration, and Consecration of National Pasts. University of Chicago Press. p. 92. ISBN
Bataev, A. (18 March 2004). : 9780226450643.
- [European Parliament: deportation of of the Vainakhs - genocide] (in Russian).
HRO.org. Archived from the original on 18 October [267] Ukraines Parliament Recognizes 1944 'Genocide' Of
Crimean Tatars. Rferl.org. 12 November 2015. Re2007.
trieved 13 February 2016.
Naimark, Norman M. (5 December 2011). Stalins Genocides. Princeton University Press. p. 89. ISBN 978- [268] Campbell, Bradley (June 2009). Genocide as social control. Sociological Theory. 27 (2): 154.
0691152387.
doi:10.1111/j.1467-9558.2009.01341.x.
JSTOR
40376129. Also, genocide may occur in the aftermath of
R. J. Rummel. Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocides and Mass
warfare when mass killings continue after the outcome of
Murders Since 1917. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978a battle or a war has been decided. For instance, after the
1-4128-2750-8.
Chinese city of Nanking was occupied by the Japanese
J. Pohl, Stalins genocide against the 'Repressed
in December 1937, Japanese soldiers massacred over
Peoples", Journal of Genocide Research, Volume
250,000 residents of the city.
2, Number 2, 1 June 2000, pp. 267293
Lauri Mlksoo, Soviet Genocide? Communist [269] Parsley Massacre: The Genocide That Still Haunts HaitiDominican Relations. Ibtimes.com. 15 October 2012.
Mass Deportations in the Baltic States and InternaRetrieved 2014-03-11.
tional Law, Leiden Journal of International Law

(2001), 14: pp. 757787 Cambridge University

[270] Bulag, Uradyn Erden (2002). Dilemmas The Mongols at
Press
Chinas edge: history and the politics of national unity.
Rowman
& Littleeld. p. 54. ISBN 0-7425-1144-8. Re[255] Postimees 31 March 2009: Martin Arpo: kommunismiaja
trieved
2010-06-28.
kuritegude tee Euroopa Inimiguste Kohtuni
[256] ECHR decision on the case Kolk and Kislyiy v. Esto- [271] Hui, Fu Li (1961). China reconstructs. 10. China Welfare
Institute. p. 16. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
nia: Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to Crimes
against Humanity. Council of Europe. derechos.org. 17
[272] Goodman, David SG (2004). Chinas campaign to Open
January 2006. Retrieved 15 February 2016.
up the West": national, provincial, and local perspectives.
Cambridge University Press. p. 72. ISBN 0-521-61349[257] Oberlander, Erwin (5 April 2011). Martyn Housden,
3. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
David James Smith, ed. Forgotten Pages in Baltic History:
Diversity and Inclusion. Rodopi. pp. 253254. ISBN
[273] Mayaram, Shail (2009). The other global city. US: Taylor
978-9042033153.
& Francis. pp. 767. ISBN 0-415-99194-3. Retrieved
2010-07-30.
[258] Travis, Hannibal (8 February 2013). Ethnonationalism,
Genocide, and the United Nations. Routledge. p. 82.
[274] Hilberg 2003, p. 1322.
ISBN 978-0415531252.
[259] Budryte, Dovile (9 August 2005). Taming National- [275] Monroe, Kristen R. (23 October 2011). Ethics in an
Age of Terror and Genocide: Identity and Moral Choice.
ism? Political Community Building in the Post-Soviet Baltic
Princeton University Press. pp. 10. ISBN 0-691-15143States. Ashgate. p. 182. ISBN 978-0754642817.
1.
[260] BBC sta (23 August 2007). Estonian man on genocide
charge. BBC News.
[276] Niewyk & Nicosia 2000, p. 45.

41

[277] Also see The Holocaust, Encyclopdia Britannica, [282] The Holocaust, Compact Oxford English Dictionary, the
2007: the systematic state-sponsored killing of six milmass murder of Jews under the German regime in World
lion Jewish men, women and children, and millions of othWar II.
ers, by Germany and its collaborators during World War
The Holocaust, The 33rd Annual Scholars ConII. The Germans called this the nal solution to the Jewference on the Holocaust and the Churches (defish question.
inition), the German attempt to annihilate Euro[278] Weissman, Gary (2004), Fantasies of Witnessing: Postpean Jewry, cited in Hancock, Ian (2004), Rowar Attempts to Experience the Holocaust, Cornell Univermanies and the Holocaust: A Reevaluation and an
sity Press, p. 94, ISBN 0-8014-4253-2, Kren illustrates
Overview, in Stone, Dan, The Historiography of
his point with his reference to the Kommissararbefehl.
the Holocaust, New York: Palgrave-Macmillan, pp.
'Should the (strikingly unreported) systematic mass star38396, archived from the original on 2004-07-10
vation of Soviet prisoners of war be included in the Holo Bauer, Yehuda (2001), Rethinking the Holocaust,
caust?' he asks. Many scholars would answer no, mainNew Haven: Yale University Press, p. 10
taining that 'the Holocaust' should refer strictly to those
Dawidowicz, Lucy (1986), The War Against the
events involving the systematic killing of the Jews.
Jews: 19331945, Bantam, p. xxxvii, 'The Holo[279] Holocaust, Encyclopdia Britannica, 2007, the systemcaust' is the term that Jews themselves have chosen
atic state-sponsored killing of six million Jewish men,
to describe their fate during World War II.
women, and children and millions of others by Germany
and its collaborators during World War II. The Germans [283] Ukrainian mass Jewish grave found. BBC News. 5 June
called this the nal solution to the Jewish question.
2007. Retrieved 15 February 2016.
Holocaust, Encarta, archived from the original on [284] Michael Berenbaum; Arnold Kramer; United States Holo31 October 2009, Holocaust, the almost complete
caust Memorial Museum (9 December 2005). The world
destruction of Jews in Europe by Germany and its
must know: the history of the Holocaust as told in the
collaborators during World War II (19391945).
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. United States
The leadership of Germany ordered the exterminaHolocaust Memorial Museum. p. 103. ISBN 978-0tion of 5.6 million to 5.9 million Jews (see National
8018-8358-3.
Socialism). Jews often refer to the Holocaust as the
Shoah (from the Hebrew word for catastrophe or [285] Dawidowicz, Lucy. The War Against the Jews, Bantam,
1986.p. 403
total destruction).
[280] Paulson, Steve, A View of the Holocaust, BBC.co.uk, The [286] The Number of victims. Memorial and Museum
Holocaust was the Germans assault on the Jews between
Auschwitz-Birkenau. Retrieved 18 April 2016.
1933 and 1945. It culminated in what the Germans called
the 'Final Solution of the Jewish Question in Europe', in [287] Piper 1998, p. 62.
which six million Jews were murdered.
[288] Treblinka, Yad Vashem.
[281] The Holocaust, Auschwitz, DK, The Holocaust was the
systematic annihilation of six million Jews by the Germans [289] Belzec, Yad Vashem.
during World War 2.
[290] Majdanek, Yad Vashem.
Holocaust, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (denition), Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies,
archived from the original on 2009-01-16, (Heb.,
sho'ah). In the 1950s the term came to be applied
primarily to the destruction of the Jews of Europe
under the German regime, and it is also employed
in order to describe the annihilation of other groups
of people during World War II. The mass extermination of Jews has become the archetype of GENOCIDE, and the terms sho'ah and 'holocaust' have
become linked to the attempt by the German state
to destroy European Jewry during World War II...
One of the rst to use the term in this historical perspective was the Jerusalem historian BenZion Dinur
(Dinaburg), who, in the spring of 1942, stated that
the Holocaust was a 'catastrophe' that symbolized
the unique situation of the Jewish people among the
nations of the world.
Holocaust, List of denitions, The Center for
Holocaust and Genocide Studies, A term for the
state-sponsored, systematic persecution and annihilation of European Jewry by Germany and its collaborators between 1933 and 1945.

[291] Reszka, Pawe (23 December 2005). Majdanek Victims Enumerated. Changes in the history textbooks?".
Gazeta Wyborcza. Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum.
Retrieved 13 April 2010.
[292] Chelmno, Yad Vashem.
[293] Sobibor, Yad Vashem.
[294] The Central Database of Shoah Victims Names. Yad
Vashem. Retrieved 8 November 2013.
[295] The Holocaust: Tracing Lost Family Members. JVL.
Retrieved 8 November 2013.
[296] Wilhelm Httl, an SS ocer and a Doctor of History, testied at the Nuremberg Trials and Eichmanns trial that
at a meeting he had with Eichmann in Budapest in late
August 1944, Eichmann ... told me that, according to
his information, some 6,000,000 (six million) Jews had
perished until then 4,000,000 (four million) in extermination camps and the remaining 2,000,000 (two million) through shooting by the Operations Units and other
causes, such as disease, etc.

42

[297] Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial and Museum in

Owicim, Poland. auschwitz.org. Retrieved 17 April
2016.
[298] Responses to common Holocaust-denial claims. ADL.
Archived from the original on 2013-02-22. Retrieved 8
November 2013.
[299] Shoah Research Center; Albania The Jews of Albania
during the Zogist and Second World War Periods and see
also Norman H. Gershmans book Besa: Muslims Who
Saved Jews in World War II for reviews etc (all consulted 24 June 2010)
[300] Rhodes, Richard (2002). Masters of death: the SSEinsatzgruppen and the invention of the Holocaust. New
York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-375-40900-9.

6 NOTES

numbers however include only Slovenes from present-day

Slovenia: it does not include Carinthian Slovene victims,
nor Slovene victims from areas in present-day Italy and
Croatia. These numbers are result of a 10-year-long research by the Institute for Contemporary History (Intitut za novejo zgodovino) from Ljubljana, Slovenia. The
partial results of the research have been released in 2008
in the volume rtve vojne in revolucije v Sloveniji (Ljubljana: Institute for Conetmporary History, 2008), and ofcially presented at the Slovenian National Council. See:
Golob, Janvit; Vodopivec, Peter; Hribar, Tine; Prunk,
Janko; Basta, Milena, eds. (2005). Zbornik "rtve vojne
in revolucije"" [Anthology Victims of War and Revolution"] (PDF) (in Slovenian). Republic of Slovenia National Council. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19
July 2011.

