Sediment and Sedimentary

Rocks
Sedimentary rocks only make up 5% of the Earth's crust, but cover about 75% of the surface
of the earth. The raw material for sedimentary rocks comes from weathering. Two basic
:sources of sedimentary material are
1. Mineral and rock fragments or clasts produced by mechanical weathering or erosion
of rock. Resulting sediment deposits are called detrital, and rocks formed from the
sediment are called detrital sedimentary rocks.
2. Dissolved material that precipitates from solution. Rocks formed from this nondetrital
or chemical sediment are called chemical sedimentary rocks, and can be derived from
either inorganic or biochemical processes.

Transportation and Deposition of Sediment

Sediment is transported from the place of weathering to the place of deposition. During
transportation, originally angular detrital sediment particles can be sorted by size and
composition, and can become rounded. Agents of sediment transport include water (primary
mechanism), gravity, wind, and ice. Processes by which sediment is deposited
.(sedimentation) involve loss of velocity, evaporation, and/or chemical interactions

Depositional Environments
:Sediment can be deposited in many different environments
1. Continental
.a) Fluvial - Sediment was deposited by a stream
.b) Eolian - Sediment deposited by wind (deserts)
.c) Lacustrine - Lake sedimentary deposits
.d) Glacial - Sediment deposited by ice and meltwater
2. Marine - Sediment accumulates on the ocean floor in shallow (continental shelf and
reef) to deep (abyssal plain) environments.
3. Transitional - between land (terrestrial) and marine environments.

.a) Deltaic - Deposits at the mouth of a major stream

b) Beaches, lagoons and barrier islands - Sediment deposited by wind or
.water

Lithification
:Lithification is the conversion of sediment into rock, and results from a number of processes
1. Compaction involves packing together of sediment grains through burial, leading to a

reduction in sediment volume by up to 40%. Reduction of volume generally results

from the pressure or weight of overlying sediments.
2. Desiccation involves the loss of water from sediment pore spaces, typically resulting
from compaction but also from evaporation in air.
3. Cementation occurs where minerals precipitate from sediment pore fluids to bind to

sediment particles together. Most common cements are calcite (CaCO3) and quartz
(SiO2), but dolomite [(CaMg)CO3], iron oxides (Fe2O3), and iron hydroxides
[FeO(OH)] may also serve as cements.
4. Crystallization characterizes chemical sediments, and primarily involves formation of

interlocking crystals.

Sedimentary Rock Textures

Both detrital and chemical sedimentary rocks can show clastic texture. Rocks are separated
by the size of the clastic particles. Particle diameters are determined by sieving. The
:Wentworth Scale of particle sizes is commonly used
gravel > 2 mm
1/16 to 2 mm
silt
1/256 to 1/16 mm
clay
< 1/256 mm
Detrital sediments are also characterized by their sorting, the degree to which clastic particle
sizes are similar. Sediments are described as poorly-sorted if a mix of particle sizes is present,
and well-sorted if primarily one particle size is present. Sorting takes place during
:transportation, and particles can be sorted by
a) grain size - largest particles settle first
b) composition - high specific gravity minerals settle first
The nature of detrital sediments is also indicated by the particle shape. Clasts can range from
angular to spherical, generally depending on how far they have been transported. The shape
:of clasts are characterized in terms of
.a) Roundness - degree of edge and corner removal
b) Sphericity - degree to which the fragment approaches the
.shape of a sphere
Non-clastic textures, involving interlocking crystals similar to the crystalline texture of
igneous rocks, are shown only by chemical sedimentary rocks. These rocks are subdivided
according to crystal size as fine-grained (< 1 mm), medium-grained, or coarse-grained (> 5
.mm)
sand

Types of Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are classified by texture and composition into two major types, detrital
.and chemical
:A. Detrital sedimentarv rocks have clastic texture and can be grouped as

Conglomerate and Breccia - Made of gravel-sized particles (>2 mm) surrounded by

finer grained material. If larger particles are angular, it is called a sedimentary breccia.
A breccia indicates the material has not been transported great distances. Both rocks
indicate deposition in a high-energy environment characteristic of streams and
beaches.
Sandstones are composed of sand-sized parttcles (0.06-2 mm), primarily of quartz
with some feldspar and rock fragments.Types of sandstone include:
a. Quartz Sandstone - almost pure quartz
b. Arkose - quartz and more than 25% feldspar
c. Graywacke - "Dirty" sandstone containing quartz, feldspar, rock, and clay.

.Both arkose and graywacke indicate a lack of transport and weathering

Mudrocks comprise about 40% of all detrital sedimentary rocks, and are deposited in
low-energy environments. They are subdivided into:
a. Siltstones are composed of silt-sized particles (0.004-0.06 mm) of quartz and
feldspar.
b. Mudstones, which may be blocky or massive in appearance, are composed of a
mixture of silt- and clay-sized particles (< 0.004 mm) of clay, quartz, feldspar,
calcite, and dolomite.
c. Claystones are massive and composed mostly of clay
d. Shales, the most abundant detrital rock, are similar to a mudstones or
claystones except that the rock breaks into layers parallel to the bedding.

