Escolar Documentos
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These modifications can be short term that is lasting only for the duration of the
activity/exercise or long term present as long as the activity is continued on a regular
basis.
Exercise physiologists are interested in both the acute (immediate) & chronic (long-term)
effects & adaptations of exercise on all aspects of body functioning.
Acute adaptations the changes in human physiology that occur during exercise.
Chronic adaptations the alterations in the structure & functions of the body that occur in
response to the regular completion of exercise or physical activity.
Exercise Physiology
The study of how body structure & function is altered by exposure to physical activity
and exercise.
Sport Physiology
The application of the concepts of exercise physiology to training athletes & enhancing
sports performance. (Sport Physiology is derived or evolved from Exercise Physiology)
Knowledge from exercise physiology is used to design effective fitness programs for people
of all ages, to guide the development & implementations of cardiac rehabilitation programs,
to plan programs to help children & youths to incorporate physical activity into their life,
and to structure rehabilitation programs for injured athletes.
Fats
Fat provides 2 times more energy than CHO but less accessible for cellular
metabolism because it must first be reduced from its complex form (triglyceride)
to its basic components: glycerol & free fatty acids (FFA).
Only FFA are used to form ATP.
Fat is a good source of energy, can be stored exceeding 70,000 kcal of energy.
Protein
Protein can be used as energy source if convert into glucose.
Protein converted into glucose through gluconeogenesis.
In severe energy depletion (starvation), protein can be converted to FFA for
cellular energy through lipogenesis.
Protein can supply up to 5-10% of the energy needed to sustain prolonged exercise.
Protein can be used as energy source in basic form of amino acids.
Energy Yield
1 g of CHO (C6H12O6) yields 4 kcal of energy.
1 g of fat (C16H18O2) yields 9 kcal of energy.
1 g of protein (NH2 + CO2H) yields 4.1 kcal of energy.
(Though 1 g of fat can generate 2.25 times as much as a similar amount of CHO, it also
takes substantially more oxygen to metabolize fat than CHO)
B. Bioenergetics
The chemical processes involved with the production of cellular ATP by converting
foodstuffs (i.e., carbohydrates, fats, proteins) into a biologically usable form of
energy.
ATP Production
An ATP molecule consists of adenosine (adenine joined to ribose) combined with 3
inorganic phosphate (Pi) groups.
When acted on by enzyme ATPase (adenosine triphosphatase), the last phosphate
group splits away from the ATP molecule, rapidly releasing a large amount of energy
(7.6 kcal per mole of ATP). This reduces the ATP to ADP & Pi.
ATPase
ATP
ADP + Pi
The process of storing energy by forming ATP from other chemical sources is
called phosphorylation.
Through various chemical reactions, a phosphate (Pi) groups is added to a relatively
low-energy compound, ADP, converting it to ATP.
ADP + Pi
ATP
When these reactions occur without oxygen, the process is called anaerobic
metabolism.
With the aid of O2, the overall process is called aerobic metabolism & the aerobic
conversion of ADP to ATP is oxidative phosphorylation.
Cells generate ATP by 3 methods:
1. ATP-PC system
2. Glycolytic system
3. Oxidative system
PC
Pi + C + energy
ADP + Pi + energy
ATP
2. Glycolytic system
Glucose
(Need 1 ATP)
or
Glycogen
Glucose-6-phosphate
ATP
Pyruric acid
Lactic acid
Figure: Glycolytic system
(Lactic acid is an acid with the chemical formula C3H6O8. Lactate is any salt of lactic
acid. When lactic acid releases H+, the remaining compound joins Na+ or K+ to form a
salt. Anaerobic glycolysis produces lactic acid, but it quickly dissociates & the salt
(lactate) is form.)
3. Oxidative system
The bodys most complex energy system, which generates energy by breakdown of
fuels with the aid of O2 (cellular respiration).
Because O2 is used, this is an aerobic process.
Has a very high-energy yield and yields more energy than the ATP-PC or glycolytic
system.
Oxidative production of ATP occurs within the mitochondria.
Main energy production during endurance activities.
Oxidative production of ATP involves:
i. Oxidation of CHO
ii. Oxidation of Fat
i Oxidation of Carbohydrate
Involves 3 processes:
a. Aerobic glycolysis
b. The Krebs cycle
c. The electron transport chain
Aerobic glycolysis
In CHO metabolism, glucose or glycogen is broken down to pyruvic acid via
glycolytic enzymes.
Hydrogen is released as glucose is metabolized to pyruvic acid.
In the presence of O2, the pyruvic acid is converted into acetyl coenzyme A
(acetyl CoA).
1 mole of glucose produces 2 moles of ATP or 1 mole of glycogen produces 3 moles
of ATP.
The Krebs cycle
Once the acetyl CoA is formed, it enters the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle), a
complex series of chemical reactions that permits the complete oxidation of acetyl
CoA.
At the end of the Krebs cycle, 2 moles of ATP have been formed.
The substrate (CHO) has been broken down into carbon (C) & hydrogen (H).
Remaining C then combine with O2 to form CO2.
H+ released combines with 2 coenzymes: NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) &
FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide) to enter electron transport chain (Supplies
electrons to be passed through the electron transport chain).
5
ii Oxidation of Fat
Muscle & liver glycogen stores provide only 1,200 2,000 kcal of energy.
Fat stored inside the muscle fibers (fat cells) can supply about 70,000 75,000
kcal.
Triglycerides (major energy sources) stored in fat cells in the skeletal muscle
fibers.
Triglycerides break down to its basic units to be used for energy: 1 mol of glycerol
to 3 moles of free fatty acids/FFA (= process lipolysis with lipases enzymes).
FFA can enter blood & be transported throughout the body, entering muscle fibers
by diffusion.
Oxidation
- Upon entering the muscle fibers, FFA are enzymatically activated with energy
from ATP, preparing FFA for catabolism (breakdown) within the mitochondria.
- This enzymatically catabolism of fat (FFA) by the mitochondria = beta oxidation
( oxidation).
- The carbon chain of FFA is cleaved into separate 2-carbon units of acetic acid.
eg. FFA with 16-carbon chain, oxidation yields 8 moles of acetic acid. Each
acetic acid converted to acetyl CoA.
More carbon in FFA, more acetyl CoA is formed from the metabolism of fat, so
more enters the Krebs cycle & more electrons are sent to the e. t. chain. (Fat
metabolism generate more energy than glucose metabolism)
Eg. Palmitic acid, 16-carbon FFA. The combine reaction of oxidation, Krebs cycle, &
e. t. chain produce 129 molecules of ATP from 1 mole of palmitic acid. (1 mol of
glucose/glycogen = 38/39 moles of ATP)
40% of the energy released by metabolism is captured to form ATP, 60% is given
off as heat.
4. Protein Metabolism
Proteins (amino acids) are also used as body fuels.
Some amino acids can be converted into glucose (gluconeogenesis)
Some can be converted into various intermediates of oxidative metabolism (such as
pyruvate or acetyl CoA) to enter the oxidative process.
Proteins energy yield is not easy because it contains nitrogen (N).
When amino acids are catabolized, some of the released N is used to form new
amino acids, but remaining N cannot be oxidized by body.
N is converted into urea & then excreted in the urine. This conversion use ATP, so
some energy is spent in this process.
In laboratory, 1 gram of protein = 5.65 kcal of energy.
When metabolized in the body, energy used to convert N to urea, energy yield is
only about 5.20 kcal per gram (8% less than the lab. Value).
Healthy body utilizes little protein during rest & exercise (< 5-10% of total energy
expended).
Estimates of energy expenditure generally ignore protein metabolism.
Enzyme Activity
Many enzymes are required for oxidation.
The enzyme activity of the muscle fibers provides an indication of the oxidative
potential.
The enzymes most frequently measured are SDH (succinate dehydrogenase), CS
(citrate synthase) & mitochondria enzymes in the Krebs cycle.
Endurance athletes muscles have oxidative enzyme activities 2-4 times greater
than those untrained men & women.
Fiber-type Composition
Muscles fiber-type composition determines its oxidative capacity.
Slow-twitch (ST) fibers have a greater capacity for aerobic activity than the Fasttwitch (FT) fibers because ST fibers have more mitochondria & higher
concentrations of oxidative enzymes.
More ST fibers, the greater oxidative capacity in the muscle.
FT fibers are better suited for glycolytic energy production.
Elite distance runners have reported to process more ST fibers, more mitochondria
& higher muscle oxidative enzyme activity than untrained individuals.
Endurance training enhances the oxidative capacity of fibers, especially FT fibers.
Training that places demands on oxidative phosphorylation stimulates the muscle
fibers to develop more mitochondria that are also larger & contain more oxidative
enzymes.
By increasing the fibers enzymes for oxidation, this training also enables the
muscle to rely more heavily on fat for ATP production.
With endurance training, even people with large % of FT fibers can increase their
muscles aerobic capacities.
Endurance-trained FT fiber will not develop the same high-endurance capacity as a
similarly trained ST fiber.
Oxygen Needs
Oxidative metabolism depends on an adequate supply of O2.
When at rest, bodys need for ATP is small, requiring minimal O2 delivery.
As exercise intensity increases, to meet the energy demands, the rate of oxidative
ATP production also increases.
In an effort to satisfy the muscle need for O2, the rate & depth of the respiration
increase, improving gas exchange in the lungs, & heart beats faster, pumping more
oxygenated blood to the muscle.
C. Causes of Fatigue
1. Depletion of PC or glycogen.
The depletion of PC or glycogen will impairs ATP production, thus fatigue is caused
by inadequate energy supply.
2. Accumulation of metabolic by-products.
Accumulation of hydrogen (H+) decreases muscle pH, causes muscle acidification
(acidosis), which impairs the cellular processes that produce energy (inhibits the
action of glycolytic enzyme, slowing the rate of glycolysis & ATP production) &
muscle contraction.