[301] Benz, Wolfgang (1999). The Holocaust: A German His- [311] The Holocaust Chronicle, Publications International Ltd.,
p. 108.
torian Examines the Genocide. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 152153. ISBN 0-231-11214-9.
[312] Shulman, William L. A State of Terror: Germany 1933
1939. Bayside, New York: Holocaust Resource Center
[302] Berenbaum 2005, p. 125.
and Archives.
[303] Poles: Victims of the Nazi Era (PDF). United States
Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 2 March 2016. [313] Pike, David Wingeate. Spaniards in the Holocaust: Mauthausen, the horror on the Danube; Editorial: Routledge
1.81.9 million non-Jewish Polish citizens are estimated
Chapman & Hall ISBN 9780415227803. London, 2000.
to have died as a result of the Nazi occupation and the war.
Estimates are from Polish scholar, Franciszek Piper, the
[314] Niewyk & Nicosia 2000, p. 4552.
chief historian at Auschwitz.
[315] Martin Gilbert (1988). Atlas of the holocaust. Pergamon
[304] Piotrowski, Tadeusz. Project InPosterum: Poland WWII
Press. pp. 242244.
Casualties. Retrieved 15 March 2007; and uczak,
Czesaw. Szanse i trudnoci bilansu demogracznego [316] Melvin Small; Joel David Singer (1 April 1982). Resort
Polski w latach 19391945, Dzieje Najnowsze, issue
to arms: international and civil wars, 18161980. Sage
1994/2.
Publications. ISBN 978-0-8039-1776-7.
[305] Peter Vogelsang; Brian B. M. Larsen (2002). Euthanasia [317] Michael Berenbaum (1990). A Mosaic of Victims: Non the 'mercy killing' of disabled people in Germany. The
Jews Persecuted and Murdered by the Nazis. New York
Danish Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies. ReUniversity Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-1175-0.
trieved 13 February 2016.
[318] Der Generalplan Ost. Eine Ausstellung der Deutschen
[306] Genocide of European Roma (Gypsies)". Holocaust EnForschungsgemeinschaft, 2006.
cyclopedia. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
Retrieved 27 September 2012. The USHMM places the [319] Dietrich Eichholtz, Generalplan Ost zur Versklavung
scholarly estimates at 220,000500,000. According to
osteuropischer Vlker. PDF le, direct download.
Berenbaum 2005, p. 126, serious scholars estimate that
between 90,000 and 220,000 were killed under German [320] Hitlers Home Front: Wurttemberg Under the Nazis Jill
Stephenson page 113 " Other non-'Aryans included Slavs,
rule.
Blacks and Roma and Sinti (Romanies)"
[307] Hancock 2004, pp. 38396
[321] (Russian Academy of Sci[308] GrandLodgeScotland.com. GrandLodgeScotland.com.
ences).
Archived from the original on 2011-06-07. Retrieved 31
: -Human Losses of the
July 2010.
USSR in the Period of WWII: Collection of Articles. SaintPetersburg, 1995. ISBN 978-5-86789-023-0 Page 126
[309] Freemasons for Dummies, by Christopher Hodapp, Wiley
Publishing Inc., Indianapolis, 2005, page 85, sec. Hitler [322] Emilio De Diego Garica. El drama yugoslavo: Europa
and the Nazis
entre los siglos XIX y XXI?" (PDF). Universidad Complutense de Madrid. Archived from the original (PDF) on
[310] The number of Slovenes estimated to have died as a re19 February 2009. Retrieved 21 June 2010.
sult of the Nazi occupation (not including those killed
by Slovene collaboration forces and other Nazi allies) [323] Helen Fein (1979). Accounting for Genocide: National
is estimated between 20,000 and 25,000 people. This
Response and Jewish Victimization During the Holocaust.
number only includes civilians: Slovene partisan POWs
Free Press. pp. 79, 105. ISBN 978-0-02-910220-6.
who died and resistance ghters killed in action are not
included (their number is estimated at 27,000). These [324] Robins & Jones 2009, p. 106.

43

[325] US Holocaust Museum, USHMM. Jasenovac. US Holocaust Museum.

IPN [CRIMES OF THE PAST Studies and materials of the

IPN prosecutors] (PDF) (in Polish). 2. Warsaw: The Institute of National Remembrance. pp. 3449.

[326] Yad Vashem Holocaust Museum and Research Center,

Yad Vashem. Independent State of Croatia (PDF). Yad [340] Polish MPs adopt resolution calling 1940s massacre
Vashem.
genocide. Radio Poland. 22 July 2016.
[327] Samuel Totten; William S. Parsons (1997). Century of [341] See History of the Holocaust: a Handbook and a Dictiogenocide: critical essays and eyewitness accounts. Routnary, Edelheit, Edelheit & Edelheit, p.458, Free Press,
ledge. p. 430. ISBN 0-203-89043-4. Retrieved 11 Jan1995
uary 2011.
[342] Niewyk & Nicosia 2000, p. 47.
[328] Redi, Enver (2005). Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Second World War. New York: Tylor and Francis. p. 84. [343] Berenbaum 2005, p. 126.
ISBN 0714656259.
[344] Re. Holocaust Victim Assets Litigation (Swiss Banks)
Special Masters Proposals (PDF). U.S. District Court [329] Maria Wardzyska (2009). By rok 1939. Operacja
Eastern New York. 11 September 2000. Archived from
niemieckiej policji bezpieczestwa w Polsce. Intelligenzathe original (PDF) on 16 May 2012. Retrieved 29 January
ktion [The year was 1939. Operation of German security
2013.
police in Poland. Intelligenzaktion] (PDF le, direct download 2.56 MB) (in Polish). Portal edukacyjny Instytutu
Pamici Narodowej. pp. 1/356. ISBN 978-83-7629-063- [345] Gilbert, Martin (2002). The Routledge Atlas of the Holocaust. Routledge, London & New York. ISBN 0-4158. Oblicza si, e akcja Inteligencja pochona ponad
28145-8. (ref Map 182 p 141 with Romani deaths by
100 tys. oar. Translation: It is estimated that Intelligencountry & Map 301 p 232) Note: formerly The Dent Atlas
zaktion took the lives of 100,000 Poles [pg. 8, or pg. 10
of the Holocaust; 1982, 1993.
in PDF].
[330] International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg, Nazi Con- [346] Hancock, Ian. Jewish Responses to the Porajmos (The
Romani Holocaust), Center for Holocaust and Genocide
spiracy and Aggression, Oce of the United States Chief
Studies, University of Minnesota.
of Counsel For Prosecution of Axis Criminality. Nuremberg 1946. Chapter XIII. Germanization and Spoliation,
[347] Burleigh & Wippermann 1991, p. 69.
mindspring.com; accessed 20 November 2016.
[348] Lifton 2000, p. 142.
[331] Richard C. Lukas, Forgotten Holocaust, p. 8; ISBN 0-78180528-7.
[349] Neugebauer 1998.
[332] Headland, Ronald (1992). Messages of Murder: A Study [350] J Tithonus Pednaud (2008). The Ovitz Family Nazi Exof the Reports of the Einsatzgruppen of the Security Police
periments. Thehumanmarvels.com. Archived from the
and the Security Service, 1941-1943. Fairleigh Dickinson
original on 16 January 2013. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
University Press. p. 94. ISBN 978-0-8386-3418-9. Re[351] Strous 2007.
trieved 21 November 2016.
[333] Tadeusz Piotrowski, Polands holocaust. Published by [352]
McFarland. Page 247
[353]
[334] Wadysaw Filar, Wydarzenia woyskie 19391944.
Wydawnictwo Adam Marszaek. Toru 2008 ISBN 978- [354]
83-7441-884-3

Lifton 2000, p. 95.

Sereny 1995, pp. 4849.
Jrgen Weber, Germany, 19451990: A Parallel History,
Central European University Press, 2004, p.2, ISBN 9639241-70-9

[335] Grzegorz Motyka, Od rzezi woyskiej do akcji Wisa.

Konikt polsko-ukraiski 1943 1947. Krakw 2011, [355] Arie Marcelo Kacowicz, Pawel Lutomski, Population resettlement in international conicts: a comparative study,
p.447
Lexington Books, 2007, p.100, ISBN 978-0739116074:
[336] Timothy Snyder, Rekonstrukcja narodw.
Polska,
"... largest movement of European people in modern hisUkraina, Litwa, Biaoru 15691999, Sejny 2009, p.196
tory
[337] Gibney & Hansen 2005, p. 204.

[356] Peter H. Schuck, Rainer Mnz, Paths to Inclusion: The

Integration of Migrants in the United States and Germany,
[338] Uchwala Sejmu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 15 lipca
Berghahn Books, 1997, p.156, ISBN 1-57181-092-7
2009 r. w sprawie tragicznego losu Polakow na Kresach
Wschodnich. Biuro Prasowe Kancelarii Sejmu. Re- [357] Frank 2008.
trieved 17 August 2011.
[358] Europe and German unication, Renata Fritsch-Bournazel
[339] Zajc, Piotr (2008). Persecution of Polish ethnics in the
page 77, Berg Publishers 1992
area of Volyn in 1939-1945 - criminal law assessment of
events based on the ndings of investigations OKZpNP [359] Osmaczyk, Edmund Jan (2003). Encyclopedia of the
ZBRODNIE
in Lublin.
In Ignatiew, Radosaw.
United Nations and international agreements. Routledge.
PRZESZOCI Opracowania i materiay prokuratorw
p. 656. ISBN 0-415-93924-0.

44

6 NOTES
Naimark, Norman M. (2001). Fires of hatred: eth- [370] Dr Crispin Bates (2011-03-03). The Hidden Story of
nic cleansing in twentieth-century Europe. Harvard
Partition and its Legacies. BBC. Retrieved 2014-08-16.
University Press. pp. 15, 112. 121, 136. ISBN
[371] Bharadwaj, Prasant; Khwaja, Asim; Mian, Atif (August
0-674-00994-0.
30, 2008). The Big March: Migratory Flows after the
Curp, T. David (2006). A clean sweep?: the politics
Partition of India (PDF). Economic & Political Weekly:
of ethnic cleansing in western Poland, 19451960.
43. Retrieved 2016-01-16.
University of Rochester Press. p. 200. ISBN 158046-238-3.
[372] Bharadwaj, Prasant; Khwaja, Asim; Mian, Atif (August
30, 2008). The Big March: Migratory Flows after the
Cordell, Karl (1999). Ethnicity and democratisation
Partition of India (PDF). Economic & Political Weekly:
in the new Europe. Routledge. p. 175. ISBN 043. Retrieved 16/01/2016
415-17312-4.
Diner, Dan; Gross, Raphael; Weiss, Yfaat (2006). [373] Dalrymple, William (2015-06-29). The Great Divide.
Jdische Geschichte als allgemeine Geschichte. VanThe New Yorker. ISSN 0028-792X. Retrieved 2016-03denhoeck & Ruprecht. p. 163. ISBN 3-52519.
36288-9.
Gibney, Matthew J. (2005). Immigration and asy- [374] Bhavnani, Nandita (2014). The Making of Exile: Sindhi
Hindus and the Partition of India. Westland. ISBN 978lum: from 1900 to the present, Volume 3. ABC93-84030-33-9.
CLIO. p. 196. ISBN 1-57607-796-9.