B. Inorganic chemical sedimentary rocks originate from dissolved material that is precipitated
:inorganically. These rocks include
Limestone made up of calcite. Oolltic, travertine, and tufa forms of limestone are
precipitated inorganically; travertine, a freshwater limestone, differs from the other
types which are precipitated from seawater.
Dolostone made up of dolomite. Dolostone has been thought to form by the
replacement of limestone, although recent evidence indicates that some dolomite may
be biochemical in origin. Very little primary dolomite has been found.

Evaporites are sedimentary rock composed of minerals precipitated from evaporated

sea water (e.g., gypsum and halite).

Silica can precipitate as quartz, opal, or chert (cryptocrystalline silica including jasper,
agate, and flint), and can occur as irregular masses or nodules in other rocks,
especially limestone.

C. Biochemical sedimentary rocks originate from dissolved material that is precipitated

:through the activities of organisms. Include
Limestones that originate as accumulations of shell and skeleton material made up of
calcite or aragonite represent the most abundant chemical sedimentary rock. Types of
biogenic limestone are:
1. Chalk, a powdery accumulation of microscopic plant and animal shells.
2. Fossiliferous Limestone, an accumulation of visible fossil organisms. Coquina

is a very poorly cemented fossiliferous limestone.

3. Micrite, a smooth, dense, microcrystalline limestone.

Bedded chert (silica) forms from accumulations of microscopic marine organisms that
secrete silica shells around their bodies.

Peat (partiallv decomposed plant material that accumulates in swamps) can be

converted to coal (lignite or bituminus) through burial. Coal, however, is not
considered a rock by most geologists.

Depositional Environment Analysis

Evidence preserved in sedimentary rocks can allow geologists to infer the events and
processes which formed them. Using sedimenary structures and fossil evidence, geologists
:can infer the specific depositional environment of ancient sedimentary rocks
A. Sedimentary Structures
1. Bedding or Stratification, the most important feature of sedimentary rocks, is layering

that reflects changing conditions during deposition. Texture and composition are fairly
uniform within a bed. Layering is usually horizontal or sub-horizontal. Original
bedding can be obscured or destroyed through sediment flow or the action of
burrowing animals. Kinds of bedding include:
o

Laminated bedding consists of closely spaced parallel bedding.

Cross-bedding involves non-horizontal bedding caused by wind or water

currents, and can be used to indicate top of bed and paleocurrent directions.

Graded-bedding represents a progressive decrease in grain size upward

through a bed, and can be used as a top of bed indicator. Grading can be
caused by rapid deposition from turbidity currents.

2. Ripple marks, small waves on the surface of sediment caused by water or wind

currents, can in some cases be used as a top of bed indicator. Two forms of ripples are

recognized:
o

Wave-formed ripple marks are symmetric ripple marks formed in a surf zone.

Current ripple marks, asymmetric ripple marks formed by water or air currents
moving generally in one direction, can be used as a current direction indicator.

3. Mud cracks, polygonal cracks caused by contraction of mud as it dries, indicate

shallow water deposition, and can be used as a top of bed indicator.

4. Sole marks, which are casts (fillings) of a primary sedimentary feature such as a

groove or burrow, can indicate top of bed.

5. Secondary sedimentary structures form long after deposition, and therefore do not

give clues about how the sediment was originally deposited:

6. Nodules, an irregular, knobby-surfaced mineral body of a different

composition than the surrounding sediment, usuallv lie parallel to bedding.

Septarian nodules show dehydration cracks that are filled by material of a
different composition.
7. Concretions, usually spherical and often characterized by concentric layering,

are depositional bodies composed of cementing material often found in

sandstone.
8. Geodes, which generally occur in limestone and shale, are roughly spherical

hollow structures formed when a pocket of water in sediment is surrounded by

a deposit of silica. Larger crystals of quartz or calcite grow inward from
solution.
Fossils represent reserved remnants of ancient plants areprteshentat give clues about ancient
life, evolution, and depositional environment. Fossils allow rocks in widely separated areas to
be correlated in time, and form the basis for constructing the geologic calendar. Trace fossils
provide indirect evidence of ancient life such as burrows, trails, and tracks. Body fossils are
the actual preserved parts (mostly hard parts) of an organism. Most fossils have been
dissolved and replaced by other materials like silica and pyrite. Petrified wood is formed
when silica replaces cellulose. A mold is the cavity in sediment that a shell once filled; a cast
.is the filled-in mold