3. Failure of neural transmission in the muscle fiber. Fatigue may occur at the
motor end plate, preventing nerves impulse transmission to the muscle fiber
membrane, thus cause the neuromuscular block and leads to neuromuscular fatigue.
4. CNS may cause fatigue.
Perceived fatigue usually leads to psychologically exhausted/fatigue and the
exhausted feeling can often be psychologically trauma and may inhibit the athletes
willingness to tolerate further pain or to continue exercise.
SUMMARY
1.
About 60% to 70% of the energy in human body is degraded to heat. The
remainder is used for mechanical work & cellular activities.
2.
Humans derive energy from food sources CHO, fats, & proteins.
3.
The energy humans derive from food is stored in a high-energy compound ATP.
4.
CHO provides about 4 kcal of energy per gram, compared to about 9 kcal of energy
per gram for fat; but CHO is more accessible. Protein can also provide energy.
5.
6.
7.
8.
The ATP-PC and glycolytic systems are major contributors of energy during the
early minutes of high-intensity exercise.
9.
The oxidative system involves breakdown of fuels with aid of oxygen. This system
yields more energy than the ATP-PC or glycolytic system.
10.
Oxidation of carbohydrate involves glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron
transport chain. The end result is H2O, CO2, and 38 or39 ATP molecules per
carbohydrate molecule.
11.
Fat oxidation begins with oxidation of free fatty acids, then follows the same
path as carbohydrate oxidation: the Krebs cycle and the electron transport chain.
The energy yield for fat oxidation and it varies with the free fatty acid being
oxidized.
10
12.
Protein oxidation is more complex because protein (amino acids) contains nitrogen,
which cannot be oxidized. Protein contributes relatively little to energy production,
so its metabolism is often overlooked.
13.
Your muscles oxidative capacity depends on their oxidative enzyme levels, their
fiber-type composition, and oxygen availability.
14.
15.
Lactic acid has often been blamed for fatigue, but it is actually the H+ generated
by lactic acid that leads to fatigue. The accumulation of H+ decreases muscle pH,
which impair the cellular processes that produce energy & muscle contraction.
16.
17.
The CNS may also cause fatigue, perhaps as a protective mechanism. Perceived
fatigue usually leads to physiological fatigue, and athletes who feel psychologically
exhausted can often inhibit their willingness to continue exercise or to tolerate
further pain.
11
EXERCISE
(Basic Energy System)
Name : _____________________________________
Group : _______________________
1. What is bioenergetics?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
ii.
_____________________________________________________________________________
iii. _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
ii.
_____________________________________________________________________________
iii. _____________________________________________________________________________
iv. _____________________________________________________________________________
v.
_____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
ii.
____________________________________________________________________________
iii. ____________________________________________________________________________
iv. ____________________________________________________________________________
8. Name the three (3) processes that involve the oxidative of carbohydrate in production of ATP.
i.
____________________________________________________________________________
ii.
____________________________________________________________________________
iii. ____________________________________________________________________________
9. Name the three (3) processes that involve the oxidative of fat in production of ATP.
i.
____________________________________________________________________________
ii.
____________________________________________________________________________
iii. ____________________________________________________________________________
10. List two (2) roles of oxygen in the process of aerobic metabolism.
i.
____________________________________________________________________________
ii.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
ii.
____________________________________________________________________________
iii. ____________________________________________________________________________
iv. ____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
ii.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
iii. _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
ii.
____________________________________________________________________________
iii. ____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
17. What is the role of NAD and FAD in the Krebs cycle?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
ii.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
iii. _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
iv. ________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
1. Adaptations in Muscle
Repeated use of muscle fibers stimulates changes in their structure & function.
Endurance training & the changes it produces in
Capillary supply,
Myoglobin content,
Oxidative enzymes.
Muscle fiber type
Endurance training stresses ST muscle fibers more than FT fibers.
Consequently, ST muscle fibers enlarge.
FTb fibers may adopt FTa characteristics with endurance training, but percentages
of ST & FT fibers do not appear to change.
Capillary supply
Aerobic training increases both the number of capillaries supplying each muscle
fiber and the number of capillaries for a given cross-section area of muscle.
Therefore, both changes improve/increases blood perfusion in the muscles, thus
enhancing the exchange of gases, wastes, & nutrients between the blood and muscle
fibers.
Myoglobin content
Muscle myoglobin content increases by 75%-80% with endurance training.
Myoglobin stores O2.
Mitochondrial function
Endurance training increases both in number and size of the skeletal muscle
mitochondria, proving the muscle with much more efficient oxidative metabolism.
Ability to use O2 & ATP production via oxidation depends on the number, size &
efficiency of mitochondria.
1
Oxidative enzymes
Aerobic training also increases the activities of many oxidative enzymes.
E.g. succinic dehydrogenase (SDH) & citrate synthase.
Increase in enzymatic activities shows the increases in number & size of
mitochondria and capacity of ATP production.
2. Intensity of Training
Intensity is a critical factor in improving performance. Adaptations are specific to
the speed & duration of training bouts, so those who perform at higher intensities
must train at higher intensities.
Aerobic interval training
Involves repeated bouts of high-intensity performance separated by brief rest
periods. Based on work: rest ratio.
This training, although traditionally considered only anaerobic, generates aerobic
benefits because the rest period is so brief that full recovery cannot occur, thus
the aerobic system is stressed.
Continuous training
Prolonged bout of exercise, therefore athletes find it boring.
However, aerobic benefits of both training interval & continuous are about the
same.
Anaerobic training leads to increase muscular strength and a greater tolerance for
acid-base imbalances during highly intense exercise.
Activities that emphasize maximal muscle force production (sprinting & weight
lifting) rely most on the ATP-PC system for energy.
Maximal efforts lasting less than 6-s demands on the breakdown & resynthesis of
ATP-PC.
# Anaerobic training increases the ATP-PC & glycolytic enzymes but has no effect on the
oxidative enzymes. Conversely, aerobic training leads to increases in oxidative enzymes,
but has no effect on the ATP-PC or glycolytic enzymes.
# This fact reinforces a recurring theme physiological alterations resulting from training
are highly specific to the type of training pursued.
This changes is small, this enhancement of the muscles oxidative potential will
assist the anaerobic energy systems efforts to meet muscle energy needs during
highly anaerobic effort.
Buffering Capacity
Anaerobic training improves the muscles capacity to tolerate the acid that
accumulates within them during anaerobic glycolysis.
Lactic acid accumulation is a major cause of fatigue during sprint-type exercise
because the H+ that dissociates from it is to interfere with both metabolism & the
contractile process.
Buffer (such as bicarbonate & muscle phosphates) combine with hydrogen to reduce
the fibers acidity; thus they can delay the onset of fatigue during exercise.
8 weeks of anaerobic training has been shown to increased muscle buffering
capacity by 12% - 25% (Sharp et al., 1986).
Aerobic training has no effect on buffer potential.
With the increased buffering capacity, sprint-trained athletes can accumulate
more lactate in their blood & muscle during & following an all-out sprint to
exhaustion than untrained individuals.
This is because the H+ that dissociates from the lactic acid, not the lactate that
accumulates, leads to fatigue.
With enhanced buffering capacity, muscle can generate energy for longer periods
before a critically high concentration of H+ inhibits the contractile process.
VO2max is considered to be the best means for evaluating training adaptations. But
the test is too impractical for widespread use, & it cannot measure muscle
adaptations to training.
Multiple measurements of blood lactate levels during an exercise bout of increasing
intensity have been proposed as a good means for monitoring progress of training,
but these tests are also impractical.
Various methods for monitoring training adaptations have been tried, but the
easiest seems to be comparing single blood lactate values taken at various times
during a training period, after a fixed-pace activity is performed. Even with his
method, many questions remain unanswered about what actually happens within the
body in response to the training stimulus.
SUMMARY
1.
Aerobic training stresses ST muscle fibers more than FT fibers. Consequently, the
ST muscle fibers tend to enlarge with training. Although the percentages of ST &
FT fibers do not appear to change, aerobic training may cause FTb fibers to take on
more FTa fiber characteristics.
2.
The number of capillaries supplying each muscle fiber increases with training.
3.
4.
Aerobic training increases both the number and the size of mitochondria.
5.
6.
All the changes that occur in the muscles, combined with adaptations in the O2
transport system, lead to enhanced functioning of the oxidative system & improve
endurance.
7.
8.
Endurance-trained muscle also stores more fat (triglyceride) than untrained muscle.
9.
10.
The ideal training regimen should have a caloric expenditure of about 5000-6000
kcal per week (715 860 kcal per day). There seems to be little benefit in the
aerobic system beyond this level.
11.
12.
13.
Continuous training is done as one prolonged bout of exercise, but many athletes
find it boring.
6
14.
The aerobic benefits from both interval training & continuous high-intensity
training seem to be about the same.
15.
16.
Anaerobic training also improves the efficiency of movement, and more efficient
movement requires less energy expenditure.
17.
18.
Anaerobic training, allowing the achievement of higher muscle & blood lactate
levels, increases muscle-buffering capacity. This allows the H+ that dissociates
from lactic acid to be neutralized (the bicarbonate & muscle phosphates combine
with H+, decreasing the acidity), thus delaying fatigue.
19.
Changes in muscle enzyme activity are highly specific to the type of training.
EXERCISE 6
(Metabolic Adaptations to Training)
Name : _______________________________________
3. Explain briefly the adaptations that occur in the muscle as the result of aerobic training.
a. ____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
b. ____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
c.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
d. ____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
e. ____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
f.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
4. What effect does aerobic training have on the energy sources used during exercise?
a. ____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
b. ____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
5. Describe the changes in muscle buffering capacity resulting from anaerobic training. How might this
improve performance?
a. _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
b. _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Sarcoplasm contains proteins, minerals, glycogen, fats & other organells. It differs
from other cytoplasm because it contains high glucose and myoglobin ( O2- binding
compound found in the muscle).
Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) are extensive network that runs longitudinally through
the muscle fiber. Its main function is to store calcium (Ca++) ions essential for
muscle contraction.
2. The Myofibril
There are striation consisting of the A-band (dark region/zone) and the I-band
(light region/zone).
Myosin
A thick filament, folded into a globular head at one end.
Composed of 2 protein strands twisted together.
Each myosin head protrudes from the filaments to form cross-bridges, which also
contains binding sites for ATP & ATPase.
Actin
Consists of 3 different protein molecules: Actin contains active sites to which myosin heads can bind.
Tropomyosin during rest lie on top of active sites.
Troponin work together with ca++ ions to maintain relaxation or initiate action of
the myofibril.
One end of each actin filament is attached to a Z disk.
Each muscle fiber is innervated by a single motor nerve, ending near the middle of
the muscle fiber.
A single motor nerve & all the muscle fibers it supplies/innervates are collectively
termed a motor unit.
Muscle action is initiated by a motor nerve impulse. The motor nerve releases Ach
(acetylcholine), which opens up ion gates in the muscle cell membrane, allowing
sodium to enter the muscle cell (depolarization). If the cell is sufficiently
depolarized, an action potential is fired and muscle action occurs.
The action potential travels along the sarcolemma, then through the tubule system,
& eventually causes stored calcium to be released from sarcoplasmic reticulum.
Calcium binds with troponin, & then troponin lifts the tropomyosin molecules off of
the active sites on the actin filament, opening these sites for binding with the
myosin head.
Once it binds with the actin active site, the myosin head tilts, pulling the actin
filaments so that the two slide across each other. The tilting of myosin head is the
power stroke (The sliding filament theory).
2
Energy is required before muscle action can occur. The myosin head binds to ATP, &
ATPase found on the head splits ATP into ADP & Pi, releasing energy to fuel the
contraction.
Muscle action ends when calcium is actively pumped out of the sarcoplasm back
into the sarcoplasmic reticulum for storage. This process, leading to relaxation,
also requires energy supplied by ATP.
On average most muscles are composed of roughly 50% ST fibers, & 25% FTa.
Remaining 25% are mostly FTb.
System 1
System 2
System 3
Characteristic:
Oxidative capacity
Glycolytic capacity
Contractile speed
Fatigue resistance
Motor unit strength
ST
Type I
SO
High
Low
Slow
High
Low
Fiber classification
FTa
Type IIa
FOG
Moderately high
High
Fast
Moderate
High
FTb
Type IIb
FG
Low
Highest
Fast
Low
High
Characteristic:
Aerobic capacity
Anaerobic capacity
Motor unit force
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
development
Type of myosin ATPase
Nerve conduction velocity
Motor neuron size
Fiber per motor neuron
Contractile speed
High
Low
Low
Low
Fiber type
FTa
Moderate
High
High
High
Low
High
High
High
Slow
Slow
Small
10-180
50
Fast
Fast
Large
300-800
110
Fast
Fast
Large
300-800
110
ST
FTb
The ATPase in the FT fibers acts faster, providing energy for muscle action more
quickly than the ATPase in ST fibers.
Motor neurons supplying FT motor units are larger and supply more fibers than do
neurons for ST motor units. Thus FT motor units have more fibers to contract and
can produce more force than ST motor units.
The proportions of ST and FT fibers in an individuals arm and leg muscles usually
quite similar.
ST fibers have high aerobic endurance and are well suited to low-intensity
endurance activities.
FT fibers are better for anaerobic activity. FTa fibers are well utilized in explosive
bouts of exercise. FTb fibers are not well understood, but it is known that they are
not easily recruited into activity.
ST Fibers
High level of aerobic endurance, therefore ST fibers are very efficient at
producing ATP from the oxidation of carbohydrates & fats.
Recruited at low-intensity and long duration exercise.
Therefore, mostly used during high muscular endurance exercise such as
marathon running or channel swimming.
FT Fibers
Anaerobic
FTa - > force that ST but fatigue easily, therefore recruited mostly during high
intensity exercise that last for short period of time e.g. 1-mile run, 400m swim
FTb not easily recruited. Therefore only during very high intensity and
explosive events e.g. 100m dash/sprint & 50m sprint swim.
Motor units give all-or-none responses. For a unit to be recruited into activity, the
motor nerve impulse must meet or exceed the threshold. When this occurs, all
muscle fibers in the motor unit act maximally. If the threshold is not met, no fibers
in that unit act.
More force is produced by activating more motor units, and thus more muscle
fibers.
World champions in marathon have been reported to posses 93% to 99% ST fibers
in their gastrocnemius muscles. World-class sprinters, however, have about 25% ST
fibers in this muscle.
4. Use of Muscle
Agonists produce most of the force needed for any particular movement.
Synergists assist the agonists & sometimes are involved in fine-tuning the direction
of movement. The antagonists play a protective role.
The 3
Generation of force
Force production can be maximized if the muscle is stretched 20% prior to action.
At this point, the amount of energy stored & the number of linked actin-myosin
cross-bridges are optimum.
All joints have an optimal angle at which the muscle crossing the joint function to
produce maximum force. This angle varies with the relative position of the muscles
insertion on the bone & the load placed on the muscle.
Speed of action also affects the amount of force produced. For concentric action,
maximum force can be achieved with slower contractions. The closer to get to zero
velocity (static) the more force can be generated. With eccentric actions, however,
faster movement allows more force production.
SUMMARY
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
An actin filament is composed of actin, tropomyosin, and troponin. One end of each
actin filament is attached to a Z disk.
9.
Muscle action is initiated by a motor nerve impulse. The motor nerve releases Ach,
which opens up ion gates in the muscle cell membrane, allowing sodium to enter the
muscle cell (depolarization). If the cell is sufficiently depolarized, an action
potential is fired and muscle action occurs.
10.
The action potential travels along the sarcolemma, then through the tubule system,
& eventually causes stored calcium ions to be released from sarcoplasmic reticulum.
11.
Calcium ions bind with troponin, & then troponin lifts the tropomyosin molecules off
of the active sites on the actin filament, opening these sites for binding with the
myosin heads to bind strongly with them.
12.
Once a strong binding state is established with the actin, the myosin head tilts,
pulling the actin filament so that the two slide across each other. The tilting of
myosin head is the power stroke.
13.
Energy is required before muscle action can occur. The myosin head binds to ATP, &
ATPase found on the head splits ATP into ADP & Pi, releasing energy to fuel the
contraction.
14.
Muscle action ends when calcium is actively pumped out of the sarcoplasm back
into the sarcoplasmic reticulum for storage. This process, leading to relaxation,
also requires energy supplied by ATP.
15.
16.
The different fiber types have different ATPases. The ATPase in the FT fibers
acts faster, providing energy for muscle action more quickly than the ATPase in ST
fibers.
17.
18.
Motor neurons supplying FT motor units are larger and supply more fibers than do
neurons for ST motor units. Thus FT motor units have more fibers to contract and
can produce more force than ST motor units.
19.
The proportions of ST and FT fibers in an individuals arm and leg muscles usually
quite similar.
20.
ST fibers have high aerobic endurance and are well suited to low-intensity
endurance activities.
21.
FT fibers are better for anaerobic activity. FTa fibers are well utilized in explosive
bouts of exercise. FTb fibers are not well understood, but it is known that they are
not easily recruited into activity.
22.
23.
The 3 main types of muscle action are concentric, in which the muscle shortens;
static, in which the muscle acts but the joint angle is unchanged; & eccentric, in
which the muscle lengthens.
24.
25.
Force production can be maximized if the muscle is stretched 20% prior to action.
At this point, the amount of energy stored & the number of linked actin-myosin
cross-bridges are optimum.
26.
All joints have an optimal angle at which the muscle crossing the joint function to
produce maximum force. This angle varies with the relative position of the muscles
insertion on the bone & the load placed on the muscle.
9
27.
Speed of action also affects the amount of force produced. For concentric action,
maximum force can be achieved with slower contractions. The closer to get to zero
velocity (static) the more force can be generated. With eccentric actions, however,
faster movement allows more force production.
10
EXERCISE
(Muscular Control of Movement)
Name : _____________________________________________
Group : _____________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
ii.
_____________________________________________________________________________
iii. _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
ii.
_____________________________________________________________________________
iii. _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
iv. _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
3. List five (5) characteristics of a slow-twitch muscle fiber.
i.
_____________________________________________________________________________
ii.
_____________________________________________________________________________
iii. _____________________________________________________________________________
iv. _____________________________________________________________________________
v.
_____________________________________________________________________________
4. Why slow-twitch muscle fibers better suited to perform low-intensity and long duration events such as
long distance swimming and cross-country running?
i.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
ii.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
ii.
_____________________________________________________________________________
iii. _____________________________________________________________________________
iv. _____________________________________________________________________________
v.
_____________________________________________________________________________
6. Why fast-twitch muscle fibers better suited to perform short and explosive events such as
the 100-m dash and 50-m sprint swim?
i.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
ii.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
iii. _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
7. List two (2) functional differences between the fast twitch and the slow twitch fibers.
i.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
ii.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
ii.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
11. Discuss the role of the muscle spindles in controlling muscle action.
i.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
ii.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
12. Discuss the primary factors thought to be responsible for generating force during muscular
contractions.
i.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
ii.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
iii. _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
2. The dendrites
3. The axon
Most neurons contain many dendrites (neurons receivers) receive impulses then
carry toward the cell body.
Most neurons have only one axon (neurons transmitter) conducts impulses away
from the cell body.
Axon splits near its end into branches called axon terminals (terminal fibrils).
The tips of the axon terminals are called the synaptic knobs containing vesicle
(sacs) filled with chemicals, known as neurotransmitter used for communication
between neuron and another cell.