[360] Glassheim, Eagle (2001). Ther, Philipp; Siljak, Ana, eds. [375] Markovits, Claude (2000). The Global World of Indian
Merchants, 17501947. Cambridge University Press. p.
Redrawing nations: ethnic cleansing in East-Central Eu278. ISBN 0-521-62285-9.
rope, 19441948. Harvard Cold War studies book series.
Rowman & Littleeld. p. 197. ISBN 0-7425-1094-8.
[376] Zamindar, Vazira Fazila-Yacoobali (2010). The Long
Partition and the Making of Modern South Asia: Refugees,
Shaw, Martin (2007). What is genocide?. Polity. p.
Boundaries, Histories. Columbia University Press. p. 247.
56. ISBN 0-7456-3182-7.
ISBN 978-0-231-13847-5.
[361] Totten, Paul; Bartrop; Jacobs, Steven L (2008). Dictionary of genocide, Volume 2. Greenwood Publishing [377] Sharma, Bulbul (2013). Muslims In Indian Cities. HarperCollins Publishers India. ISBN 978-93-5029-555-7.
Group. ISBN 0-313-34644-5.
Frank 2008, p. 5

[378] Manne, Robert The cruelty of denial, The Age, 9

September 2006

[362] Shaw, Martin (2007). What is genocide?. Polity. ISBN

[379] A Stolen Generation Cries Out. Reuters. May 1997.
0-7456-3182-7. pp. 56,60,61

[23]

[380] Parsons, Timothy (2003). The 1964 Army Mutinies and

the Making of Modern East Africa. Greenwood Publishing
[363] European Court of Human Rights Jorgic v. Germany
Group. p. 107. ISBN 0-325-07068-7.
Judgment, 12 July 2007. 47 Archived 15 January 2016
at the Wayback Machine.
[381] Conley, Robert (19 January 1964). Nationalism Is
Viewed as Camouage for Reds. New York Times. p.
[364] Jescheck, Hans-Heinrich (1995). Encyclopedia of Public
1. Retrieved 16 November 2008.
International Law. ISBN 978-90-04-14280-0.
[382] Slaughter in Zanzibar of Asians, Arabs Told. Los An[365] Ermacora, Felix (1991). Gutachten Ermacora 1991
geles Times. 20 January 1964. p. 4. Retrieved 2 March
(PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-05-16.
2016. (subscription required (help)).
[366] The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan by
[383] Plekhanov 2004, p. 91.
Yasmin Khan
[384] Sheri & Ferguson 1991, p. 241.
[367] Brass, Paul R. (2003).
The partition of India
and retributive genocide in the Punjab, 1946-47: [385] Jacopetti, Gualtiero (Director). (1970)
Means, methods, and purposes (PDF). Journal of
Genocide Research.
Routledge.
5 (1): 71101. [386] Speller 2007, p. 7.
doi:10.1080/14623520305657. Retrieved 18 April 2016.
[387] Israel W. Charny. Encyclopedia of Genocide, ABC[368] Visweswaran, Kamala (2011). Perspectives on Modern
CLIO, 1999 ISBN 978-0-87436-928-1 Genocides in hisSouth Asia: A Reader in Culture, History, and Representory at Google Books cites Genocide:Its Political Use in the
tation. John Wiley & Sons. p. 123. ISBN 978-1-405120th Century, London: Penguin Books, 1981; New Haven,
0062-5. Retrieved 18 April 2016.
Connecticut:Yale University Press 1982.
[369] Menon, Ritu; Bhasin, Kamla (1998). Borders & Bound- [388] Horne, Alistair. A Savage War of Peace. p. 537. ISBN
aries: Women in Indias Partition. Rutgers University
0-670-61964-7.
Press. p. 99. ISBN 978-0-8135-2552-5. Retrieved 18
April 2016.
[389] Frey 2009, p. 83.

45

[390] Etcheson 2005, p. 119.

[391] Heuveline 1998, pp. 49-65.
[392] Mayersan 2013, p. 182.

[411] Obermeyer, Ziad, et al., Fifty years of violent war deaths

from Vietnam to Bosnia: analysis of data from the world
health survey programme, British Medical Jornal, June
2008.

[412] Raymond Faisal Solaiman v Peoples Republic of

Bangladesh & Ors. Federal Magistrates Court of Australia at Sydney (Press release). Federal Court of Aus[394] Kakar, M. Hassan Berkeley: University of Califortralia. 20 September 2006. Archived from the original on
nia Press, c1995 1995. http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/
14 December 2009.
ft7b69p12h/
[393] Etcheson 2005, p. 114.

[395] Genocide and the Soviet Occupation of Afghanistan [413] This judgement can be found via the Federal Court of
Australia home page Archived 3 September 2007 at the
(PDF).
Wayback Machine. by following the links and using
SYG/2672/2006 as the key for the database
[396] Chowdhury, Abdul Mumin (1996). Behind the Myth of
Three Million (PDF). London: Hamidur Rahman Al-Hilal
[414] Michael Bowen; Gary Freeman; Kay Miller (1973).
Publishers LTD. p. 16.
Passing by: The United States and Genocide in Burundi,
1972. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
[397] Press conference by members of the Guatemala Historical Clarication Commission, United Nations website, 1
[415] International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi: Final
March 1999
Report Source Name: United Nations Security Council,
S/1996/682; received from Ambassador Thomas Ndiku Sta. Guatemala 'genocide' probe blames state,
mana, Burundi Ambassador to the United States, Date reBBC, 25 February 1999.
ceived: 7 June 2002. Paragraph 496.
[398] Comisin para el Esclarecimiento Histrico: Agudizacin
1999.
[416] Action Against Hunger stops its activities in North Korea. ReliefWeb. 10 March 2000. Retrieved 15 February
[399] The Secrets in Guatemalas Bones. The New York Times.
2016.
June 30, 2016.
[417] Robert Park (20 April 2011). When will we stop the
[400] Asociacin Americana para el Avance de la Ciencia 1999.
genocide in North Korea?". Washington Post. Retrieved
15 February 2016.
[401] Guatemalan Army Waged 'Genocide,' New Report Finds.
The New York Times. February 26, 1999.
[418] Robert Park (27 September 2011). North Korea and
the Genocide Movement. Harvard International Review.
[402] Yoch, James M. Jr (8 July 2006). Spain judge charges exRetrieved 16 February 2016.
generals in Guatemala genocide case. jurist.law.pitt.edu.
Archived from the original on 6 March 2010.
[419] Park, Robert, The Case for Genocide in North Korea,
The Korea Herald, 8 February 2012.
[403] Castillo, Mariano (13 May 2013). Guatemalas Rios
Montt guilty of genocide. CNN. Retrieved 17 May 2013. [420] Francisco Macias Nguema. dictatorofthemonth.com.
[404] McDonald, Mike (21 May 2013). Guatemalas top court
annuls Ros Montt genocide conviction. Reuters. Retrieved 26 March 2016.
[405]
[406]

[407]

[408]

December 2001. Archived from the original on 28 March

2005.

[421] Sengupta, Kim (11 May 2007). Coup plotter faces life
in Africas most notorious jail. The Independent.
Ros Montt genocide case collapses. The Guardian.
Wansell, Georey (18 May 2007). True hell on earth:
London. 20 May 2013.
Simon Mann faces imprisonment in the cruellest jail on
the planet. The Daily Mail. Retrieved 17 April 2016.
Guatemala Rios Montt genocide trial to resume in 2015.
BBC News. 6 November 2013. Retrieved 6 November
[422] Anthony Daniels (29 August 2004). If you think
2013.
this ones bad you should have seen his uncle. Telegraph.co.uk. Archived from the original on 24 November
Eighteen Months After Initial Conviction, Historic
2005.
Guatemalan Genocide Trial Reopens but is Ultimately
Suspended. www.ijmonitor.org. Retrieved 2015-07-08.
[423] Chinese President Meets Equatorial Guinean President.
Peoples Daily Online. Beijing, China. 20 November
Guatemala: Ex-ruler Rios Montt found unt for trial
2001.
BBC News. Retrieved 2015-07-08.

[409] Payaslian, Simon. 20th Century Genocides. Oxford [424] John B. Quigley (2006) The Genocide Convention: An International Law Analysis, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd, ISBN
bibliographies.
0-7546-4730-7. Genocides in history at Google Books
[410] Sharlach, Lisa (2010). Rape as Genocide: Bangladesh,
Equatorial Guinea. Encyclopedia of the Nations.
the Former Yugoslavia, and Rwanda. New Political SciThomson Corporation. 2006.
ence. 22 (1). doi:10.1080/713687893.

46

6 NOTES

[425] John B. Quigley (2006) The Genocide Convention: An In- [440] The Look of Silence": Will New Film Force U.S.
ternational Law Analysis, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd, ISBN
to Acknowledge Role in 1965 Indonesian Genocide?
0-7546-4730-7. Genocides in history at Google Books
Democracy Now! 3 August 2015.
[426] Gellately, Robert; Kiernan, Ben (July 2003). The Specter [441] Michael Atkinson (16 July 2015). A Quiet Return to the
of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective.
Killing Fields of Indonesia. In These Times. Retrieved 3
Cambridge University Press. pp. 290291. ISBN
August 2015.
0521527503. Retrieved 17 August 2015.
[442] Gawler, Virginia (19 August 2005). Report claims secret
[427] Cribb, Robert; Kahin, Audrey (15 September 2004). Hisgenocide in Indonesia. University of Sydney. Retrieved
torical Dictionary of Indonesia. Scarecrow Press. p. 264.
27 March 2016.
ISBN 978-0810849358.
[428] Mark Aarons (2007). "Justice Betrayed: Post-1945 Re- [443] Brundige, Elizabeth; King, Winter; Vahali, Priyneha;
Vladeck, Stephen; Yuan, Xiang (April 2004).
sponses to Genocide. In David A. Blumenthal and TimIndonesian Human Rights Abuses in West Papua:
othy L. H. McCormack (eds). The Legacy of Nuremberg:
Application of the Law of Genocide to the History of
Civilising Inuence or Institutionalised Vengeance? (InterIndonesian Control (PDF). Yale Law School. Archived
national Humanitarian Law). Martinus Nijho Publishfrom the original (PDF) on 27 February 2009.
ers. ISBN 9004156917 p. 80.
[429] Robert Cribb (2004). "The Indonesian Genocide of 1965- [444] Wing, John; King, Peter (August 2005). Genocide in West
Papua?: The role of the Indonesian state apparatus and
1966. In Samuel Totten (ed). Teaching about Genocide:
a current needs assessment of the Papuan people (PDF).
Approaches, and Resources. Information Age Publishing,
Sydney: West Papua Project. ISBN 0-9752391-7-1. Repp. 133-143. ISBN 159311074X
trieved 27 March 2016.
[430] Joshua Oppenheimer. Suhartos Purge, Indonesias Silence. The New York Times. September 29, 2015.
[445] Powell, Sian (19 January 2006). UN verdict on East
Timor. The Australian. Yale University Genocide Stud[431] Brad Simpson (Winter 2013). The Act of Killing and the
ies Program. Archived from the original on 12 May 2006.
Dilemmas of History. Film Quarterly. Vol. 67, No. 2,
pp. 1013. Published by: University of California Press. [446] Benetech Human Rights Data Analysis Group (9 FebruRetrieved 3 August 2015.
ary 2006). The Prole of Human Rights Violations in
Timor-Leste, 19741999. A Report to the Commission on
[432] Siahaan, Armando (17 June 2009). Historian Claims
Reception, Truth and Reconciliation of Timor-Leste. HuWest Backed Post-Coup Mass Killings in '65. The
man Rights Data Analysis Group (HRDAG). Archived
Jakarta Globe. Archived from the original on 20 August
from the original on 22 February 2012.
2012. Retrieved 3 August 2015.
[433] Simpson, Bradley. Economists with Guns: Authoritarian [447] Nunes, Joe (1996). East Timor: Acceptable Slaughters.
The architecture of modern political power.
Development and U.S.-Indonesian Relations, 19601968.
Stanford University Press, 2010. p. 1. ISBN 0804771820
[448] Kiernam, Ben (15 July 2003). War, Genocide, and Resistance in East Timor, 197599: Comparative Reec[434] Accomplices in Atrocity. The Indonesian killings of
tions on Cambodia (PDF). yale.edu. p. 202. Archived
1965 (transcript). Australian Broadcasting Corporation,
from the original (PDF) on 20 September 2006.
7 September 2008
See Kiernans footnotes on pages 174175: clearly meet
[435] Kai Thaler (December 2, 2015). 50 years ago today,
a range of sociological denitions of genocide... Leo
American diplomats endorsed mass killings in Indonesia.
Kuper, Genocide (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University
Heres what that means for today. The Washington Post.
Press, 1981)
Retrieved December 2, 2015.
[449] George Fink (2010). Stress of War, Conict and Disas[436] Ex-agents say CIA compiled death lists for Indonesians
ter. Academic Press. p. 292. ISBN 978-0-12-381382-4.
San Francisco Examiner, 20 May 1990. Retrieved 8
Retrieved 14 February 2016.
September 2015.
[437] U.S. Seeks to Keep Lid on Far East Purge Role. The As- [450] R.J. Rummel (1997). Statistics Of Pakistans Democide Estimates, Calculations, And Sources. University
sociated Press via The Los Angeles Times, 28 July 2001.
of Hawai'i. Retrieved 13 February 2016.
Retrieved 8 September 2015.
[438] Bellamy, Alex J. (2012). Massacres and Morality: Mass [451] Jones, Adam (2010). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Routledge. p. 231. ISBN 978-0415486194.
Atrocities in an Age of Civilian Immunity. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-928842-9. p. 210.
[452] D'Costa, Bina (2010). Nationbuilding, Gender and War
[439] Mark Aarons (2007). "Justice Betrayed: Post-1945 ReCrimes in South Asia. Routledge. p. 103. ISBN 978sponses to Genocide. In David A. Blumenthal and Tim0415565660.
othy L. H. McCormack (eds). The Legacy of Nuremberg:
Civilising Inuence or Institutionalised Vengeance? (Inter- [453] Gerlach, Christian (2010). Extremely Violent Societies:
national Humanitarian Law). Martinus Nijho PublishMass Violence in the Twentieth-Century World (1st ed.).
ers. ISBN 9004156917 p. 81.
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-70681-0.