Sedimentary Facies
Sedimentary rocks tend to change in composition and nature laterally due to changes in
depositional environment. Sediment can be deposited in different places at the same time, yet
look very different because of a different depositional environment. Sedimentary facies
reflect the characteristics of a particular depositional environment. These deposits each have a
distinctive set of physical, chemical and biological attributes. Sea level fluctuations can result
:in a particular facies being deposited over wide areas

1. Marine Transgressions - Sandstone (nearshore deposit) overlain by shale (shallow

marine deposit) and limestone (deeper marine deposit) indicates sediment deposition
during a time of sea level rise.
2. Marine Regressions - Deep marine deposits are overlain by shallower marine and
nearshore deposits, indicating sediment deposition during a time of falling sea level.
Changes in global sea level may reflect subsidence or uplift and increased glacial activity

Sedimentary Rocks and Natural Resources

.Sediments, sedimentary rocks and the materials they contain have many uses
1. Petroleum and Natural Gas are hydrocarbons formed from the remains of microscopic
plants and animals. The organic matter has been preserved in sediments (the source
rock) by rapid burial. With burial, heat and chemical reactions transform organic
matter into petroleum and natural gas. After formation, the hydrocarbons migrate
upward until they reach the surface or are trapped. A petroleum trap consists of a
permeable reservoir rock and an impermeable cap rock. Oil shales (contain at least 1
barrel of oil per ton of shale) and tar sands (sand that contains thick, asphalt-like
hydrocarbons) may be important future sources of petroleum.
2. Uranium ores, that occur in fluvial (stream-deposited) sandstones containing organic
matter, are found in several western states. Uranium dissolved in oxidizing
groundwater is transported with the groundwater until reducing conditions cause
precipitation of carnotite (a uranium mineral).
3. Banded iron formations represent largest source of iron ore in the world, and are
found on all the continents. The deposits consists of chemical sediments that are
extremely rich in iron. Most were deposited in shallow seas during the late
Precambrian (before 2.5 billion years ago) when a lack of atmospheric oxygen
allowed seawater to have much higher dissolved iron concentrations. The ores formed
when iron was precipitated out of seawater by addition of oxygen from algae
(photosynthesis) or bacteria (respiration) living in large colonies called stromatolites.
These organisms became abundant about 2.5 billion years ago.
4. Other sediment or sedimentary rock derived resources include:
1. Building materials (sand and gravel, construction; limestone, cement; gypsum,
wallboard and plaster; clay, bricks; quartz, glass
2. Halite used as a seasoning and preservative.
3. Clay used in ceramics and kitty litter.
4. Phosphates used for fertilizers, matches, and preservatives
5. Diatomite used in filtration.
6. Coal used for energy and coke in steel production.

MINERAL PROPERTIES
and identification procedures
Minerals represent just another complex structure in this greatly varied earth. There are endless
amounts of studies that can be covered when dealing with the topic of minerals. Minerals embody
numerous physical properties, which make them much more interesting and complex than commonly
perceived. Several of these properties are essential in mineral identification. With enough experience,
a mineral can often be accurately identified by simply viewing it. However, by conducting a few simple
tests, the identification procedure is exact and unmistakable.
Scientists identify elemental makeup by conducting complex test with expensive equipment, such as
x-rays and high powered electron microscopes. They use these techniques to identify minerals. For
the most part, though, minerals can be identified by conducting a few simple, costless tests. Once a
person becomes experienced in this field, he can usually identify a mineral by observing it and taking
into account its specific features, such as color and crystal formation.
Below is a list of all of these properties. Select a property to learn about it, and how it is used as an
identification procedure.

Color
Streak

hardness

Crystals

transparency

Specific Gravity

Luster

Cleavage

Parting

Fracture

Tenacity

Additional Properties

Complex Mineral Testing Methods

X-ray analysis

Blowpipe Test

Bead Test

Flame Test

Tube Test

Acid Test

color
is one of the most eye-catching feature of many minerals. Some minerals always have the same
color, such as gold, whereas some minerals, such as quartz and calcite, come in all colors. The
presence and intensity of certain elements determines a specimens color. Minerals with an
inherent color (i.e. all specimens of the mineral are the same color) have essential elements in
them which cause their color. Good examples are azurite and malachite, which have their strong
blue and green color due to their copper in their atomic structure. But there are many minerals
which have slight additions of color-causing elements in some specimens that cause it to be a
different color. For example, pure quartz (SiO2), is colorless, whereas amethyst, a purple variety of
quartz, has its purple color caused by traces of iron. The amount of iron present determines the
intensity of the color.