Nerve impulse is an electrical charge is the signal that passes from one neuron to
the next and finally to an end organ.
Changes in the membrane potential are signals used to receive, transmit and
integrate information within & between cells.
These signals are of two (2) types graded potentials & action potentials. Both are
electrical currents created by the movement of ions
Graded Potentials
These are localized changes in the membrane potential can be either
depolarizations or hyperpolarizations.
These are triggered by local changes in the neurons local environment.
Action Potentials
An action potential is a rapid and substantial depolarization of the neurons
membrane.
Typically, membrane potential changes from the RMP -70 mV to a value of +30 mV,
and then rapidly returns to its resting value.
All action potentials begin as graded potentials. Action potentials are generated
when enough stimulation occurs to cause a depolarization (at least 15 20 mV).
That means if the membrane depolarizes from the RMP of -70 mV to a value of -50
mV to -55 mV, the cell will experience an action potential.
The minimum depolarization required to produce an action potential is called the
threshold.
Any depolarization less than the threshold value of 15 20 mV will not result in an
action potential. This is the All-or-None Principle.
3. The Synapse
The neuromuscular junction is where motor neuron communicates with the muscle
fiber.
It involves:1. Presynaptic axon terminals (motor endplates),
2. The synaptic cleft, &
3. Receptors on the sarcolemma of the muscle fiber.
The neuromuscular junction functions much like a neural synapse.
5. Neurotransmitters
SUMMARY
1.
Nerve impulses typically pass from the dendrites to the cell body and from the cell
body along the length of the axon to its terminal fibrils.
2.
A neurons RMP of -70 mV results from the separation of sodium & potassium ions
maintained primarily by the sodium-potassium pump, coupled with low sodium
permeability & high potassium permeability of the neuron membrane
3.
Any change making the membrane potential more positive is a depolarization. Any
change making this potential more negative is a hyperpolarization. These changes
occur when ion gates in the membrane open, permitting ions to move from one side
to the other.
4
4.
5.
6.
In myelinated neurons, the impulse travels through the axon by jumping between
nodes of Ranvier (gaps between the cells that form the myelin sheath). This
process, salutatory conduction, is 5 to 50 times faster than in unmylinated fibers
of the same size.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Neurotransmitters diffuse across the cleft and are bound to the postsynaptic
receptors.
12.
Once neurotransmitters are bound, the impulse has been successfully transmitted
and the neurotransmitter is then either destroyed by enzymes or actively returned
to the presynaptic neuron for future use.
13.
Neurotransmitter binding at the postsynaptic receptors opens the ion gates in that
membrane and can cause depolarization (excitation) or hyperpolarization
(inhibition), depending on the specific neurotransmitter and the receptors to which
it binds.
14.
15.
synapse involves:
the axon terminals of the presynaptic neuron,
the postsynaptic receptors on the dendrite or cell body of the next neuron, &
the space (synaptic cleft) between the two neurons.
Sensory Division
(Afferent)
Motor Division
(Efferent)
Autonomic
Nervous
System
(Involuntary)
Somatic
Nervous
System
(Voluntary)
CNS
CNS is composed of the brain and the spinal cord.
CNS houses more than 100 billion neurons.
1. The Brain
Cerebrum
Composed of the right & left cerebral hemispheres.
These are connected to each other by fiber bundles (tracts) referred to as the
corpus callosum, allowing the 2 hemispheres to communicate with each other.
The cerebral cortex (gray matter) forms the outer portion has been referred to as
the site of the mind & intellect.
Cerebral cortex is the conscious brain. It allows us to think, to be aware of sensory
stimuli, & to voluntary control of movements.
Cerebrum consists of 5 lobes: - 4 outer lobes & the central insula (not discuss)
1. Frontal lobe general intellect & motor control,
2. Temporal lobe auditory input & its interpretation,
3. Parietal lobe general sensory & its interpretation,
4. Occipital lobe - visual input & its interpretation.
Diencephalon
Composed of the thalamus & the hypothalamus.
Thalamus is an important sensory integration center.
All sensory input (except smell) enters the thalamus & is relayed to the appropriate
area of the cortex.
Thalamus regulates what sensory input reaches the conscious brain, & thus is very
important for motor control.
Cerebellum
Located behind the brain stem.
Connected to numerous parts of the brain & has a crucial role in controlling
movement.
Brain stem
Composed of the midbrain, the pons, & the medulla oblongata.
Is the stalk of the brain, connecting the brain & the spinal cord.
All sensory & motor nerves pass through the brain stem as they relay information
between the brain & the spinal cord.
Also contains the major autonomic regulatory centers that exert control over the
respiratory & cardiovascular systems.
A specialized collection of neurons running the entire length of the brain stem,
known as the reticular formation, are influenced by & have an influence on nearly all
areas of the CNS. These neurons help:1. coordinate skeletal muscle function,
2. maintain muscle tone,
3. control cardiovascular & respiratory functions, &
4. determine our state of consciousness (both arousal & sleep).
The brain has a pain control system, called an analgesia system. The enkephalins &
-enorphin are important opiate substances that act on the opiate receptors in the
analgesia system to help reduce pain. Exercise of long duration has been postulated to
increase the natural levels of these opiate substances.
Functionally, the PNS has 2 major divisions: sensory division & motor division.
The sensory division of PNS carries sensory information from sensory receptors
toward the CNS.
Sensory (afferent) neurons originate in such areas: blood & lymph vessels, internal
organs, special sense organs (taste, touch, smell, hearing, vision), the skin, and
muscles & tendons.
Sensory neurons in the PNS end either in the spinal cord or in the brain.
The sensory division receives information from 5 primary types of receptors:o Mechanoreceptors that respond to mechanical forces such as pressure, touch,
vibration, or stretch.
o Thermoreceprtors that respond to changes in temperature.
o Nociceptors that respond to painful stimuli.
o Photoreceptors that respond to electromagnetic radiation (light) to allow vision.
o Chemoreceptors that respond to chemical stimuli, such as from foods, odors, or
changes in blood concentrations of substances such as O2, CO2, glucose,
electrolytes, & so on.
The nerve endings of mechanoreceptors, thermoreceprtors & nociceptors are
important for the prevention of injury during athletic performance.
Special muscle & joint nerve endings are of many types & functions, and each type is
sensitive to a specific stimulus:
o Joint kinesthetic receptors located in the joint capsules are sensitive to joint
angles & rates of change in these angles. Thus, they sense the position & any
movement of the joints.
o Muscles spindles sense how much a muscle is stretched.
o Golgi tendon organs detect the tension applied by a muscle to its tendon,
providing information about the strength of muscle contraction.
The motor division of PNS carries motor impulses out from the CNS to
various part of the body (target areas muscles) through the motor (efferent)
neurons.
9
The motor division is divided into 2 components: the autonomic nervous system
(involuntary) & the somatic nervous system (voluntary).
The ANS controls the bodys involuntary internal functions. Some of these
functions that are important to sport & activity include heart rate, blood pressure,
blood distribution, & respiration.
ANS has 2 major divisions: the sympathetic NS & the parasympathetic NS.
The effects of the two systems are often antagonistic, but both systems are
always functioning together.
The Sympathetic Nervous System
Coronary vessels dilate, increasing the blood supply to the heart muscle to
meet its increased demands (Coronary blood vessels).
Vasoconstriction in most other tissues diverts blood away from them & to
the active muscles (Blood vessels).
Blood pressure increases, allow better perfusion of the muscles & improving
the return of venous blood to the heart (Blood vessels).
Metabolic rate increases, reflecting the bodys effort to meet the increased
demands of physical activity (Cellular metabolism).
Glucose is released from the liver into the blood as an energy source (Liver).
Functions not directly needed are slowed (e.g., renal function, digestion),
conserving energy so that it can be used for action.
Decreased HR & the force of the heart muscle contraction (Heart muscle),
1. Sensory Input
Sensory input can terminate in sensory areas of the brain stem, the cerebellum, the
thalamus, or the cerebral cortex.
An area in which the sensory impulses terminate is referred to as an integration
center. This is where the sensory input is interpreted & linked to the motor system.
2. Motor Control
Skeletal muscles are controlled by impulses conducted by motor (efferent) neurons
that originate from any of 3 levels: the spinal cord, the lower regions of the brain,
& the motor area of the cerebral cortex.
The degree of movement complexity increases from simple reflex control to
complicated movements requiring thought processes.
Motor responses for more complex movement patterns typically originate in the
motor cortex of the brain.
3. Reflex Activity
A motor reflex is a preprogrammed response; any time the sensory nerves transmit
certain impulses, the body responds instantly & identically
Reflexes are the simplest form of motor control. They are preprogrammed
responses, therefore not the conscious response.
11
All neural activity occurs extremely rapidly, but the reflex is the fastest mode of
response because the body does not need time to make a conscious decision.
Muscle Spindles
MS are sensory receptors located in the muscle that senses how much the muscle is
stretched.
A muscle spindle comprises specialized muscle fibers called intrafusal fibers
(inside the spindle) & these fibers are controlled by specialized motor neurons,
called gamma motor neurons.
Golgi Tendon Organs
GTO are encapsulated sensory receptors located in muscle tendon fibers that
monitor tension.
GTO are sensitive to tension in the muscle tendon & operate like a strain gauge, a
device that senses changes in tension.
GTO are inhibitory in nature, performing a protective function by reducing the
potential for injury.
Most movements used in sport activities involve control & coordination through the
higher brain centers specially:
The cerebellum.
The Primary Motor Cortex
PMC which located in the frontal lobe. Neurons here, known as pyramidal cells, allow
us consciously control movement of the skeletal muscles.
PMC is responsible for the control of fine discrete muscle movements.
The Basal Ganglia
Basal ganglia (nuclei) located in the cerebral white matter, deep to the cortex.
BG are known to be important in the initiation of movements of a sustained &
repetitive nature (such as arm swinging while walking), & thus they control complex
semivoluntary movements such as walking & running.