47

[454] Bennett Jones, Owen (2003). Pakistan: Eye of the Storm [475] Ex-Ethiopian dictator guilty of genocide. UPI.com. 13
(2nd revised ed.). Yale University Press. p. 171. ISBN
December 2006. Retrieved 2014-03-11.
978-0-300-10147-8.
[476] Tsegaye Tadesse (13 December 2006). "'Butcher of Ad[455] Massacre of Biharis in Bangladesh. The Age. 15 March
dis Ababa' is guilty of genocide with torture regime. The
1972. Retrieved 2013-06-04.
Scotsman. Archived from the original on 6 January 2008.
[456] Siddiqi, Abdul Rahman (2005). East Pakistan: The [477] The World Was Going Our Way: The KGB and the BatEndgame: An Onlookers Journal 19691971. Oxford
tle for the Third World by Christopher Andrew and Vasili
University Press. p. 171. ISBN 978-0195799934.
Mitrokhin, pg 457
[457] Chronology for Biharis in Bangladesh. The Minorities
at Risk (MAR) Project. Retrieved 27 March 2013.

US admits helping Mengistu escape BBC, 22 December 1999

[458] Statistics Of Pakistan'S Democide. Hawaii.edu. Retrieved 2013-07-31.

Talk of the Devil: Encounters with Seven Dictators

by Riccardo Orizio, pg 151

[459] Gray 1994.

[460] O'Brien 2004.
[461] Mey 1984.
[462] Moshin 2003.
[463] Roy 2000.
[464] Chakma & Hill 2013.

[478] Guilty of genocide: the leader who unleashed a 'Red Terror' on Africa by Jonathan Clayton, The Times Online, 13
December 2006
[479] Penketh, Anne (24 December 2005). Dutch court says
gassing of Iraqi Kurds was 'genocide'". The Independent.
Retrieved 17 April 2015.
[480] Dutch man sentenced for role in gassing death of Kurds.
CBC News. 23 December 2005. Retrieved 17 April 2016.

[465] McEvoy, Mark (3 April 2014). Chittagong Hill Tracts [481] Robert Fisk, The Great War for Civilisation, Harper, London 2005, p.844
of Bangladesh rapists act with impunity. Survival International The movement for tribal peoples.
[482] ,The Mesopotamian Marshlands: Demise of an Ecosystem UNEP, p. 44
[466] Fundamental Principles of State Policy: Secularism and
freedom of religion (Substituted for the former article 12
by the Constitution (Fifteenth Amendment) Act, 2011 [483] Iraqs Marsh Arabs, Modern Sumerians - The Oregonian,
May 14, 2003
(Act XIV of 2011), section 11)". Bangladesh Legislative and Parliamentary Aairs Division Ministry of Law, [484] Cole, p.13
Justice and Parliamentary Aairs. 2011. Retrieved 13
February 2016.
[485] United Nations Treaty Collection: Chapter IV Human
Rights: 1. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
[467] Beachler, Donald (2007-12-01).
The politics of
of the Crime of Genocide. treaties.un.org. Archived
genocide scholarship:
the case of Bangladesh.
from the original on 7 September 2015. Retrieved 28
Patterns of Prejudice.
41 (5):
467492.
September 2015.
doi:10.1080/00313220701657286. ISSN 0031-322X.
[486] Iraqi push to complete strategic 'Third River'". Retrieved
[468] Naomi Klein. The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster
2015-09-28.
Capitalism, Macmillan, 2007 ISBN 978-0-8050-7983-8.
Genocides in history at Google Books
[487] Tibet - Summary of a Report on Tibet: Submitted to
the International Commission of Jurists by Shri Purshot[469] Ethiopian Dictator Sentenced to Prison by Les Neuhaus,
tam Trikamdas, Senior Advocate, Supreme Court of InThe Associated Press, 11 January 2007
dia. International Commission of Jurists. 5 June 1959.
Archived from the original on 27 September 2007.
[470] Mengistu is handed life sentence BBC, 11 January 2007
[471] Mengistu found guilty of genocide. BBC News. 12 De- [488] Sautman, Barry (October 2006). Colonialism, genocide, and Tibet. Asian Ethnicity. 7 (3): 243265.
cember 2006. Retrieved 15 February 2016.
doi:10.1080/14631360600926949.
[472] Ethiopian leader guilty of genocide. TVNZ. Reuters.
13 December 2006. Archived from the original on 14 [489] Melvyn Goldstein; William Siebenschuh; Tashi Tsering
(21 February 1997). The Struggle for Modern Tibet: The
November 2007.
Autobiography of Tashi Tsering. M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 978[473] Court sentences Major Melaku Tefera to death.
0-7656-3178-7.
Ethiopian Reporter. 10 December 2005. Archived from
Melvyn C. Goldstein; Gelek Rimpoche (1 January
the original on 28 September 2007.
1989). A History of Modern Tibet, 19131951: The
[474] Hibbitts, Bernard (13 December 2006). No Zimbabwe
Demise of the Lamaist State. University of Califorextradition of Mengistu after Ethiopia genocide convicnia Press. ISBN 978-0-520-06140-8.
tion. University of Pittsburgh legal news. Archived from
the original on 12 January 2008.
[490] CTA: Chinese Government Covering Up Dark Facts

48

6 NOTES
BBC News Tibet country prole Overview

[491]

[492]

[493]
[494]

[495]

[496]

[497]

[498]

[506] Catherine L. Besteman, Genocide in Somalias Jubba

Valley and Somali Bantu Refugees in the U.S 9 April
David White (2002). Himalayan Tragedy: The Story of
2007 Accessed 25 January 2011
Tibets Panchen Lamas. Tibet Society of the UK. p. 98.
[507] Recurring Nightmare (PDF). Human Rights Watch.
ISBN 978-0-9542179-0-7.
March 2008. p. 16.
Patrick French (22 March 2008). He May Be a God, but
Factual Supplement to the Report to Congress on
Hes No Politician. The New York Times. Retrieved 13
Measures Taken by the Government of Sri Lanka
February 2016.
and International Bodies To Investigate and Hold
Accountable Violators of International HumanitarJones 2010, pp. 9596.
ian and Human Rights Law. United States DepartA. Tom Grunfeld (1996). The Making of Modern Tibet.
ment of State. 4 April 2012.
M.E. Sharpe. p. 247. ISBN 978-0-7656-3455-9. Re[508] Report of the Secretary-Generals Panel of Experts on Actrieved 14 February 2016.
countability in Sri Lanka (PDF). United Nations. 31
March 2011.
BBC News Spain probes Hu Jintao 'genocide' in Tibet court case. Bbc.co.uk. 11 October 2013. Retrieved
[509] Tamil Genocide in Sri Lanka, Clearly 90% are Hin2014-03-11.
dus". Struggle for Hindu Existence.org. 16 March 2012.
Archived from the original on 27 January 2013. Retrieved
Spain drops 'genocide' case against Chinas Tibet lead13 February 2016.
ers. Bbc.com. 24 June 2014. Retrieved 13 February
2016.
[510] Alex Spillius; Emanuel Stoakes (18 December 2011).
Sri Lankan army commanders 'assassinated surrendering
Brazilian Justice Acquits Man Sentenced for 1988 MasTamils". The Daily Telegraph. London.
sacre of Indians. Brazzil Magazine. 12 November 2004.
Archived from the original on 9 February 2005.
[511] Leading Sri Lanka Tamil Politician Claims 'Genocide' by
Military. Voice of America. 12 May 2009.
Eamonn McCann. Longing for a saviour Belfast TeleGopalan, T. N. (12 January 2009). TNA team in India.
graph, 24 May 2007
BBC Sinhala. Retrieved 27 March 2016.
Top ocials accused of genocide of Indians,
[512] Allard, Tom (15 October 2009). Tamil boat people eeSurvival International, 13 December 2005
ing 'genocide'". The Sydney Morning Herald.

[499] Supreme Court upholds genocide ruling. Survival Inter[513] Haviland, Charles (6 April 2011). US calls for 'accountnational. 4 August 2006. Retrieved 10 April 2016.
ability' in Sri Lankas war. BBC Sinhala. Archived from
the original on 8 January 2016.
[500] Federal Court is competent to judge the Haximu geno-

[501]

[502]
[503]
[504]

cide. Cimi Indianist Missionary Council. 7 August

[514] Surendiran, Suren (21 April 2009). Britain and the
2006. Archived from the original on 9 July 2007.
slaughter of the Tamils. The Guardian. London. Retrieved 27 March 2016.
Jonathan Clayton (16 December 2004). Pygmies struggle to survive in war zone where abuse is routine. [515] Taylor, Lesley Ciarula (31 January 2009). Thousands
TimesOnline.com. Archived from the original on 25 May
protest Tamil 'genocide'". Toronto Star.
2010.
Thousands march for Tamil rights. BBC News. 20
DR Congo pygmies appeal to UN. BBC News. 23 May
June 2009.
2003. Retrieved 15 February 2016.
[516] About TAG. Tamils Against Genocide.
DR Congo pygmies 'exterminated'". BBC News. 6 July
[517] War Crimes, Genocide Case Filed in Norway Courts.
2004. Retrieved 15 February 2016.
The Sunday Leader. 15 May 2011.
Africa: Pygmy rights and continued discrimination.
War crime, genocide case against Rajapaksa
irinnews.org. Archived from the original on 17 Novemplaced in Norway courts. TamilNet. 8 May 2011.
ber 2008.
Peta, Basildon (9 January 2003). Rebels 'eating Pygmies
[518] Parties condemn genocide of Sri Lankan Tamils"". The
as mass slaughter continues in Congo despite peace agreeHindu. Chennai, India. 23 December 2006.
ment. Beni, Congo: The Independent. Archived from
the original on 22 April 2008.
CPI to protest Lanka violence. BBC Sinhala. 29

September 2008.
[505] Delany, Max (27 August 2010). Rwanda dismisses UN
report detailing possible Hutu genocide in Congo. The [519] Stop genocide of Sri Lankan Tamils. The Hindu. ChenChristian Science Monitor. Retrieved 10 April 2016.
nai, India. 6 October 2008.
Rwandas Kagame rejects as 'absurd' genocide asser Gopalan, T. N. (5 October 2008). Send telegrams
tions. CNN. 17 September 2010. Retrieved 10 April
2016.
to Delhi -CM. BBC Sinhala.