Certain minerals exhibit a color change when exposed to light, heat, or radiation. Realgar
transforms into orpiment, and orpiment crumbles into a light-yellow powder if exposed to light.
Some minerals, such as proustite and vivianite, darken upon prolonged exposure to light,
whereas other minerals, such as kunzite fade. Some minerals undergo color changes when
put under intense heat. This method is sometimes used to artificially enhance the color of
some gemstones. Some varieties of topaz, beryl, and corundum are heat treated to produce
deep colored gemstones from rather dull ones. Radioactivity can also have an effect, as is the
cause of smoky quartz.
Most secondary copper minerals show a bright blue (and sometimes green) color. Iron usually
causes a mineral to exhibit a dark red or brown color, and manganese is responsible for the
coloring of many pink minerals. Some minerals, such as cassiterite and zincite, have chemical
structures that would cause them to be colorless, but due to impurities they are never found
colorless. Most secondary uranium minerals exhibit either a bright neon yellow or green color.
Often, a mineral is coated or "pseudomorphed", causing it to exhibit the color of the replaced
or coated mineral. Two common examples are: hematite coating quartz, and limonite
pseudomorph after pyrite.
Minerals containing the elements aluminum, sodium, and potassium are usually colorless or
very lightly colored. In some cases, the color of a mineral may depend on its atomic bonding
rather than composition, such as by diamond and graphite. Both these minerals have the
same are formed from the same material (carbon), yet one is almost always white or very
lightly colored, while the other is dark gray to black.
Many times, minute traces of a mineral in or over another mineral can cause a color change.
Two fine examples are:
1) Malachite on quartz, causing the quartz appear to be green.
2) Rutile inclusions in quartz, giving the quartz a golden hue.
Several minerals tarnish, thereby affecting their color. The best examples are:
1) Silver, which tarnishes black, yellow, or brown
2) Copper, which tarnishes green
3) Bornite and chalcopyrite, which tarnish an iridescent play of colors
Some minerals, such as opal, display a multicolored effect when viewed from different angles.
This is called opalescence. A few minerals appear to change color when viewed in different
light. Alexandrite, a variety of chrysoberyl, is dark green in natural light, but takes on a
purplish hue in artificial light. Other minerals will change color when viewed at different
angles. This is called dichroism or pleochroism. Cordierite, the most famous dichroic mineral
is bluish-purple but turns gray when rotated or viewed at a different angle. The properties of

opalescence, labradorescence, and dichroism, as well as other optical properties are

explained in greater detail in the section "Other Properties".
Mineral colors may be artificially enhanced in various ways. This includes heating and
irradiation (both previously mentioned), as well as dying. A few minerals, especially agates,
are periodically dyed to enhance their color.

How to use color as an identification mark

Color alone will not normally identify a mineral, but it can be a very helpful factor. Many
minerals come in a great diversity of colors, and many different minerals have similar colors.
However, a few minerals can be identified solely by their color (usually in addition to crystal
shape), for example azurite, wulfenite, and dioptase. Such minerals are known as
monochromatic minerals.
Together with color, a crystal shape can identify most of the better known minerals. It is best
to observe the mineral in strong light, preferably daylight. Make sure not to observe a
tarnished or discolored surface. One more thing to bear in mind is that some minerals can
have a questionable color. Some may think that it is one color, while others may think it is a
different color.

Streak
is the color of a crushed mineral's powder. The color of a mineral's powder may differ from the actual
color of the mineral. This property is useful for mineral identification.
Almost every mineral has an inherent streak color, no matter what color the actual mineral is. For
example, calcite occurs in many different colors, shapes, and varieties. But every single variety of
calcite has a white streak. Streak is very useful in distinguishing two minerals with the same color but
different streak. A fine example where streak is very useful is gold (yellow streak), and chalcopyrite
(black streak).
Most light colored, nonmetallic minerals have a white or colorless streak, as do most silicates,
carbonates, and most transparent minerals. The streak test is most useful for identifying dark colored
minerals, especially metals.

How to use streak as an identification mark

When testing for streak, the mineral must be crushed to determine the color of its powder. The color of
the powder is the color of the streak. Instead of actually crushing a mineral to determine the streak, it
is much simpler and cost-effective to swipe the mineral across a streak plate. A streak plate is an
unglazed piece of porcelain, such as the underside of a ceramic tile. This is the most popular method
of streak testing, since the color of the streak plate is white, the color of the mineral trace is easy to
see. For minerals that are harder than the streak plate, this test cannot be used, since the mineral will
remove tile material. This is rarely a problem, though, since most minerals where this test will be
significant are softer than the streak plate (the streak plate has a hardness of about 6 on the Mohs
scale).

Most mineral references dont make a distinction between a white and colorless streak, since the
difference is minimal. A mineral with a white or colorless streak will not leave a visible streak on a
streak plate.

How to test using streak

Swipe the mineral against the streak plate, but not hard enough to damage it. The color of the powder
that results on the streak plate is the streak color.