12
5. Engrams
The motor nerve (neuron) and the group of muscle fibers it innervates form a single
motor unit.
Each muscle fiber is innervated by only one motor neuron, but each motor neuron
can innervates up to several thousand muscle fibers.
All muscle fibers within a single specific motor unit are homogeneous with respect
to fiber type. Thus we do not find a motor unit has both FT & ST fibers.
Motor units are generally activated on the basis of a fixed order of recruitment.
This is known as the principle of orderly recruitment.
Motor unit are recruited in an orderly manner, therefore specific ones are called on
each time a specific activity is performed.
The size principle explained that the order of recruitment of motor units is
directly related to their motor neuron size.
Motor units with smaller neurons (ST fibers) will be recruited first before larger
neurons (FT fibers).
13
SUMMARY
1.
The central nervous system is composed of the brain and the spinal cord.
2.
The 4 major divisions of the brain are the cerebrum, the diencephalon, the
cerebellum & the brain stem.
3.
4.
The diencephalon includes the thalamus, which reveices all sensory input entering
the brain & the hypothalamus, which is a major control center for homeostasis.
5.
The cerebellum, which is connected to numerous parts of the brain, is critical for
coordinating movement.
6.
The brain stem is composed of the midbrain, the pons, & the medulla oblongata.
7.
The spinal cord carries both sensory & motor fibers between the brain and the
periphery.
8.
The PNS contains 43 pairs of nerves: 12 pairs of cranial nerves & 31 pairs of spinal
nerves.
9.
The PNS subdivided into sensory division & motor division. The motor division also
includes the autonomic nervous system.
10.
The sensory division carries information from sensory receptors to the CNS so
that the CNS is constantly aware of the current status & environment.
11.
The motor division carries motor impulses out from the CNS to the muscles.
12.
The autonomic nervous system includes the sympathetic NS, which is the fight-orflight system, & the parasympathetic NS, which is the housekeeping system.
Though these systems often oppose each other, they always function together.
13.
Sensory-motor integration is the process by which the PNS relays sensory input to
the CNS and the CNS interprets this information then sends out the appropriate
motor signal to elicit the desired motor response.
14.
Sensory input can terminate at various levels of the CNS. Not all information
reaches the brain.
14
15.
Reflexes are the simplest form of motor control. They are not the conscious
response. For a given sensory stimulus, the motor response is always identical and
instantaneous.
16.
The level of nervous system control varies in response to sensory input according to
the complexity of movement necessary. Simple reflexes are handled by the spinal
cord, whereas complex reactions require involvement of the brain.
17.
Muscle spindles trigger reflexive muscle action when the muscle spindle is
stretched.
18.
Golgi tendon organs trigger a reflex that inhibits contraction if the tendon fibers
are overstretched.
19.
The primary motor cortex, located in the frontal lobe, is the center of conscious
motor control.
20.
The basal ganglia, in the cerebral white matter, help initiate some movements
(sustained & repetitive ones) & help control posture & muscle tone.
21.
The cerebellum is involved in all rapid & complex movement processes & assists the
primary motor cortex & the basal ganglia in coordinating the response. It is an
integration center that decides how to best execute the desired movement, given
the bodys current position & the muscles current status.
22.
Though not well understood, engrams are memorized motor patterns, stored in both
the sensory & motor areas of the brain, that are called upon as needed.
23.
Each muscle fiber is innervated by only one motor neuron, but each neuron can
innervates up to several thousand muscle fibers.
24.
All muscle fibers within a single motor unit are of the same fiber type.
25.
Motor units are recruited in an orderly manner, so that specific ones are called on
each time a specific activity is performed.
26.
Motor units with smaller neurons (ST fibers) are called on before those with larger
neurons (FT fibers).
15
EXERCISE
(Neurological Control of Movement)
Name : _______________________________________
Group : _________
Date: ______________
21. Describe briefly the significance of the sympathetic stimulation to perform physical activity.
i.
_____________________________________________________________________________
ii.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
iii. _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
iv. _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
ii.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
iii. _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
iv. _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
ii.
_____________________________________________________________________________
iii. _____________________________________________________________________________
iv. _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
ii.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Delivery
Removal
Transport
Blood delivering O2 & nutrients & picking up waste products, returns through the
great veins superior vena cava & inferior vena cava to the right atrium (RA).
The (RA) chamber receives all the bodys deoxygenated blood.
From the (RA), blood passes through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle
(RV).
The (RV) chamber pumps the blood through the pulmonary semilunar valve into
pulmonary artery, which carries the blood to the lungs.
Thus, the right side of the heart is known as the pulmonary side, sending the blood
that has circulated throughout the body into the lungs for reoxygenation.
After receiving a fresh supply of O2, the blood exits the lungs through the
pulmonary veins, which carry it back to the heart & into the left atrium (LA).
The (LA) chamber receives all the freshly oxygenated blood.
From (LA), blood passes through the bicuspid (mitral) valve into the left ventricle
(LV).
Blood leaves the left ventricle by passing through the aortic semilunar valve into
the aorta, which sends it out to all body parts & systems.
The left side of the heart is known as the systemic side receives the oxygenated
blood from the lungs then sends it out to supply all body tissues.
1
Cardiac muscle has the unique ability to generate its own electrical signal, called
autoconduction, which allows it contract rhythmically without neural stimulation.
The intrinsic heart rate (HR) averages 70 -80- beats per minute (contractions).
HR can drop below this rate in endurance-trained people.
The impulse for heart contraction is initiated in the sinoatrial (SA) node, a group
of specialized cardiac muscle fibers located in the posterior wall of the right
atrium.
This tissue (SA node) generates the impulse at about 60 -80 beats per minutes.
SA node is known as the hearts pacemaker, & the beating rate is establishes is
called the sinus rhythm.
The electrical impulse generated by the SA node spreads through both atria &
reaches the atrioventricular (AV) node, located in the right atrial wall near the
center of the heart.
As the impulse spreads through the atria, both atria are signaled to contract
immediately & simultaneously.
AV node conducts the impulse from the atria into the ventricles.
2
The impulse is delayed by about 0.13s as it passes through the AV node, then it
enters the AV bundle.
The delay allows the atria to fully contract before the ventricle, maximizing
ventricular filling.
AV bundle travels along the ventricular septum & then sends right & left bundle
branches into 2 ventricles.
These branches send the impulse toward the apex of the heart, then outward.
These terminal branches of the AV bundles are the Purkinje fibers (Pf).
Pf transmit the impulse through the ventricles 6 times faster than the rest of the
cardiac conduction system.
* Cardiac tissue is capable of autoconduction. Cardiac conduction system has own
conduction system initiates own pulse without neural control.
* SA node is the hearts pacemaker, establishing the pulse and coordinate activity
throughout the heart.
2.
Acts on the heart through the vagus nerve (cranial nerve X).
Parasympathetic stimulation = vagal tone
Vagus nerves has a depressant effect, it slows impulse conduction & thus
decrease the HR.
Maximal vagal stimulation can lower the HR to 20 -30 beats per minute.
Vagus nerve also decreases the force of cardiac contraction.
3.
Cardiac Arrhythmias
The P wave represents atrial depolarization & occurs when the electrical impulse
travels from the SA node through the atria to the AV node.
* Depolarization = a decrease in the electrical potential across a membrane, such
as when the inside of a neuron becomes less negative relative to the outside.
The QRS complex represents ventricular depolarization & occurs as the impulse
spreads from the AV bundle to the Purkinje fibers & through the ventricles.
EDV = 100 ml
End of ventricle
filling
ESV = 40 ml
End of ventricle
contraction
SV = 60 ml
Blood vessels
The proportion of blood pumped out of the left ventricle at each beat.
EF =
Expressed as a percentage, average 60% at rest. Thus 60% of the blood in the
ventricle is ejected & 40% remains.
SV x 100
EDV
60 x 100
100
60%
Q = HR x SV
SV at rest in the standing position averages between 60-80 ml of blood foe most
adults.
Thus RHR = 80 bpm, the resting Q = 4.8 6.4 L/min.
Average adult body contains 5 L of blood, so this means all our blood is pumped
through our heart about once every minute.
Composed of a series of vessels that transport blood from the heart to the tissue
and back.
Arteries are typically the largest, most muscular, & most elastic vessels, & carry
blood away from the heart to the arterioles.
From the arterioles, blood enters the capillaries, the narrowest vessels.
All exchange between the blood and the tissues occurs at the capillaries.
Blood leaves the capillaries to begin the return trip to the heart in the venules, &
the venules form larger vessels the veins - that complete the circuit.
*Heart has also own vascular system coronary arteries & veins
Distribution of Blood
Varies depending on the needs of specific tissue & of the whole body.
At rest Most metabolically active tissue receive the greatest blood supply:
27% to liver; 22% to kidneys & only 15% to skeletal muscles.
During exercise blood is redirected to the needed areas. Heavy endurance
exercise, skeletal muscles receive up to 80% or more of the available blood.
After meal digestive system receives more blood.
During heat stress the skins blood supply increases as the body attempts to
maintain normal temperature.
*Blood is redistributed throughout the body based on the tissues needs. The most
active tissues receive the most blood. (The more active the muscle is, the more
blood goes to it.)
Redistribution of Venous Blood At rest 64% blood in the veins, but during
exercise SNS causes vasoconstriction of these veins, therefore more blood flow to
areas in need.
Blood Pressure
The pressure exerted by the blood on the vessel walls, & the term usually refers to
the arterial blood pressure.
Expressed by 2 numbers: the systolic pressure & the diastolic pressure.
BP =
Systolic BP
Diastolic BP
Blood moving through the arteries during that phase is not pushed along by a
forceful contraction.
*Systolic blood pressure is the highest pressure within the vascular system.
Diastolic blood pressure is the lowest pressure. Mean arterial pressure is the
average pressure on the vessel walls
Hypertension
3. The Blood
Basic
1.