49

[520]
[521]
[522]
[523]
[524]
[525]
[526]
[527]
[528]

[529]
[530]
[531]

Help stop genocide, Karunanidhi tells Sonia. The [536] Williams, Daniel. Srebrenica Video Vindicates Long
Hindu. Chennai, India. 10 April 2009.
Pursuit by Serb Activist. The Washington Post. Retrieved
26 May 2011.
Summon Mahinda to international court- Jayalalitha.
BBC Sinhala. 13 May 2011.
[537] ICTY Kordic and Cerkez Judgement 3. After the
Conict (PDF). Retrieved 11 July 2012.
Womens conference in Tamil Nadu terms oppression of
Eezham Tamils as genocide. TamilNet. 11 August 2012. [538] Norman M. Naimark (2011). Memories of Mass Repression: Narrating Life Stories in the Aftermath of Atrocity.
Peoples Tribunal on Sri Lanka (PDF). Permanent PeoTransaction Publishers. Retrieved 4 August 2013., p. 3.
ples Tribunal.
Greece faces shame of role in Serb massacre. The
Sri Lanka 'guilty' of war crimes. BBC Sinhala. 17 JanGuardian. 5 January 2013.
uary 2010.
[539] The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former YuVerdict. Ptsrilanka.org. Retrieved 2014-03-11.
goslavia found in Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic Trial
Chamber I Judgment IT-98-33 (2001) ICTY8 (2 AuDublin tribunal takes up genocide investigation.
gust 2001) that genocide had been committed. (see paraTamilNet. 3 November 2012.
graph 560 for name of group in English on whom the
Sri Lankan camps breach convention against genocide.
genocide was committed). The judgement was upheld in
ABC News. 7 June 2009.
Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic Appeals Chamber Judgment IT-98-33 (2004) ICTY 7 (19 April 2004)
Tamil Province charges Colombo with genocide. The
Hindu. 11 February 2015.
[540] Max, Arthur (26 February 2007). Court: Serbia failed
to prevent genocide. The San Francisco Chronicle. AsNPC passes resolution asking UN to investigate genosociated Press. Archived from the original on 10 August
cide of Tamils by Sri Lanka state. Tamil Guardian. 10
2007.
February 2015.
[541] HNPG 036P (or 033T) History: Bosnian Genocide In the
Sri Lanka 'counting civilian war deaths". BBC News. 24
Historical Perspective. University of California RiverNovember 2011.
side. 2003. Archived from the original on 16 May 2007.
Winter 2007 Honors Courses. University of California
Burma United to End Genocide. Retrieved 2015-10Riverside. 2007. Archived from the original on 10 Au07.
gust 2007.
Winter 2008 Honors Courses. University of California
York, Agence France-Presse in New. Muslim groups
Riverside. 2007. Archived from the original on 29 Octosue Myanmar president for Rohingya 'genocide'". the
ber 2007.
Guardian. Retrieved 2015-10-07.

[532] Srebrenica-Potoari: spomen obiljeje i mezarje za rtve [542] Milosevic to Face Bosnian Genocide Charges. Human
genocida iz 1995 godine. Liste rtava prema prezimenu
Rights Watch. 11 December 2001. Retrieved 10 April
[Srebrenica-Potocari: Memorial and Cemetery for the
2016.
victims of the genocide of 1995. Lists of victims by surname] (in Bosnian). 1995. Archived from the original on [543] Seven convicted over 1995 Srebrenica massacre. CNN.
10 June 2010.
18 April 2014.
[533] ICTY: The Conicts. International Criminal Tribunal
for the former Yugoslavia. Retrieved 5 August 2013.
Kirsten Nakjavani Bookmiller (2008). The United
Nations. Infobase Publishing. Retrieved 4 August
2013., p. 81.
Christopher Paul, Colin P. Clarke, Beth Grill
(2010). Victory Has a Thousand Fathers: Sources
of Success in Counterinsurgency. Rand Corporation.
Retrieved 4 August 2013., p. 25.
[544]
Simons, Marlise (31 May 2011). Mladic Arrives
in The Hague. The New York Times.
[545]
[534] UN Press Release SG/SM/9993UN, 11/07/2005
Secretary-General Ko Annans message to the ceremony marking the tenth anniversary of the Srebrenica
massacre in Potocari-Srebrenica. Retrieved 9 August
2010.

Life for Bosnian Serbs over genocide at Srebrenica. BBC News. 10 June 2010.
Charter, David (10 June 2010). Hague court sentences Bosnian Serbs to life for Srebrenica genocide. London: Times Online.
Watereld, Bruno (10 June 2010). Bosnian Serbs
convicted of genocide over Srebrenica massacre.
The Telegraph. London.
Novislav Djajic. Trial Watch. 19 June 2013. Retrieved
15 February 2016.
Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic Trial Chamber I
Judgment IT-98-33 (2001) ICTY8 (2 August 2001),
The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, paragraph 589. citing Bavarian Appeals Court,
Novislav Djajic case, 23 May 1997, 3 St 20/96, section
VI, p. 24 of the English translation.

[535] Institute for War and Peace Reporting, Tribunal Update: [546] Oberlandesgericht Dsseldorf, Public Prosecutor v JorBriey Noted (TU No 398, 18 March 2005)
gic, 26 September 1997 (Trial Watch) Nikola Jorgic

50

REFERENCES

ICC: About the court, ICC website.

2009-02-06.

[547] Trial watch Maksim Sokolovic

Retrieved

[548] United Nations International Criminal Tribunal for

Rwanda: Status of Cases. ICTR. Archived from the orig- [562] Witnessing Genocide in Sudan. CBS News. 8 October
2004. Retrieved 10 April 2016.
inal on 13 August 2011.
Racism at root of Sudans Darfur crisis CSMonitor.com
[549] United Nations International Criminal Tribunal for
Humanitarian Intervention in Darfur: A Viable OpRwanda: Status of Cases. ICRT. Archived from the origtion?". Turkishweekly.net. 7 November 2008. Retrieved
inal on 2 December 2012.
2013-09-09.
Encyclopdia Britannica
[550] Marek Sliwinski (1995). Le gnocide khmer rouge: une
Sudan country prole. BBC News. 27 April 2010. Reanalyse dmographique. Harmattan. p. 82. ISBN 978-2trieved 3 May 2010.
7384-3525-5.
[563] Al-Bashir Arrest Warrant Issued By International Crim[551] Sharp, Bruce (1 April 2005). Counting Hell: The Death
inal Court. Hungton Post. 4 March 2009. Archived
Toll of the Khmer Rouge Regime in Cambodia. Refrom the original on 21 February 2010.
trieved 13 January 2013.
The Online NewsHour: Crisis in Sudan | Janjaweed Militia | PBS
[552] Roseelde, Steven (2009). Red Holocaust. Routledge.
ISBN 978-0-415-77757-5.

[564] Powell Declares Killing in Darfur 'Genocide', The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer, 9 September 2004
[553] Resolution adopted by the General Assembly: 57/228
Khmer Rouge trials B1 (PDF). United Nations General [565] Report of the International Commission of Inquiry on
Assembly. 22 May 2003. Archived from the original
Darfur to the United Nations Secretary-General (PDF).
(PDF) on 3 July 2007. Retrieved 11 December 2010.
(1.14 MB), 25 January 2005, at 4
[554] Kevin Doyle (26 July 2007). Putting the Khmer Rouge [566] Security Council Resolution 1593 (2005)" (PDF). (24.8
on Trial. Time. Retrieved 13 February 2016.
KB)
Ian MacKinnon (7 March 2007). Crisis talks to [567] Security Council Refers Situation in Darfur, Sudan, to
save Khmer Rouge trial. The Guardian. Archived
Prosecutor of International Criminal Court, UN Press Refrom the original on 16 November 2007.
lease SC/8351, 31 March 2005
The Khmer Rouge Trial Task Force. Royal Cambodian Government. Archived from the original on [568] Fourth Report of the Prosecutor of the International
Criminal Court, to the Security Council pursuant to
3 April 2005.
UNSC 1593 (2005)" (PDF). (597 KB), Oce of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, 14 December
[555] Buncombe, Andrew (11 October 2011). Judge quits
2006.
Cambodia genocide tribunal. The Independent. London.
[556] Ker Munthit (12 August 2008). Cambodian tribunal in- [569] Statement by Mr. Luis Moreno Ocampo, Prosecutor
of the International Criminal Court, to the United Nadicts Khmer Rouge jailer. USA Today. Associated Press.
tions Security Council pursuant to UNSCR 1593 (2005)"
Retrieved April 2012. Check date values in: |access(PDF). International Criminal Court (ICC). 5 June 2008.
date= (help)
Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 August 2008.
[557] Kaing Guek Eav alias Duch Sentenced to Life Imprisonment by the Supreme Court Chamber. Extraordinary [570] Walker, Peter (14 July 2008). Darfur genocide charges
for Sudanese president Omar al-Bashir. The Guardian.
Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia. 3 February 2012.
London. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
Retrieved April 2012. Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
[571] Sta. Warrant issued for Sudans leader, BBC, 4 March
2009
[558] Case 002. Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of
Cambodia. Retrieved April 2012. Check date values in:
|access-date= (help)
[559] 002/19-09-2007: Closing Order (PDF). Extraordinary
Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia. 15 September
2010. Retrieved April 2012. Check date values in:
|access-date= (help)
[560] 002/19-09-2007: Decision on immediate appeal against
Trial Chambers order to release the accused Ieng Thirith
(PDF). Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia. 13 December 2011. Retrieved April 2012. Check
date values in: |access-date= (help)
[561]

Article 11 of the Rome Statute.

March 2008.

Retrieved 20

7 References
Andreopoulos, George J. (1997). Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions. University of
Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-1616-4.
Asociacin Americana para el Avance de la Ciencia
(1999). Metodologa intermuestra I: introduccin
y resumen. Instrumentes legales y operativos para
el funcionamiento de la Comisin para el Esclarecimiento Histrico (in Spanish). Archived from the
original on 6 May 2013.

51
Braudel, Fernand, The Perspective of the World, vol.
III of Civilization and Capitalism 1984 (in French
1979).

Curthoys, Ann (2008).

A. Dirk Moses, ed.
Genocide in Tasmania. Berghahn Books. ISBN
978-1-84545-452-4.

Bonwick, James (1870). The Last of the Tasmanians; or, The Black War of Van Diemens Land. London: Sampson Low, Son, & Marston.

Diamond, Jared (1993). The Third Chimpanzee:

The Evolution and Future of the Human Animal.
New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-098403-1.

Chakma, Kabita; Hill, Glen (2013). Indigenous Women and Culture in the Colonized Chittagong Hills Tracts of Bangladesh. In Kamala
Visweswaran. Everyday Occupations: Experiencing
Militarism in South Asia and the Middle East. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 132157. ISBN
978-0812244878.

Finnegan, Richard B.; McCarron, Edward (2000).