Hardness plays a major role in identifying a mineral. It can make the identification process much
simpler by considerably narrowing a search.
Hardness is defined by how well a substance will resist scratching by another substance. For
example, if mineral A scratches mineral B, and mineral B does not scratch mineral A, then mineral A is
harder than mineral B. If mineral A and B both scratch each other, then their hardness is equal or very
similar. A scale to measure hardness was devised by Austrian mineralogist Frederick (Friedrich) Mohs
in 1822, and is currently the standard scale for measuring hardness. The scale consists of numbers
one through ten; 1 being the softest and 10 being the hardest. Each number represents a different
mineral - each harder than the previous. The 10 minerals are:

1. Talc
2. Gypsum
3. Calcite
4. Fluorite
5. Apatite
6. Feldspar
7. Quartz
8. Topaz
9. Corundum
10. Diamond
All conceivable minerals fit in this scale, since talc is the softest known mineral and diamond the
hardest. To demonstrate how to use the scale, understand the following example: Suppose a mineral
scratches fluorite, but not apatite, then it has a hardness between 4 and 5.
Several common household items have a fixed hardness, and can be used to test for hardness:
fingernail

copper penny

knife blade

glass

steel file

streak plate (floor tile) 6

Hardness is almost always rounded off to the nearest half number.
Although the Mohs scale is very useful, it is not linear. The minerals chosen were only selected
because of their popularity. Number 10 on the scale (diamond) is 140 times harder then number 9
(corundum), whereas 4 (fluorite) is only 1.11 times harder than 3 (calcite). A proportional
measurement, called absolute hardness, was more recently devised, but is only used by scientists
who need accurate results. The Mohs scale, although flawed, still satisfies all mineral collectors.

How to use hardness as an identification mark

There are various hardness testing kits. One type consists of 10 metal rods, each one containing a
fragment of one of the ten minerals in the Moh's scale. Another type consists of large, low cost
specimens of the ten minerals, labeled and stored in a wooden compartment box. The diamond is
either absent or a chip attached to a small metal rod. The diamond is really unnecessary, since no
minerals are between hardness 9 and 10.
A mineral is struck with a metal rod or "testing mineral" to test its hardness.
It is tested in the manner of the following example:

Action

Conclusion

Mineral struck with rod or mineral number 4 (fluorite) from the

testing kit. Mineral gets scratched.

Mineral must be less than or equal

to 4.

Mineral struck with rod or mineral number 2 (gypsum). Mineral

does not get scratched.

Mineral must be between 2 and 4.

Mineral struck with rod or mineral number 3 (calcite). Mineral

gets scratched.

Mineral must be between 2 and 3.

Two minerals with equal hardness will scratch each other. This gives an advantage to the hardness
testing kit that includes real minerals over rods. One can scratch the mineral from the kit instead of
scratching a nice specimen. In addition, one can also get more exact results by seeing if both
minerals scratch each other. We can add another step to the chart above for those that have
hardness testing kits composed of minerals rather than rods:
Mineral strikes testing kit mineral number 3 (Calcite). Testing kit mineral gets
scratched.

Mineral hardness is 3.

If the mineral strikes testing kit mineral 2 and 3 and scratches neither, the mineral has a hardness of 2.

Minerals can be damaged and lose value if not scratched properly. If a mineral testing kit is composed
of minerals (as opposed to rods), it is preferable for the testing kit mineral to be scratched over the
specimen. If this cannot be done, than the specimen has to be scratched. This should be done in an
area where a scratch will not make a noticeable mark.
Hardness can be easily detected without a "kit". All one needs to know is the hardness of certain
items (including the ones mentioned above) and minerals in his collection. These can be used instead
of purchasing a kit, which is an inessential investment.

How to test using hardness

Hardness testing is done by "swiping" one mineral with the other. The swipe should be strong enough
to make a scratch, but not so much as to damage the specimen. To get the most accurate results, a
sharp edge should be swiped against a smooth surface, on a small an area as possible. The scratch
should not be conducted on a surface that is coated, chipped, or weathered, for it will give inaccurate
results. Neither should it be conducted on a visible surface; a bad scratch on the face of a mineral can
diminish its value.
When a mineral is scratched, a permanent indentation is created. Powder of the softer mineral will
come off, and it will cover the scratch area. This powder must be brushed away to see if the mineral
really got scratched, or if the powder of the softer mineral that was swiped across the specimen being
tested created a scratch-like marking. When minerals of similar hardness are scratched together, it is
difficult to tell which mineral (if not both of them) is really getting scratched because of this.
All minerals are anisotropic, meaning their hardness varies in different directions. Kyanite is famous
for this habit. When scratched in one direction, it exhibits a hardness of 4 to 5. When struck from the
perpendicular direction, it exhibits a hardness of 6 to 7. Kyanite is the only mineral exhibiting such
strong anisotropism. In virtually all minerals, the anisotropism is so weak that it cannot be determined.
Micromounts and small embedded crystals are very hard to determine in terms of hardness. One may
not be able to test for hardness because of the small size.