2.
3.
Blood & lymph are substances that transport materials to & from body tissues.
Fluid from plasma enters the tissues, becoming interstitial fluid. Most interstitial
fluid returns to the capillaries, but some enters the lymphatic system as lymph,
eventually returning to the blood.
Blood volume = 5-6 L in males & 4-5 L in females.
Blood Composition
Plasma 55% (90% water, 7% plasma proteins & 3% others)
Formed elements - 45% (> 99% RBC & < 1% WBC & platelets)
RBC (Erythrocytes)
% RBC volume in the blood is hematocrit (normal = 40-45%)
O2 is primarily transported bound to the hemoglobin in RBC.
RBC contains hemoglobin: Protein (globin) & Pigment (heme) that contains iron that
binds O2.
Each RBC contains approximately 250 million hemoglobin molecules, each able to
binds 4 O2 molecules, so each RBC can bind up to a billion molecules of O2.
Average 15 g Hb per 100 ml of whole blood.
Blood Viscosity
Viscosity refers to the thickness or stickiness of the blood.
The more viscous, the more resistant it is to flow.
Viscosity of blood is about twice than water.
Increase viscosity of blood = Increase resistance of blood flow
Increase hematocrit = Increase resistance of blood flow
CV systems normal adaptations to training Increase hematocrit & normal or
slightly increase RBC.
10
SUMMARY
1.
The atria receive blood into the heart; the ventricles eject blood from the heart.
2.
Left ventricle must produce more power than other chambers because has to pump
blood to all parts of the body; therefore its myocardium is thicker, due to
hypertrophy.
3.
4.
SA node is the hearts pacemaker, establishing the pulse and coordinate activity
throughout the heart.
5.
Heart rate and contraction strength of the heart can be altered by the autonomic
nervous system or the endocrine system.
6.
7.
8.
Blood returns to the heart through the veins, assisted by breathing, the muscle
pump, and valves within the vessels.
9.
Blood is redistributed throughout the body based on the tissues needs. The most
active tissues receive the most blood.
10.
11.
12.
Blood & lymph are substances that transport materials to and from body tissues.
13.
14.
15.
11
Resting HR
Averages 60-80 bpm.
In middle-aged, unconditioned, sedentary individuals, RHR can exceed 100 bpm.
High conditioned, endurance-trained athletes, RHR in the range of 28-40 bpm.
RHR affected by environmental factors: RHR increases with extreme temperature
and altitude.
HR During Exercise
As exercise intensity increases, HR increases. The heart ejects blood more often,
thus speeding up circulation.
HR increases directly as increase in exercise intensity, until a point of exhaustion.
As this point is approached, HR begins to level off. This indicates the maximum
value is reached.
Maximum HR (HR max)
HR max is the highest HR value achieve in an all-out effort to the point of
exhaustion.
Estimate of maximum HR can be made based on the age because maximum HR shows
a slight but steady decrease of about 1 beat per year beginning at 10 to 15 years of
age.
Subtracting your age from 220 provides an approximation of your maximum HR.
To estimate maximum HR:
HR
max
HR
max
Steady State HR
HR increase during submaximal exercise until reaches a plateau. This plateau is the
steady state HR, & it is the optimal HR for meeting the circulatory demands at that
specific rate of work.
Lower rate of steady state HR shows a more efficient heart.
12
2. Stroke Volume
SV increases with the increase rates of work, so the amount of blood ejected
with each contraction increases.
SV is determined by:
1. Volume of venous blood returned to the heart
2. Ventricular distensibility,(the capacity to enlarge the ventricle)
3. Ventricular contractility
4. Aortic or pulmonary artery pressure (the pressure against which the
ventricles must contract)
4. Blood flow
Redistribution of Blood During Exercise
During rest, only 15-20% of the resting Q goes to muscle.
During exercise, the muscles receive up to 80%- 85% of the Q.
During exercise in heat, there is increase blood flow to the skin. More blood is
redirected to the skin to conduct heat away from the core body to its periphery,
promote heat loss to the environment.
The metabolic rate of the muscle tissues rises during exercise. As a result,
metabolic waste products begin to accumulate.
Increased metabolism causes an increase in acidity, CO2 & temperature in the
muscle tissue. These changes trigger vasodilation through autoregulation (effect of
SNS), increasing blood flow through the local capillaries.
6. Blood
The changes that occur in the blood during exercise demonstrate that the blood is
carrying out its necessary tasks. The major changes are:
1. The arterial-venous oxygen difference (a-vO2 diff) increases. This happens
because the venous O2 concentration decreases during exercise, reflecting
increased extraction of O2 from the blood for use by the active tissues.
2. Plasma volume decreases during exercise. The fluid (water) is pushed out of the
capillaries by increases in hydrostatic pressure as BP increase & is drawn into
the muscle by the increased osmotic pressure that results from waste
accumulation. However, with prolonged exercise or exercise in hot environment,
increasingly more plasma fluid is lost through sweating in an attempt to maintain
body temperature, placing the person at risk of dehydration.
3. Hemoconcentration occurs as plasma fluid is lost. Although the actual number of
RBC might not increase, the net effect of this process is to increase the
number of RBC per unit of blood, which increases oxygen carrying capacity.
4. Blood pH can change significantly during exercise, becoming more acidic as it
move from the slightly alkaline resting value of 7.4 down to 7.0 or lower. The
muscle pH decreases even further. The decrease in pH primarily results from
increased blood lactate accumulation during increased exercise intensity.
14
SUMMARY
1.
As exercise intensity increases, Heart rate increases. The heart ejects blood
more often, thus speeding up circulation.
2.
Stroke volume also increases with the increase rates of work, so the amount of
blood ejected with each contraction increases.
3.
Increases in HR & SV increase cardiac output (Q). Thus more blood is forced out
of the heart during exercise than when at rest, and circulation speed up.
4.
During exercise, cardiac output increases primarily to match the need for increased
O2 supply to the working muscles.
5.
During exercise, the muscles receive up to 80%- 85% of the cardiac output.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Blood pH can change significantly during exercise, becoming more acidic due to
increases in blood lactate.
15
EXERCISE
(Cardiovascular Control During Exercise)
Name : _______________________________________
4. Name the three principal mechanisms for increasing venous return during exercise.
a_______________________________________________________________________________
b_______________________________________________________________________________
c________________________________________________________________________________
5. Discuss the two (2) mechanisms for returning blood back to the heart when the athlete exercising in
an upright position.
a_______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
b_______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
6. What is arterial blood pressure?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
8. Identify four (4) responses that occur in the cardiovascular during exercise.
a________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
b________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
c________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
d________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
9. Estimate the maximum heart rate (HRmax) of a person who aged 32 years old.
10. Calculate the stroke volume in milliliters if heart rate equals 75 bpm and cardiac output equals 4.5 L.
min-1.
11. Calculate the cardiac output in liter per minute when stoke volume equals 75 ml and heart rate equals
80 bpm.
12. Calculate the Body Mass Index (BMI) of an athlete weighing 80 kg and 172 cm tall.
13. Calculate the Body Mass Index (BMI) of an athlete weighing 75 kg and 180 cm tall.
Pulmonary Ventilation (breathing) is the process by which air is moved into and out of
the lungs. It has two phases: inspiration & expiration.
1. Inspiration
Inspiration is an active process in which the diaphragm and the external intercostals
muscles increase the dimension, and thus the volume, of the thoracic cage. This
decreases the pressure in the lungs and draws air in.
2. Expiration
Expiration is usually a passive process. The inspiratory muscles relax and the elastics
tissue of the lung recoils, returning the thoracic cage to its smaller, normal dimensions.
This increases the pressure in the lungs and forces air out.
During forced breathing, expiration becomes a more active process. The internal
intercostals muscles can actively pull the ribs down. This action assisted by the
latissimus dorsi & lumborum muscles. These muscles also pull the rib cage down.
B. Pulmonary Diffusion
Pulmonary diffusion is the process by which gases are exchanged across the
respiratory membrane (alveolar-capillary membrane) in the alveoli (lungs).
The amount of gas exchange that occurs across the membrane depends primarily on
the partial pressure of each gas, though gas solubility and temperature are also
important.
Gases diffuse along a pressure gradient, moving from an area of higher pressure to one
of lower pressure. Thus, oxygen enters the blood and carbon dioxide leaves it.
The greater the pressure gradient across the respiratory membrane, the more rapidly
oxygen diffuses across it.
Oxygen diffusion capacity increases as the body move from rest to exercise. When
the body needs more oxygen, oxygen exchange is facilitated.
The pressure gradient for carbon dioxide exchange is less than for oxygen exchange,
but carbon dioxides membrane solubility is 20 times greater than of oxygen, so carbon
dioxide crosses the membrane easily, even without a large pressure gradient.
1
Hemoglobin is usually about 98% saturated with oxygen. This is a much higher oxygen
content than our bodies require, so the bloods oxygen-carrying capacity seldom limits
performance.
More than 15% of the bodys total O2 consumption during heavy exercise can occur in
the respiratory muscles.
Pulmonary ventilation is usually not a limiting factor for performance, even during
maximal effort, though it can limit performance in highly trained people.
The respiratory muscles seem to be better designed for avoiding fatigue during longterm activity than muscles of the extremities.
Airway resistance and gas diffusion usually do not limit performance in normal, healthy
individuals.
The respiratory system can limit performance in people with restrictive or obstructive
respiratory disorders.
SUMMARY
1.
Pulmonary Ventilation (breathing) is the process by which air is moved into and out
of the lungs. It has two phases: inspiration & expiration.
2.
3.
Expiration is usually a passive process. The inspiratory muscles relax and the
elastics tissue of the lung recoils, returning the thoracic cage to its smaller, normal
dimensions. This increases the pressure in the lungs and forces air out.
4.
5.