Ireland: Historical Echoes, Contemporary Politics.
Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-3247-5.

Chalk, Frank; Jonassohn, Kurt (1990). The History

and Sociology of Genocide: Analyses and Case Studies. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-04446-1.
Clarke, Michael Edmund (2004). In the Eye of
Power: China and Xinjiang from the Qing Conquest
to the 'New Great Game' for Central Asia, 1759
2004 (PDF) (Thesis). Grith University, Brisbane:
Dept. of International Business & Asian Studies.
Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-04-10.
Comisin para el Esclarecimiento Histrico:
Agudizacin (1999). Agudizacin de la Violencia y Militarizacin del Estado (19791985)".
Guatemala: memoria del silencio (in Spanish). Programa de Ciencia y Derechos Humanos, Asociacin
Americana del Avance de la Ciencia. Archived
from the original on 6 May 2013. Retrieved 20
September 2014.
Cribb, Robert; Charles Coppel (2009). A genocide that never was: explaining the myth of antiChinese massacres in Indonesia, 196566. Journal of Genocide Research. Taylor & Francis: 447
465. doi:10.1080/14623520903309503. ISSN
1469-9494.
Cooper, Allan D. (3 August 2006). Reparations
for the Herero Genocide: Dening the limits of international litigation. African Aairs. 106 (422):
113126. doi:10.1093/afraf/adl005.
Cronon, William, Changes in the Land: Indians,
Colonists, and the Ecology of New England 1983
ISBN 0-8090-1634-6
Crowe, David M. (2013). War Crimes and Genocide in History. In Crowe, David M. Crimes of State
Past and Present: Government-Sponsored Atrocities
and International Legal Responses. London; New
York: Routledge. ISBN 9781317986812.
Crosby, Alfred W., Ecological Imperialism: The
Biological Expansion of Europe, 9001900, Cambridge University Press, 1986 ISBN 0-521-45690-8

Frank, Matthew James (2008). Expelling the Germans: British opinion and post-1945 population
transfer in context. Oxford historical monographs.
Oxford University Press. p. 5. ISBN 0-19-9233640.
Friedrichsmeyer, Sara; Lennox, Sara; Zantop, Susanne (1998). The Imperialist Imagination: German
Colonialism and Its Legacy. University of Michigan
Press. ISBN 0-472-06682-X.
Glynn, Ian; Glynn, Jenifer (2004). The Life and
Death of Smallpox. New York, NY: Cambridge
University Press.
Gammer, M. (January 2006). The Lone Wolf and
the Bear: Three Centuries of Chechen Deance of
Russian Rule. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN
978-1-85065-748-4.
Gray, Richard A. (1994).
Genocide in the
Chittagong Hill tracts of Bangladesh.
Reference Services Review.
22 (4):
5979.
doi:10.1108/eb049231.
Goble, Paul (15 July 2005). Circassians demand
Russian apology for 19th century genocide. Radio
Free Europe / Radio Liberty. Archived from the
original on 2007-01-05.
Jaimoukha, Amjad (10 November 2004). The
Chechens: A Handbook. Taylor & Francis. ISBN
978-0-203-35643-2.
Jones, Adam (2006). Genocide: A Comprehensive
Introduction. Routledge/Taylor & Francis Publishers,. ISBN 0-415-35385-8. Excerpts Chapter 1:
Genocide in prehistory, antiquity, and early modernity
Kiernan, Ben (2002). Cover-up and Denical of
Genocide: Australia, the USA, East Timor, and
the Aborigines (PDF). Critical Asian Studies. 34
(2): 163192. doi:10.1080/14672710220146197.
Archived from the original (PDF) on 2003-03-16.
(2007). Blood and Soil: A World History of
Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur.
New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 9780-300-10098-3.

52
Kinealy, Christine (1995). This Great Calamity:
The Irish Famine 184552. Gill & Macmillan. p.
357. ISBN 1-57098-034-9.
King, Michael (January 2000). Moriori: A People
Rediscovered. Viking. ISBN 978-0-14-010391-5.
Kopel, Dave; Gallant, Paul; Eisen, Joanne D. (11
April 2003). A Moriori Lesson: a brief history of
pacism. National Review Online. Archived from
the original on 2003-04-11.
Levene, Mark (5 November 2005). Genocide in the
Age of the Nation State: Volume 2: The Rise of the
West and Coming Genocide. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 9781-84511-057-4.
Levene, Mark (2008). Empires, Native Peoples,
and Genocides. In Moses, A. Dirk. Empire,
Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History. Oxford and New
York: Berghahn. pp. 183204. ISBN 1-84545452-9.
Madley, Benjamin (2008). From Terror to Genocide: Britains Tasmanian Penal Colony and Australias History Wars. Journal of British Studies.
47 (1): 77106. doi:10.1086/522350. JSTOR
10.1086/522350.
McCarthy, Justin (1995), Death and Exile: The
Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 18211922,
Darwin
Mey, Wolfgang, ed. (1984). Genocide in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh (PDF). Copenhagen:
International Work Group for Indigenous Aairs
(IWGIA).
Moshin, A. (2003). The Chittagong Hill Tracts,
Bangladesh: On the Dicult Road to Peace. Boulder, Col.: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
Niewyk, Donald L.; Nicosia, Francis R. (2000). The
Columbia Guide to the Holocaust. Columbia University Press. p. 45. The Holocaust is commonly dened as the murder of more than 5,000,000 Jews by
the Germans in World War II.
O'Brien, Sharon (2004). The Chittagong Hill
Tracts. In Dinah Shelton. Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes against Humanity. Macmillan Library Reference. pp. 176177.
Grda, Cormac (2000). Black '47 and Beyond:
The Great Irish Famine in History, Economy, and
Memory. Princeton University Press. p. 10. ISBN
0-691-07015-6.
Olusoga, David; Erichsen, Casper W. (2010). The
Kaisers Holocaust: Germanys Forgotten Genocide
and the Colonial Roots of Nazism. London: Faber
and Faber. ISBN 9780571231416.

REFERENCES

Perdue, Peter C. (2005). China Marches West: The

Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia. Cambridge, MA;
London, ENG: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01684-2.
Robins, Nicholas; Jones, Adam (2009). Genocides
by the Oppressed. Indiana University Press. ISBN
978-0-253-22077-6.
Roy, Rajkumari (2000). Land Rights of the Indigenous Peoples of the Chittagong Hill Tracts,
Bangladesh. Copenhagen: International Work
Group for Indigenous Aairs.
Rubinstein, W. D. (2004). Genocide: A History.
Pearson Education. ISBN 0-582-50601-8.
Rummel, Rudolph J. (1998). Statistics of Democide:
Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900. LIT Verlag
Mnster. ISBN 978-3-8258-4010-5.
Sarkin-Hughes, Jeremy (30 November 2008).
Colonial Genocide and Reparations Claims in the
21st Century: The Socio-Legal Context of Claims under International Law by the Herero against Germany for Genocide in Namibia, 19041908. ABCCLIO. ISBN 978-0-313-36257-6.
Sheri, Abdul; Ferguson, Ed (1991). Zanzibar under colonial rule. J. Currey. ISBN 978-0-82140996-1.
Sommer, Tomasz (2010). Execute the Poles: The
Genocide of Poles in the Soviet Union, 19371938.
Documents from Headquarters. The Polish Review.
55 (4): 417436. JSTOR 27920673.
Speller, Ian (2007), An African Cuba? Britain and
the Zanzibar Revolution, 1964., Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 35 (2): 135
Stannard, David E. (18 November 1993). American
Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World. Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-508557-0.
Tan, Mely G. (2008). Etnis Tionghoa di Indonesia: Kumpulan Tulisan [Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia:
A Collection of Writings] (in Indonesian). Jakarta:
Yayasan Obor Indonesia. ISBN 978-979-461-6895.
van Bruineen, Martin (1994), Genocide in Kurdistan? The suppression of the Dersim rebellion
in Turkey (193738) and the chemical war against
the Iraqi Kurds (1988)", in Andreopoulos, George
J, Conceptual and historical dimensions of genocide
(PDF), University of Pennsylvania Press, pp. 141
70
Vanthemsche, Guy (2012). Belgium and the Congo,
18851980. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 9780521194211.

53
Weisbord, Robert G. (2003). The King, the Cardinal and the Pope: Leopold IIs genocide in the
Congo and the Vatican. Journal of Genocide Research. 5: 3545. doi:10.1080/14623520305651.
Woodham-Smith, Cecil (1964).
The Great
Hunger: Ireland 18451849. Signet: New York:
19.
Wright, Ronald (2004). A Short History of Progress.
Toronto: House of Anansi Press. ISBN 0-88784706-4.

External links
Combat Genocide Association website
Genocide Studies Program, Yale University.
King Leopold II of Belgium

54

9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1

Text

Genocides in history Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocides_in_history?oldid=751481682 Contributors: Szopen, Rmhermen,