Transparency
The amount of light passed through a mineral determines its transparency. Most light passes through
transparent minerals, translucent minerals partially let light pass through, and opaque minerals do not
let any light through. A mineral type can exhibit more than one level of transparency, and, in fact, most
transparent minerals also occur in translucent forms. Flaws, inclusions, and impurities degrade the
transparency of a mineral. Many minerals exhibit some forms that are completely transparent and
other forms that are completely opaque. Such minerals are labeled in the transparency section of this
guide as transparent to opaque. A number of minerals may seem opaque, but when held to a light
source seem to be letting a small amount of light pass through at its corners. A specimen with such
characteristics is said to be transparent in thin splinters or transparent in thin sections. All minerals
with a metallic luster are opaque. Most minerals with a submetallic luster are translucent in thin
splinters.

How to use transparency as an identification mark

Transparency isn't normally used as an identification mark, but is just noted as a mineral property. It
can, however, eliminate some mineral possibilities when trying to identify a mineral. Some minerals
that are normally transparent may be clouded by inclusions and appear partially or fully opaque. In
such cases, one must view the mineral through a light and see if any light passes through.

How to test using transparency

A mineral should always be viewed by placing it between the viewer and the light source if one wants
to check its transparency. A distinction can be noticed between translucent, translucent in thin
splinters, and opaque minerals.

Specific Gravity, also known as SG, is a measurement that determines the density of minerals.
Two minerals may be the same size, but their weight may be very different. The specific gravity of a
mineral determines how heavy it is by its relative weight to water. The specific gravity value is
expressed upon how much greater the weight of the mineral is to an equal amount of water. Water
has a specific gravity of 1. If a mineral has a specific gravity of 2.7, it is 2.7 times heavier than water.
Minerals with a specific gravity under 2 are considered light, between 2 and 4.5 average, and greater
than 4.5 heavy. Most minerals with a metallic luster are heavy. The specific gravity may slightly vary
within a mineral because of impurities present in the minerals structure.

How to use specific gravity as an identification mark

Scientists measure specific gravity with expensive laboratory tools, such as a hydrostatic balance.
These tools are not used by regular mineral collectors, and the procedure for testing with them will not
be mentioned here. There are other methods to determine specific gravity, such as using water
displacement, but this is a complicated procedure that can provide inaccurate results. Instead of
actual testing for a specific gravity value, the heft of a specimen often provides sufficient results. It is
easy to notice a very light specimen, an average specimen, and a heavy specimen.

How to test using specific gravity

Testing a mineral for a specific gravity value is a complicated procedure. For the layman, it requires a
beaker and a scale. The weight of the beaker is taken and written down, as well as the weight of the
specimen. The beaker is partially filled up with water, and the level of the water is noted. The mineral
is put into the beaker with water, and the water level rises. The difference in the amount of water
before the specimen was put in and after it was put in is noted. The mineral is taken out, and the
water is spilled out. Then the beaker is filled with the amount of water that the specimen displaced. It
is measured. The difference in weight of the beaker when it was empty and the current measurement
(the beaker with the displaced water) is the weight of the displaced water. The weight of the displaced
water has the same volume as the specimen, but a different mass. The weight of the specimen is
divided by the weight of the displaced water, and that number attained is the specific gravity of that
specimen.
This test cannot be conducted for an embedded mineral, but only for a single crystal or mass, for
obvious reasons. This test should obviously not be conducted on minerals that can be dissolved or
corroded by water.

Luster describes how a mineral appears to reflects light, particularly how brilliant or dull the mineral
is. The terms applied to luster are:

Metallic (also known as splendent)

Submetallic

Vitreous (also known as glassy)

Adamantine (also known as brilliant or diamondlike)

Resinous (also known as resinlike)

Silky

Pearly (also known as mother-of-pearl)

Greasy (also known as oily)

Pitchy (also known as pitchlike)

Waxy (also known as waxlike)

Dull (also known as earthy)

Metallic - Minerals with a metallic luster are opaque and reflective, like metal. Metal elements, most
sulfides, and some oxides belong in this category.

Submetallic - For a mineral to fall in this category, it must be opaque to nearly opaque and reflect
well. Thin splinters or sections of submetallic minerals are translucent.

Vitreous - This luster accounts for roughly 70 percent of all minerals. Minerals with a vitreous luster
have reflective properties similar to glass. Most of the silicates, carbonates, phosphates, sulfates,
halides, and hydroxides have a vitreous luster.

Adamantine - Transparent to translucent minerals with a high refractive index yield an adamantine
luster, meaning they display extraordinary brilliance and shine.