Pulmonary diffusion is the process by which gases are exchanged across the
respiratory membrane in the lungs.
6.
The amount of gas exchange that occurs across the membrane depends primarily on
the partial pressure of each gas.
7.
The greater the pressure gradient across the respiratory membrane, the more
rapidly oxygen diffuses across it.
8.
Oxygen diffusion capacity increases as the body move from rest to exercise. When
the body needs more oxygen, oxygen exchange is facilitated.
9.
The pressure gradient for carbon dioxide exchange is less than for oxygen
exchange, but carbon dioxides membrane solubility is 20 times greater than of
oxygen, so carbon dioxide crosses the membrane easily, even without a large
pressure gradient.
Muscular endurance
The ability of a muscle or muscle group to exert force repeatedly to sustain a
contractive state over a period of time.
For sprinters, muscular endurance is the ability to sustain a high speed over
the full distance of a 100m 0r 200m race.
In weight lifting, boxing and wrestling, muscular endurance is the ability of a
single muscle or muscle group to sustain high-intensity, repetitive, or static
exercise.
Muscular endurance is highly related to muscular strength and anaerobic
development.
Cardiorespiratory endurance
The ability of the body to deliver oxygen effectively to the working muscle to
sustain prolonged, rhythmical exercise.
Cardiorespirarory endurance is the ability of the body to sustain prolonged,
rhythmical exercise. (e.g., : cycling, distance running & long distance
swimming)
Cardiorespiratory endurance is highly related to the development of the CV
& respiratory system, thus the aerobic development.
O2 Transport System
Refer to all components of the CV & respiratory systems that are related to the
transportation & delivery of O2.
The functioning of O2 transport system is defined by the interaction of the
cardiac output & the arterial-venous oxygen difference (a-vO2 diff).
Arterial-venous oxygen difference (a-vO2 diff), which is the difference
between the O2 content of the arterial blood & the O2 content of the
venous blood.
Q (SV x HR) tells how much O2-carrying blood leaves the heart in 1 min.
a-vO2 diff tells how much O2 is extracted from the blood by the tissues.
The product tells us the rate of O2 consumption:
VO2 = SV x HR x a-vO2 diff
The active tissues O2 demand increases during exercise. Body endurance
depends on the O2 transport systems ability to deliver sufficient O2 to
these active tissues to meet the high demands.
Cardiac hypertrophy the left ventricle undergoes the most change in response to
endurance training.
The internal dimensions of the left ventricle increase, mostly in response to an
increase in ventricular filling.
Left ventricle wall thickness also increase, increasing the strength potential of the
chambers contraction. (increases contractility)
2. Stroke Volume
5. Blood Flow
6. Blood Pressure
7. Blood Volume
After training, respiratory rate remains steady at rest, decrease slightly with
submaximal exercise, but increases with maximal exercises.
3. Pulmonary Ventilation
Pulmonary ventilation = the movement of gases into & out of the lungs.
4
4. Pulmonary Diffusion
Pulmonary diffusion = the exchange of gases between the lungs & the blood.
5. Arterial-Venous Oxygen Difference (a-vO2 diff)
* Respiratory system is quite adept at bringing adequate amounts of O2 into the body,
thus it usually does not limit endurance performance.
E. Metabolic Adaptations
1. Lactate Threshold (LT)
Endurance training increases LT, therefore can perform at a higher rates of work
and at a higher rate of O2 consumption without increasing the blood lactate above
resting levels.
The increase in LT is because a greater ability to clear lactate produced in the
muscle, and an increase in skeletal enzymes coupled with a shift in metabolic
substrate.
Maximal blood lactate concentration is increased slightly.
Lactate threshold (LT) = the point during exercise of increasing intensity at which
blood lactate begins to accumulate above resting levels.
2. Respiratory Exchange Ratio (RER)
Respiratory exchange ratio (RER) = the ratio of CO2 expired to the O2 consumed at
the level of the lungs.
3. Resting & Submaximal O2 Consumption
4. Maximal O2 Consumption
VO2max increases with training, but the amount of increase is limited in each
individual. The major limiting factor is O2 delivery to the active muscles.
VO2max has an upper limit. The highest attainable VO2max is usually reached within
18 months of intense endurance conditioning.
Endurance performance can continue to improve for years with continued training.
VO2max depends on genetic limits which predetermines the range for VO2max.
(25%-50% of the variance in VO2max values)
Heredity also explains for individual variations in response to identical training
program.
2. Age
3. Gender
VO2max of highly conditioned female endurance athletes is only about 10% lower
than highly conditioned male endurance athletes.
5. Specificity of training
The more specific the training program to the sports involved, the more
improvement there will be.
To maximize CR gains from training, the training should be specific to the type of
activity that an athlete usually performs.
6. Crosstraining
Resistance training combines with endurance training does not appear to improve
the aerobic capacity, but may increase short term endurance.
EXERCISE
(Cardiorespiratory Adaptations to Training)
Name : _______________________________________
2. Define aerobic power (VO2 max). What determines this maximal oxygen uptake rate?
a.______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
b.______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
d._______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
e._______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
f._______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
g._______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
4. Describe the adaptations in the respiratory system that occur with endurance training.
a._______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
b._______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
c._______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
d._______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
e._______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
5. Define lactate threshold. Explain briefly the effect of endurance training on lactate threshold.
a._______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
b._______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Hormones are involved in most physiological processes, so their actions are relevant to
many aspects of exercise & sport performance.
Chemical structure similar to cholesterol & most are derived from it.
Lipid soluble & diffuse easily through cell membranes.
E.g. hormones secreted by adrenal cortex (cortisol & aldosterone), ovaries (estrogen &
progesterone), testes (testosterone), & placenta (estrogen & progesterone).
Nonsteroid Hormones
2. Hormone Action
The interaction between the hormone & its specific receptor has been compared to a
lock (receptor) & key (hormone) arrangement, in which only the correct key can unlock
a given action within the cells.
The combination of hormone bond to its receptor is referred to as a hormone-receptor
complex.
Receptors for nonsteroid hormones are located on the cell membrane, whereas
receptors for steroid hormones are found either in the cells cytoplasm or in its
nucleus.
Each hormone is usually specific for a single type of receptor & binds only with its
specific receptors, thus affecting only tissues that contain those specific receptors.
The Mechanism of Action of a Steroid Hormones,
Leading to direct gene activation
Steroid hormones pass easily through the cell membrane.
Once inside the cell, a steroid hormone binds to its specific receptors.
The hormone-receptor complex then enters the nucleus, binds to part of the cells
DNA, & activates certain genes. This process is referred to as direct gene activation.
In response to this activation, mRNA is synthesized within the nucleus.
The mRNA then enters the cytoplasm & promotes protein synthesis. These proteins
may be:
Hormone released can be fluctuating over short periods (an hour or less) or over longer
periods of time (daily or even monthly cycle: monthly menstrual cycle).
Most hormone secretion is regulated by a negative feedback system.
Secretion of a hormone causes some change in the body, and this change in turn
inhibits further hormone secretion.
Negative feedback is the primary mechanism through which the endocrine system
maintains homeostasis.
The number of receptors on a cell can be altered to increase or decrease that cells
sensitivity to a certain hormone.
Up-regulation (sensitization) refers to an increase in receptors, thus the cell becomes
more sensitive to that hormone because more can be bound at one time.
Down-regulation (desensitization) refers to a decrease in receptors, thus the cell
becomes less sensitive to that hormone because with fewer receptors, less hormone
can bind.
SUMMARY
1.
2.
Steroid hormones are lipid soluble, and most are formed from cholesterol.
Nonsteroid hormones are formed from proteins, or amino acids.
3.
Hormones are generally secreted into the blood and then through the body to exert
an effect only on their target cells. They act by binding in a lock-and-key manner
with specific receptors found only in the target tissues.
4.
Steroid hormones pass through cell membranes and bind to receptors inside the
cell. They use a mechanism called direct gene activation to cause protein synthesis.
5.
Nonsteroid hormones cannot enter the cells easily, so they bind to receptors on the
cell membrane. This activates a second messenger within the cell, which in turn can
trigger numerous cellular processes.
6.
7.
The number of receptors for a specific hormone can be altered to meet the bodys
demands. Up-regulation refers to an increase in receptors, and down-regulation is a
decrease. These two processes change cell sensitivity to hormones.
3
Anterior lobe:
Hormone 1: Growth hormone (GH).
Target organ: All cells in the body.
Major functions: Promotes development & enlargement of all body tissues up through
maturation (growth of bone & muscle); increases rate of protein synthesis; increases
mobilization of fats and use fat as an energy source; decreases rate of carbohydrate
use (sparing glucose).
the follicle to rupture, releasing the ovum. Males causes testes to secrete
testosterone.
Posterior lobe:
Hormone 1: Antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin).
Target organ: Kidneys.
Major functions: Assists in controlling water excretion by the kidneys; elevates blood
pressure by constricting blood vessels.
4
Hormone 2: Oxytocin.
Target organ: Uterus, breasts.
Major functions: Stimulates contraction of uterine muscles & milk secretion.
2. Thyroid Gland
Hormone 2: Calcitonin.
Target organ: Bones.
Major functions: Control calcium ion concentration in the blood.
Medulla
Cortex
5. The Pancreas
Hormone 1: Insulin.
Target organ: All cells in the body.
Major functions: Controls blood glucose levels by lowering glucose levels; increases use
of glucose & synthesis of fat.
Hormone 2: Glucagon.
Target organ: All cells in the body.
Major functions: Increases blood glucose; stimulates the breakdown of fats &
proteins.
Hormone 3: Somatostatin.
Target organ: Islets of Langerhans & gastrointestinal tracts.
Major functions: Depresses the secretion of both insulin & glucagons.
6. The Gonads
Testes
Hormone: Testosterone.
Target organ: Sex organs, muscle.