Roadrunner, SimonP, Shii, Modemac, Rickyrab, Ericd, Kchishol1970, Llywrch, 172, TakuyaMurata, Greenman, Ahoerstemeier, Daeron,
Darkwind, Jiang, Evercat, TonyClarke, GCarty, RickK, Denni, IceKarma, Zero0000, Joy, Wetman, David.Monniaux, Frazzydee, Hajor, Stargoat, ChrisO~enwiki, Chrism, Fredrik, PBS, Fifelfoo, Goethean, Altenmann, Modulatum, Postdlf, Academic Challenger, Auric, Gidonb, Humus sapiens, Timrollpickering, Mervyn, Hadal, Aetheling, Cautious, Tewdrig, Dina, Dave6, DocWatson42, Nikodemos,
Haeleth, Nadavspi, Bkonrad, NeoJustin, Tom-, Mboverload, Eon, Gzornenplatz, Avala, Tagishsimon, Ragib, Sesel, Quadell, Ran, Antandrus, Beland, MistToys, Josquius, Xtreambar, Comandante, Lxoe, Sam Hocevar, Ttyre, Tkh, Eiel, Neutrality, Burschik, Poo-T~enwiki,
Irpen, The Prince Manifest, Mrdarklight, D6, Jayjg, Simonides, Rich Farmbrough, 2fargon, Shudog, Parishan, EliasAlucard, Kostja,
LindsayH, Michael Zimmermann, Paul August, Stereotek, Bender235, Jnestorius, VivaRose, Habsfannova, El C, Kelly Ramsey, Lookoo,
Dennis Brown, Leif, Pablo X, 96T, Bsktcase, Enric Naval, Cmdrjameson, Kevin Myers, Man vyi, SecretAgentMan00, Lokifer, Mixcoatl, Idleguy, Krellis, Pearle, Anthony Appleyard, Shadikka, Hektor, Burzum, Rd232, Davenbelle, Goodoldpolonius2, Little endian,
Ynhockey, Harburg, Malo, Dado~enwiki, Wtmitchell, Saga City, Tony Sidaway, Kober, Geraldshields11, TheAznSensation, Kaiser matias, Ghirlandajo, Netkinetic, Kitch, Ultramarine, Hijiri88, Bobrayner, Angr, Firsfron, Tabib, Woohookitty, Igny, PoccilScript, PatGallacher, Lofor, Urnonav, Oldadamml, Pol098, Everton, Blindfreddy84, Je3000, -Ril-, Tabletop, Lapsed Pacist, Alex9731, Tickle me,
John Hill, Kriegman,
, Parudox, Abd, Rjecina, Fadix, Deltabeignet, Zeromaru, Cuchullain, Ilya, BD2412, David Levy, FreplySpang, JamesBurns, Amorrow, Josh Parris, Behemoth, Rjwilmsi, WehrWolf, Carwil, Joe Decker, Nightscream, Jake Wartenberg,
Jivecat, Quiddity, Feydey, Funnyhat, Feco, The wub, Hsriniva, DirkvdM, Ian Pitchford, Eldamorie, Ground Zero, Nsae Comp, Gvorl,
AI, Paul foord, Pathoschild, Kanthoney, Argyrosargyrou, NGerda~enwiki, Osli73, King of Hearts, DVdm, Volunteer Marek, Bgwhite,
Hall Monitor, Skoosh, WriterHound, Alexeifjodor, The Rambling Man, Wavelength, Splintercellguy, Ecemaml, Hairy Dude, Deeptrivia,
RussBot, Anonymous editor, Davidpdx, Pigman, Eupator, Shunyaah, DanMS, Brian A Schmidt, Van der Hoorn, Flo98, Gaius Cornelius,
Ksyrie, Alex Bakharev, Ritchy, Anomalocaris, NawlinWiki, TheUnforgiven, Bachrach44, Renata3, Sj oblx, Benne, Ezeu, Molobo, Tony1,
Natkeeran, Epa101, Mieciu K, DeadEyeArrow, Nescio, CLW, Humanitarian, Engineer Bob, Igin, FF2010, Sandstein, Deville, Ktoto,
Warfreak, Nikkimaria, Peoplez1k, Arthur Rubin, Rms125a@hotmail.com, Kefalonia, Petri Krohn, Bandurist, Oswax, Dpotop, PaxEquilibrium, RG2, Meegs, NeilN, Patiwat, Howsoonhathtime, Blastwizard, Palapa, SmackBot, MattieTK, Kuban kazak, Kupsztal, CarbonCopy, Impaciente, David Le Page, Reedy, InverseHypercube, DarbyAsh, Shoy, Pgk, Blue520, Jagged 85, Big Adamsky, Ernham,
Madhev0, GeMiJa, ZerodEgo, Kintetsubualo, ProgHead777, Srkris, Kudzu1, Cool3, Peter Isotalo, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, The
Famous Movie Director, Chris the speller, Pecher, Xx236, Colonies Chris, Prasant55, Tewk, D-Rock, Can't sleep, clown will eat me,
Smallbones, MarshallBagramyan, Rrburke, Krsont, Bolivian Unicyclist, Khoikhoi, Dmwheatl, Tttallis, Coolbho3000, Valenciano, Aeln,
AnPrionsaBeag, Dreadstar, Yulia Romero, Derek R Bullamore, BullRangifer, Riurik, DDima, Kukini, FlyHigh, Balagen, Chaldean, Lambiam, G-Bot~enwiki, JMejia7704, Nishkid64, Mukadderat, Shongzah, Serein (renamed because of SUL), Maganism, Kocoum, Ourai,
Gobonobo, Woer$, Camilo Sanchez, Bless sins, Globo, Neddyseagoon, David e cooper, Vindheim, Megaplx, Dr.K., NeroN BG, Udibi,
Xionbox, Eliashc, Mego'brien, Paukrus, BranStark, Iridescent, Sander Sde, Igoldste, Amdurbin, Courcelles, Sidrai, Tawkerbot2, Khosrow II, Nobleeagle, Ptolemeos, Eastlaw, JForget, Janperit, CmdrObot, Bulgu, Erik Kennedy, Ruslik0, Harej bot, Ddillon, RockyMtnGuy,
Moreschi, Montanabw, No1lakersfan, Gregbard, Cydebot, Peripitus, Kayaakyuz, Gatoclass, Cory Kohn, Bellerophon5685, Travelbird,
Meowy, He01, David Falcon, Jlpriestley, Master son, Pc wall, Doug Weller, Zelda199, DumbBOT, Nishidani, Mamalujo, Aditya Kabir,
JamesAM, Jon C., Mercury~enwiki, Faustian, Sammlea, Marek69, Bobblehead, SGGH, Merbabu, Iviney, EdJohnston, Mitsos, NoWay555,
Grand51paul, Big Bird, Sic one, OuroborosCobra, Vsevolod4, Dikteren, Mmortal03, ReallyMale, Oreo Priest, LachlanA, Smokke, AntiVandalBot, Hd8888, Cydperez, Milton Stanley, Seaphoto, QuiteUnusual, Guinsberg, Quintote, Cheif Captain, PCPP, NSH001, North
Shoreman, Lfstevens, Bka, Yalens, Ashleyy osaurus, Ioeth, HanzoHattori, Leuko, Mike D 26, Amoruso, Nathanalex, Matthew Fennell,
Arch dude, Nycmadness2, Hecht, Snowolfd4, The Myotis, Mcourneyea, Magioladitis, Mmorgil, WolfmanSF, VoABot II, Dekimasu, AtticusX, JamesBWatson, Ling.Nut, Truthseeker 85.5, Harelx, Buckshot06, LeaHazel, Snowboarder2713, Jjasi, Teslapupin, Zanzaboonda,
Bleh999, PenguinJockey, Seleucus, Jaakobou, Allstarecho, Hkelkar, RedMC, DerHexer, MKS, Johnbrownsbody, Baristarim, EtienneDolet, Bryson109, MartinBot, Tekleni, Anaxial, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Fesmitty77, Rich Carlson, Player 03, DBlomgren, Wiki Raja,
Tgeairn, Artaxiad, AlphaEta, BlueLotusLK, Ioakinf, Elfelix, Khurg100, AstroHurricane001, Cyrus abdi, Adavidb, Hemal011, Radiert, A
Nobody, Hodja Nasreddin, Steve3742, Homer slips., Johnbod, McSly, Alzonts3, 3cheesed, Mikael Hggstrm, Balthazarduju, Plasticup,
Alexb102072, NewEnglandYankee, Ko Soi IX, Kansas Bear, Student7, Madhava 1947, Shoessss, MisterBee1966, Ledenierhomme, Bogdan~enwiki, GregJackP, Atama, The Spanish Inquisitor, WLRoss, Martial75, Funandtrvl, NerriTunn, Xnuala, Neodymium-142, Macedonian, Uyvsdi, Nug, Lears Fool, Fences and windows, Paulcicero, Philip Trueman, Jhon montes24, Zimirk, Zidonuke, Xenophrenic,
Rajivsundar, Vipinhari, India Rising, , Miranda, Adygea, Ikarushka, Ryan shell, SteveStrummer, Lvivske, Someguy1221, Laveol,
C.J. Grin, Khoiisjiba, Sirkad, Seb az86556, PDFbot, Kenshin, Lexande, Domer48, Wiae, Jjmckool, Mvblair, El pitareio, Doug,
Feudonym, Clintville, DavidKman, Peppedeninno, Xenovatis, Liveangle, HansHermans, GoonerDP, StAnselm, Swliv, Azazyel, Dawn
Bard, Hicmet, WRK, Keilana, Likebox, Wilson44691, Henry Delforn (old), KoshVorlon, Mesoso2, Cortagravatas, Chadsnook, Hashp,
Pgallagher, Onopearls, Dravecky, Belligero, The Four Deuces, Sean.hoyland, Ttbya, Sphilbrick, Verdadero, Denisarona, Julian Watson, JLBot, Thanksgivingbh865, Tenamazti, Gr8opinionater, ImageRemovalBot, Peltimikko, Elnon, Loren.wilton, Elassint, ClueBot, Binksternet,
The Thing That Should Not Be, Webley442, Tjenssen, RashersTierney, Dafen hf, Sox207, Mild Bill Hiccup, Robby.is.on, Gazikator,
Jean.Miller, Shaliya waya, Niceguyedc, Ahmad.ibn.as.Sayyid, Vitilsky, Raka25, Blanchardb, Bobanni, Dimitrakopulos, Arne Heise, Davidovic, Auntof6, Jagdfeld, Brewcrewer, Excirial, Tomeasy, Expand76, Justicediva, Waleyo, Arcot, Tasmaniacs, Yomama629, Rambosgod,
Alogrin, Pushbreak, Iohannes Animosus, Aaaronsmith, Columbia1234, Thehelpfulone, Aitias, Ssanagav, Anderssl, DoctorEric, Roadahead, Versus22, Tezero, Heclot, SoxBot III, GrinSB, DumZiBoT, E10ddie, Jonathanwallace, BarretB, XLinkBot, Hotcrocodile, Romangagero, Bilsonius, Gulijan, Dthomsen8, Ost316, WikHead, Sopeler, Gmw112252, Mifter, Daltac, Good Olfactory, Lemmey, Atoric,
Santasa99, Addbot, Proofreader77, Thomas Babbington, Some jerk on the Internet, DOI bot, Marimanque, Pearlls sun, Non-dropframe,
TutterMouse, Kolkhianboy, Protoftruth85, AnnaFrance, Favonian, LemmeyBOT, Precisearc3, AgadaUrbanit, Seagulllabour, Tide rolls,
OlEnglish, Gail, Jarble, Ettrig, Ben Ben, Drpickem, Gitnger, TheSuave, Yobot, Fraggle81, Legobot II, Bebek101, VersaVice, Nirvana888,
Cimicifugia, TuTasTemre LAZ~enwiki, Jimjilin, Paul Siebert, Goingoveredge, Djev86, Againme, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, ThaddeusB, Phoenix B 1of3, Jim1138, Lecen, Blackknight12, Arilang1234, Cossde, Ulric1313, Gallowolf, Kavas, Materialscientist, E235,
Obi2canibe, Citation bot, Jimmybawa, Michael Chidester, Raslafor, Quebec99, Yucatann, LilHelpa, Pawe5586, Madalibi, Zad68, The
Banner, Ewick12, Lakumdeena, Miachkanin, Capricorn42, Poetaris, Gira2be, Marcus19771107, Gilo1969, Soadraw, BritishWatcher, Ute
in DC, Joebobby1985, Shirik, Backpackadam, Tufor, Tigernose, Amaury, Energybender, Sophus Bie, MerlLinkBot, N419BH, Richard BB,
Shadowjams, Frumphammer, WebCiteBOT, James 10008, Thehelpfulbot, Plot Spoiler, FrescoBot, Blackguard SF, Tobby72, Rrrick333,