Resinous - This is the luster of many yellow, dark orange, or brown minerals with moderately high
refractive indices -- honey like, but not necessarily the same color.

Silky - A silky luster is the result of a mineral having a fine fibrous structure. Minerals with a silky
luster have optical properties similar to silk cloth.

Pearly - Describes a luster similar to the inside of a mollusk shell or shirt button. Many mica's have
a pearly luster, and many minerals with a pearly luster have an iridescent hue. Some minerals may
exhibit a pearly luster on cleaved crystal surfaces parallel and below the reflecting surface of a
mineral.

Greasy - Luster of a mineral that appears as if it were coated with grease.

Pitchy - Minerals with a tar-like appearence have a pitchy luster. Minerals with a pitchy luster are
usually radioactive and have gone through the process of metamiction.

Waxy - A waxy luster indicates a mineral that appears as if it were coated with a layer wax.
Dull - This luster defines minerals with poor reflective qualities, much like unglazed porcelain. Most
minerals with a dull luster have a rough or porous surface.

Every mineral has a characteristic luster, but some minerals may have a different luster on different
specimens. There is no scientific method to determine luster. Often, determining the luster of a
particular specimen is personal; to some it may appear as one type of luster, and to others as a
different type.

How to use luster as an identification mark

It is in the eyes of the viewer to determine what luster a particular specimen exhibits. Luster is only a
useful form of mineral identification when the specimen in question displays a "special" luster, such as
waxy, greasy, pearly, etc. Specimens with a vitreous luster cannot be distinguished from one another,
nor can minerals with a metallic luster. Luster is usually just noted as a mineral property, and is not
usually used to help identify a mineral.

How to test using luster

Observe the specimen in well lit conditions where its luster is visible. The surface being viewed should
not be tarnished, unclean, discolored, or coated. Some minerals exhibit a pearly luster on cleaved
surfaces, so it is a good idea to check for luster on uncleaved portions of the crystal.

Cleavage, fracture, and parting all have to do with the positioning of atoms in a mineral and how it
breaks when put under stress. These three properties are listed on the same page due to their
comparability, but are each individually discussed.

Cleavage
Parting

Fracture

CLEAVAGE:
In mineral terms, cleavage describes how a crystal breaks when subject to stress on a particular
plane. If part of a crystal breaks due to stress and the broken piece retains a smooth plane or crystal
shape, the mineral has cleavage. A mineral that never produces any crystallized fragments when
broken off due to stress has no cleavage.
Cleavage is measured by two factors: quality and number of sides exhibiting cleavage. Quality of
cleavage can be categorized into four qualities:

Perfect
Good

Poor

None

Minerals with perfect cleavage cleave without leaving any rough surfaces; a full, smooth plane is
formed where the crystal broke. Minerals with good cleavage also leave smooth surfaces, but often
leave over some rough surfaces. In minerals with poor cleavage, the smooth crystal edge is barely
visible, since the rough surface is dominant. Minerals with no cleavage (none) never exhibit any

cleavage, thus broken surfaces are jagged and rough. If a mineral exhibits cleavage, but it so poor
that it is hardly noticeable, it has "indistinct" cleavage.
Categorization of cleavage qualities is not scientifically affirmed. The above categorization is used by
most mineral references, but some references categorize cleavage in three or five different groups,
and may give them different names, such as "excellent" and "distinct".

Many minerals exhibit cleavage only on one side, and some may exhibit different quality cleavage on
different sides. We may expect to find the following criteria when analyzing the cleavage of any
particular mineral:

One Direction
Two Directions

Three Directions

All Directions

These tell us how many crystal "directions" or planes of a mineral exhibit cleavage. Each direction
means two opposite sides of a three-dimensional figure, (since opposite sides exhibit the same
cleavage properties). If a mineral has cleavage in three directions, then every side of the mineral has
cleavage. If a mineral often occurs in modified crystals with more than six sides (i.e. octahedron) and
exhibits cleavage on all the sides, than we call that cleavage "all directions".
When we combine the cleavage level together with the number of sides, we have measured cleavage.
For example: A book states that the cleavage of a particular minerals is: Good, Two Directions. This
informs us that the mineral has good cleavage on four out of six sides (while the other sides exhibit no
cleavage). If the book tells us a different minerals cleavage is: Perfect, One Direction; Poor, Two
Directions, it means that the mineral has perfect cleavage on two sides, and poor cleavage on the
other four.
In this guide, cleavage is measured in numbers, first the quality, then the number of sides, separated
by a comma. If the cleavage of a mineral is written as 1,2 , the mineral has perfect cleavage. If the
word Indiscernible is written in the cleavage field of a mineral, then the cleavage of the mineral is so
poor it is hardly recognizable. If all sides of mineral have the same cleavage, and the mineral often
occurs in modified crystals with more than six sides, than All Sides is written instead of a number. If a
mineral exhibits different cleavage on different crystal planes, there will be two cleavage indicators
separated by a semi-colon (;). For example, if the cleavage of a mineral is written as 1,2-;- 3,1, than it
has perfect cleavage in one direction, and poor cleavage on two other directions. If a mineral exhibits
no cleavage, None is written in the field.