9.2

Images

55

Abbatai, Trenlotari, Onlyoneanswer, Icemansatriani, Nizzan Cohen, Polyxeros, Trust Is All You Need, Kimberfan, Kernow1549, Kheo17,
Soc8675309, Citation bot 1, MarB4, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Poimal, Micromesistius, SriSuren, Lewale, Sctechlaw, Jonesey95,
Tom.Reding, Bmclaughlin9, Zaetz8x, RammyJuice, Serols, Fixer88, Reesorville, HRW in 1899, Nmout, Tamilan101, Tsinfandel, Robo
Cop, My very best wishes, Full-date unlinking bot, Anothroskon, Adityadhand, Justice and Arbitration, Abd al khadir, Orenburg1, Trappist
the monk, Aakash128, Vrenator, Shieldsgeordie, David Roman, Pbrower2a, Stochos, Reaper Eternal, MyMoloboaccount, IRISZOOM,
Propaganda328, PleaseStand, Tbhotch, Minimac, Dilbilimci61, DaBiGg3TiTaLiaNo, Ebanony, Drzenojr, RjwilmsiBot, Psp br, Kasiata
V, Antidiskriminator, Turbokan, Pitlane02, Assyrio, John of Reading, Orphan Wiki, Noxiousnews, Immunize, Dewritech, Irshaad86, GoingBatty, JohnValeron, RenamedUser01302013, Sp33dyphil, The Mysterious El Willstro, Smallchief, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, K6ka, Nesij,
Paamaran, Illegitimate Barrister, Ali55te, Josve05a, Eggilicious, MaRrIaNnA, Mathsfreak, Rocalisi, Mar4d, Esc2003, KuduIO, Zezen,
H3llBot, Jaluigi, 79hm3H5mq4, Greyshark09, SporkBot, Makecat, Tolly4bolly, Rcsprinter123, Labnoor, Nahbios, L Kensington, Rigley,
Btsz, Pun, Orange Suede Sofa, AndyTheGrump, IR393harrisonkatz, LynwoodF,
, TheTimesAreAChanging, Thezaphod42, ClueBot NG, Percy66, Fattypattybigmac, Intoronto1125, Chrisminter, IvanCrives, KnightxxArrow, DinoGrado, Auszie, Arenrules777, Cntras,
Runehelmet, Widr, Ninja Diannaa, Dighapet, DarkreII13, Helpful Pixie Bot, ChasteRoue, SzMithrandir, Wbm1058, Aziz1234, BG19bot,
Spitre3000, Schrdingers Neurotoxin, M0rphzone, Northamerica1000, Josiptheeditor, PhnomPencil, HudsonBreeze, MusikAnimal,
Darkness Shines, Brett Gasper, Mark Arsten, RonaldMerchant, GlaubePL, EntangledSpins, Altar, CitationCleanerBot, Phyo WP, Darwinian Ape, Snow Blizzard, TELEGRAPH100, Suryoyono, Insidiae, Iryna Harpy, EdwardH, Lieutenant of Melkor, AdamBischo10,
Dutch32, EricEnfermero, MeanMotherJr, BattyBot, Carl Moshe, Cyberbot II, SadSwanSong, ChrisGualtieri, Gdfusion, Imogenpickles,
TheJJJunk, Khazar2, Bobbynan, SNAAAAKE!!, Aleetheia, 23 editor, Stumink, DylanLacey, Costar789, E4024, DA - DP, Burningfrog, Dexbot, Mogism, Claomh Solais, AdamFromTheVillage, Aboutuz, XXzoonamiXX, Praxis Icosahedron, TwoTwoHello, Samudrakula, Morfusmax, Lugia2453, Copperchloride, Zaldax, AbstractIllusions, ColaXtra, Sourov0000, PolishKisses, HeWsb, Milexpert101,
Rajmaan, Sayyed Bastami, Ludo100, Vanamonde93, SinhaYugaya, Jamesmcmahon0, Ana Radic, Everymorning, Penguins53, LudicrousTripe, DavidLeighEllis, Alap13, Haminoon, Monochrome Monitor, Leoesb1032, Rod Grant, NottNott, Podiaebba, Jackmt, Jackmcbarn,
RhinoMind, UY Scuti, OccultZone, Royalcourtier, Tunaquartet2001, Crossswords, Anon685, Ryk72, Savvyjack23, Monkbot, HypoHateser, Mangokeylime, Waggie, NativePride98, Tiptoethruthemineeld, Rezin, Vanisheduser00348374562342, The000studio, Vinegarymass911, Samuelrowland, Nerdoguate, Black Future, Vlocity23, Cirow, KH-1, ChamithN, RevertBob, WillemienH, YeOldeGentleman,
StewdioMACK, See996able, Dansande Bjrn, Badmon209, Christineletts, UMDP, NC333, Darkedit212, Jugzz1234, Jasenovo, Prinsgezinde, Denniscabrams, Ross terrence, Againstfraud2000, Oatitonimly, NegroLeagueHistorian, Aardwolf A380, CuaimaDelInerno, Sfynx301, Uk55, OoyoO, Pajagonde, TheSigningSam, Bosley John Bosley, Lokato, ShannonSDavis, BowlAndSpoon, Baking Soda, SBC
Guy, InternetArchiveBot, Towns Hill, Seditorso, Marianna251, Gotcha.002, GreenC bot, Cyilbey, The SBC Guy, Accopulocrat, Blade of a
chicken, Kuqjdjxjsb, Dogoodforamerica, Bender the Bot, Zetsubuobiry, Ouranos728, Hooshcle, Etsybetsy, Urchu and Anonymous: 1233

9.2

Images

File:Acto_recuperacin_de_La_Perla_(Crdoba)$-$24MAR07-Autor_Martn_Gaitn(4).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.

org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Acto_recuperaci%C3%B3n_de_La_Perla_%28C%C3%B3rdoba%29-24MAR07-Autor_Mart%C3%
ADn_Gait%C3%A1n%284%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: http://derechoshumanoscba.org.ar/spip.php?article434
Original artist: Martn Gaitn
File:Albigensian_Crusade_01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Albigensian_Crusade_01.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/illuminatedmanuscripts/ILLUMIN.ASP?Size=mid&IllID=43733 Original artist: Chroniques de Saint-Denis
File:An_gorta_Mor.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/An_gorta_Mor.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable
author provided. Miossec assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Armenia22hamidian.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Armenia22hamidian.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: http://www.chgs.umn.edu/museum/exhibitions/homememories/usCoverage.html Original artist: Harpers Weekly,
December 14, 1895 (page 1248)
File:Auschwitz_Resistance_280_cropped.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Auschwitz_Resistance_
280_cropped.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: First published in Stanislaw Wrzos-Glinka, Tadeusz Mazur and Jerzy Tomaszewski,
19391945: Cierpienie i walka narodu polskiego, Zarzd Gwny Zwizku Bojownikw o Wolno i Demokracj, Warsaw, 1958, p. 80.
Also see here and Auschwitz-Birkenau museum: [1] [2] [3] [4] Original artist: Alex, Aleko or Alekos, a member of the Sonderkommando
from Greece, often named as Alberto, Albert or Alex Errera, a Greek army or naval ocer who died in Auschwitz in 1944.
File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-031-2436-05A,_Russland,_Hinrichtung_von_Partisanen.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/7/74/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-031-2436-05A%2C_Russland%2C_Hinrichtung_von_Partisanen.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv)
as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative
and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Koch
File:Einsatzgruppe_shooting.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Einsatzgruppe_shooting.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: http://www.berdichev.org/babi_yar.htm for this upload. Note that the photo is mislabeled by the source, and
that it is not from Babi Yar. Original artist: Gustav Hille
File:Ekaterinoslav1905.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Ekaterinoslav1905.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Fusillades_de_Nantes.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Fusillades_de_Nantes.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: Bibliothque nationale de France Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img
alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png
1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:GenocidePortalLogo(ESR)2.JPG Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/GenocidePortalLogo%
28ESR%292.JPG License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: EricSRodrigues154 at
English Wikipedia

56

9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:GolodomorKharkiv.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/GolodomorKharkiv.jpg License: Public

domain Contributors: [1] [2] Original artist: Alexander Wienerberger
File:Holocaustdeathtoll%.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Holocaustdeathtoll%25.png License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: This le was derived from Weimar Republic 1930.svg: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Weimar_Republic_1930.svg' class='image'><img alt='Weimar Republic 1930.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/thumb/7/7e/Weimar_Republic_1930.svg/50px-Weimar_Republic_1930.svg.png' width='50' height='51' srcset='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Weimar_Republic_1930.svg/75px-Weimar_Republic_1930.svg.png
1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Weimar_Republic_1930.svg/100px-Weimar_Republic_1930.svg.png 2x'
data-le-width='450' data-le-height='456' /></a>
Original artist: Weimar_Republic_1930.svg: *Blank_map_of_Europe.svg: maix?
File:Irish_potato_famine_Bridget_O'Donnel.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Irish_potato_
famine_Bridget_O%27Donnel.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Image, Caption Original artist: Illustrated London News,
December 22, 1849
File:KSAMPHAN3July2009-1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/KSAMPHAN3July2009-1.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as KSAMPHAN3July2009-1 Original artist: Extraordinary Chambers in the
Courts of Cambodia
File:Lipikach.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Lipikach.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
http://www.starwon.com.au/~{}korey/Wolyn%2043.htm Original artist: Wadysawa Siemaszkw, Ludobjstwo, page 1294, from Henryk Sowiski collection
File:Marcharmenians.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Marcharmenians.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: Published by the American red cross, it was rst published in the United States prior to January 1, 1923. [Aus: Politisches
Archiv des deutschen Auswrtigen Amtes. Bestand: Konstantinopel 169.] Original artist: anonymous German traveler
File:Memorial_Rio_Negro.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Memorial_Rio_Negro.jpg License: CC
BY 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/renata_a_pinto/2335738291/ Original artist: Renata Avila
File:Morgenthau336.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Morgenthau336.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: Ambassador Morgenthaus Story Doubleday, Page p314, (http://net.lib.byu.edu/estu/wwi/comment/morgenthau/images/
Morgen50.jpg) Original artist: Henry Morgenthau
File:Nanking_bodies_1937.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Nanking_bodies_
1937.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors:
Derivative work of a photograph taken by Moriyasu Murase

,
,1987 12 20 ,46 , 139,ISBN 4-88900-218-9 Original artist: Originally Moriyasu Murase,
File:Omar_al-Bashir,_12th_AU_Summit,_090131-N-0506A-342.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/
2b/Omar_al-Bashir%2C_12th_AU_Summit%2C_090131-N-0506A-342.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: DefenseImagery.mil,
VIRIN 090131-N-0506A-342 Original artist: U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Jesse B. Awalt/Released
File:Persecution_of_Roma.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Persecution_of_Roma.gif License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Prise_de_la_Zaatcha_(1849).png
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Prise_de_la_Zaatcha_
%281849%29.png License: Public domain Contributors: www.histoire-image.org Original artist: Creator:Jean-Adolphe Beauce
File:Rwandan_Genocide_Murambi_skulls.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Rwandan_Genocide_
Murambi_skulls.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.house.gov/wolf/issues/hr/sudan/caphotos.html Original artist: taken
during the ocial visit of US Rep. Frank Wolf
File:Skirmish_near_Creen_Creek.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Skirmish_near_Creen_Creek.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://pictures.slv.vic.gov.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DB=local&BBID=54640 Original artist:
Ebenezer and David Syme
File:Skulls_from_the_killing_fields.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Skulls_from_the_killing_
fields.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Srebrenica_Massacre_-_Reinterment_and_Memorial_Ceremony_-_July_2007_-_Male_Mourners.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Srebrenica_Massacre_-_Reinterment_and_Memorial_Ceremony_-_July_
2007_-_Male_Mourners.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Adam Jones Adam63
File:Srilankabeslan.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/51/Srilankabeslan.jpg License: Fair use Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Vertreibung.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Vertreibung.jpg License: CC BY-SA 1.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:WW2-Holocaust-Europe.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/WW2-Holocaust-Europe.png License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Self-made by User:Dna-Dennis, using information from USHMM & Wikipedia. Original artist:
User:Dna-Dennis
File:Woundedknee1891.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Woundedknee1891.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Reproduction Number: LC-USZ62-44458 Original artist: Northwestern Photo Co.
File:_.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/%D0%94%D0%B8%D1%
81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%
82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: George Shuklin
14:29, 22 July 2007 (UTC)

9.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0