Different forms of cleavage exist on different minerals, depending on the mode of a minerals
crystallization. These forms of cleavage are:
Basal cleavage
Cleavage exhibited on a horizontal plane of the mineral by way of its base. Minerals with basal
cleavage can sometimes be "peeled".
Example = minerals of mica group.
Cubic cleavage
Cleavage exhibited on minerals of the isometric crystal system crystallized as cubes. In this method of
cleavage, small cubes evenly break off of an existing cube.
Example = galena.

Octahedral cleavage
Cleavage exhibited on minerals of the isometric crystal system crystallized as octahedrons. In this
method of cleavage, flat, triangular "wedges" peel off of an existing octahedron.
Example = fluorite.
Prismatic cleavage
Cleavage exhibited on some prismatic minerals in which a crystal cleaves by breaking off thin,
vertical, prismatic crystals off of the original prism.
Example = aegirine.
Pinicoidal cleavage
Cleavage exhibited on some prismatic and tabular minerals in which a crystal cleaves on the
pinicoidal plane, which is the third dimension aside from the basal and prismatic sides.
Example = barite.
Rhombohedral cleavage
Cleavage exhibited on minerals crystallizing in the hexagonal crystal system as rhombohedrons, in
which small rhombohedrons break off of the existing rhombohedron.
Example = calcite.

PARTING:
Parting is characteristically similar to cleavage. It is easily confused with cleavage, and is often
present on minerals that do not exhibit any cleavage. There are two causes of parting:
1. Two separate pressures pushed toward the center of a crystal after its formation, causing the
crystal interior to evenly dislodge on a flat, smooth plane.
2. Twin crystals that separated from one another, leaving a flat, smooth plane.
With enough perception, a distinction can be made between parting and cleavage. If fracture marks
are present on a crystal in addition to a cleaved plane, the "cleaved" surface is usually the result of
parting, not cleavage. An outline of a crystal etched in a mineral is also the result of parting, in the
form of twinned crystals that separated.
In general, one need not worry about confusing parting with cleavage. Parting is uncommon, and it
can usually be determined by the distinguishing characteristics mentioned above.

FRACTURE:
Fracture is the characteristic mark left when a mineral chips or breaks. Cleavage and fracture differ in
that cleavage is the break of a crystal face where a new face (resulting in a smooth plane) is formed,
whereas fracture is the "chipping" of a mineral. All minerals exhibit a fracture, even those that exhibit
cleavage. If a mineral with cleavage is chipped a certain way, it will fracture rather than cleave.

There are several terms dubbed for various mineral fractures:

Conchoidal - Fracture resembling a semicircular shell, with a smooth, curved surface. An good
illustration of a conchoidal fracture is a large chip in a piece of glass. This fracture is also known as
"shelly" in some references.

Uneven - Fracture that leaves a rough or irregular surface.

Hackly - Fracture that resembles broken metal, with rough, jagged, points. True metals exhibit this
fracture. This fracture is also known as "jagged".
Splintery - Fracture that forms elongated splinters. All fibrous minerals fall into this category.
Earthy or crumbly - Fracture of minerals that crumble when broken.
Even or smooth - Fracture that forms a smooth surface.
Subconchoidal - Fracture that falls somewhere between conchoidal and even; smooth with irregular
rounded corners.
Some references may describe additional fractures not mentioned above, but those terms are either
synonymous or simply used as a verbal depiction of the authors inference.
Almost all minerals have a characteristic fracture. Some minerals of the same species may exhibit a
different fracture, but this is rare.

Using cleavage, parting, and fracture as an identification mark

A specimen should not be broken to check its fracture habit or cleavage. Rather, it should be checked
for areas of stress where it could have broken or chipped. Fracture marks are rarely present on
minerals with good or excellent cleavage. Minerals with poor cleavage will fracture more often than
those with good or perfect cleavage.

How to test using cleavage, fracture, and parting

Observe the mineral to see if it has any cleaved surfaces or fractured edges. If it has cleaved
surfaces, the quality of the smoothness on the surface should be noted. If there are no visible cleaved
surfaces, it does not mean the mineral does not exhibit cleavage. It is possible that particular
specimen did not cleave. On such a specimen, it is only possible to check cleavage by chipping off a
piece. This should be done gently and carefully in an area which will not degrade its value. If there is a
noticeable fracture on the mineral, it is a signification that the mineral probably has poor cleavage or
none at all.
Observation should be able to distinguish between a cleaved crystal and a crystal that parted.

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