Major functions: Promotes development of male sex characteristics, including growth
of testes, scrotum, & penis, facial hair, & change in voice; promotes muscle growth.
Ovaries
7. The Kidneys
Hormone 1: Renin.
Target organ: Adrenal cortex.
Major functions: Assists in blood pressure control.
Hormone 2: Erythropoietin.
Target organ: Bone marrow.
Major functions: Erythrocyte production.
CHO & fat metabolism are responsible for maintaining muscle ATP levels during
prolonged exercise.
Various hormones work to ensure glucose & FFA availability for muscle energy
metabolism.
FFA are stored as triglycerides in fat cells & inside muscle fiber.
Adipose tissue triglycerides however must be broken down to release the FFA,
which are then transported to the muscle fibers.
Triglycerides are reduced to FFA & glycerol by a special enzyme called lipase, which
is activated by at least 4 hormones: cortisol; growth hormone; epinephrine, &
norepinephrine.
Cortisol also accelerates the mobilization & use FFA for energy during exercise.
Plasma cortisol levels peak after 30-45 min of exercise then decrease to normal
levels.
Growth hormone & catecholamine (epinephrine & norepinephrine) continue to
activate the mobilization & metabolism of FFA.
The two primary hormones involved in the regulation of fluid balance are aldosterone &
antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
Angiotensin II also triggers the release of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex.
Aldosterone promotes sodium reabsorption in the kidneys, which in turn causes
water retention, thus increasing the plasma volume.
** The influence of water loss from plasma during exercise leads to a sequence of
events that promotes sodium (Na+) & water reabsorption from renal tubules, thereby
reducing urine production. In the hours after exercise when fluids are consumed, the
elevated aldosterone levels cause an increase in the extracellular volume and an
expansion of plasma volume.
1. Muscular activity promotes sweating and increases blood pressure.
2. Sweating reduces plasma volume and blood flow to the kidneys.
3. Reduced renal blood flow stimulates rennin release from the kidneys. Renin leads to
the formation of angiotensin I, which is converted to angiotensin II.
4. Angiotensin II stimulates the release of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex.
5. Aldosterone increases Na+ and H2O reabsorption from the renal tubules.
6. Plasma volume increases & urine production decreases.
ADH acts on the kidneys promoting water conservation. Through this mechanism,
the plasma volume is increased, which results in dilution of the plasma solutes. Blood
osmolarity decreases.
SUMMARY
1.
2.
Insulin helps the released glucose enter the muscle cells, where it can be used for
energy production. But insulin levels decline during prolonged exercise, indicating
that exercise facilitates the action of insulin so that less of the hormone is
required during exercise than at rest.
3.
When carbohydrate reserves are low, the body turns more to fat oxidation for
energy, and this process is facilitated by cortisol, epinephrine, norepinephrine &
growth hormone.
4.
Cortisol accelerates lipolysis, releasing free fatty acids (FFA) into the blood so
they can be taken up by the cells & used for energy production. But cortisol levels
peak & than return to near normal levels during prolonged exercise. When this
happens, the catecholamines & growth hormone (GH) taken over cortisols role.
5.
The two primary hormones involved in the regulation of fluid balance are
aldosterone & antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
6.
When plasma volume or blood pressure decreases, the kidneys form an enzyme
called rennin that converts angiotensinogen into angiotensin I, which later becomes
angiotensin II. Angiotensin II increases peripheral arterial resistance, raising the
blood pressure.
7.
Angiotensin II also triggers the release of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex.
Aldosterone promotes sodium reabsorption in the kidneys, which in turn causes
water retention, thus increasing the plasma volume.
8.
9.
ADH acts on the kidneys promoting water conservation. Through this mechanism,
the plasma volume is increased, which results in dilution of the plasma solutes. Blood
osmolarity decreases.
10
EXERCISE
(Hormonal Regulation of Exercise)
Name : _______________________________________
Group : _________
Date: ______________
QUESTION 1
List and briefly explain the specific action of the two hormones produced and released
by the adrenal medulla.
2) ________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
3)
_______________________________________________________________________________
4)
_______________________________________________________________________________
5)
_______________________________________________________________________________
6)
_______________________________________________________________________________
7)
_______________________________________________________________________________
8)
_______________________________________________________________________________
QUESTION 2
Describe briefly the hormones involved in the regulation of glucose metabolism during exercise.
1) ________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
2) ________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
QUESTION 3
Describe the mechanism by which antidiuretic hormone (ADH) conserves body water
during exercise.
________________________________________________________________________________
2)
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
3)
________________________________________________________________________________
4)
________________________________________________________________________________
5)
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
6)
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
QUESTION 4
Briefly discuss the aldosterone and renin-angiotensin mechanism that regulates fluid
and electrolyte balance during exercise.
________________________________________________________________________________
2)
________________________________________________________________________________
3)
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
4)
________________________________________________________________________________
5)
________________________________________________________________________________
6)
________________________________________________________________________________
QUESTION 5
Identify the four (4) mechanisms involved in maintaining the plasma glucose concentration.
1) ________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
2) ________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
3) ________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
4) ________________________________________________________________________________
Humans are homeothermic, meaning that they maintain a constant internal body
temperature, usually in the range of 36.1oC to 37.8oC (97.0oF 100.0oF).
Body temperature reflects the balance between heat production & heat loss.
Whenever this balance is disturbed, the body temperature changes.
All metabolically active tissues produce heat that can be used to maintain the
internal temperature of the body. But if the bodys heat production exceeds its
heat loss, the internal temperature rises.
The ability to maintain a constant internal temperature depends on the body ability
to balance the heat gain from metabolism & from the environment with the heat
that the body loses
Metabolic heat
+
Environmental heat
HEAT GAIN
Conduction
+
Convection
+
Radiation
+
Evaporation
HEAT LOSS
Higher humidity decreases the capacity to lose heat by evaporation because the air
already contains many water molecules.
Internal body temperature when at rest is kept at approximately 37oC (99oF), but
during exercise can develop an internal temperature exceeding 40oC (104oF).
Hypothermia
Low body temperature
Stimulates thermoreceptors
Hyperthermia
High body temperature
Stimulates thermoreceptors
Impulses go to hypothalamus
Impulses go to hypothalamus
Vasoconstriction
occurs in skin blood vessels
Vasodilation
occurs in skin blood vessels
Causing
Shivering & generates heat
Causing
Evaporative heat loss
Body heat content is the total amount of heat in kilocalories that it contains.
Rate of Heat Exchange can be estimated form calculations of body heat content.
If Heat Content remains constant during a long period of exercise therefore
thermoregulatory system is efficient.
Exercising in the hot environments set up a competition between the active muscles
& the skin for limited blood supply. The working muscles need blood & the O2 it
delivers to sustain activity; the skin needs blood to facilitate heat loss to keep the
body cool.
To maintain constant cardiac output in this condition where stroke volume has
decreased, resulting in a gradual upward drift in HR. This is known as cardiovascular
drift.
2. Energy Production
Exercise in the heat also increases O2 uptake, therefore increase glycogen use by
working muscle & produce more lactate. Thus exercise in the heat can cause
glycogen depletion and increase muscle lactate, thus leads to fatigue & exhaustion.
Hot environment places greater stress on CV system, which raises the HR & also
increased sweat production and respiration demand more energy, which requires a
higher O2 uptake.
Exercise in the heat increases sweating & this can quickly lead to dehydration and
electrolyte loss. To compensate, the release of aldosterone & ADH increases,
causing sodium & water retention, this can expand the plasma volume.
Air temperature
Humidity
Air velocity
The amount of radiation.
Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) most accurate means to measure heat
stress.
2. Heat-Related Disorders
a. Heat cramps
Severe cramping of skeletal muscles that are most heavily used during exercise.
b. Heat exhaustion
Rise of body temperature, extreme fatigue, breathlessness, hypotension, and a
weak, rapid pulse results from the inability of the CV system to adequately meet
the needs of the active muscles and skin.
Result from the inability of the CV system to adequately meet the needs of the
active muscle & skin. It is brought on by a reduced blood volume, typically
caused by excessive loss of fluids and minerals through prolonged heavy
sweating.
c. Heat stroke
Rise in internal body temperature to values exceeding 40oC, rapid pulse &
respiration, cessation of sweating, hot & dry skin, hypertension, and total
confusion and unconsciousness caused by failure of the bodys
thermoregulatory mechanisms.
Prevention of Hyperthermia
Several precautions must be taken when planning to exercise in the heat.
a.
b.
c.
d.
*
When exercising in the heat, if the body suddenly fell chilled & goose bumps form
on the skin, stop exercising, get into a cool environment, & drink plenty of cool
fluids. The bodys thermoregulation system has become confused & thinks that
body temperature needs to increase even more! If left untreated, this condition
can lead to heat stroke & death.
6
Repeated exercise in the heat causes a gradual adjustment that enables us to perform
better in the hot conditions.
Heat acclimatization
Heat acclimatization is an adaptation of gradual improvement in ability to eliminate
excess body heat during repeated exposure to heat stress (prolonged exercise bouts in
the hot environment).
Amount of heat acclimatization depends on :a) Environmental conditions during each exercise session.
b) Duration of heat exposure.
c) Rate of internal heat production.
You can adapt to heat by exercising in the heat for up to an hour or more each day
for 5 10 days. Cardiovascular changes generally occur in the first 3 5 days, but
changes in the sweating mechanisms generally take much longer, up to 10 days.
1. Hypothermia
The Hearts SA node is primarily affected by hypothermia, causing HR to drop,
which in turn reduces cardiac output.
Breathing cold air does not freeze the respiratory passages or the lungs.
2. Frostbite
Occurs as a consequence of the bodys attempts to prevent heat loss.
Vasoconstriction to the skin causes reduces blood flow, so the skin cools rapidly.
This, combined with the lack of oxygen & nutrients, causes the skin tissues to die.
H. Cold acclimatization
Repeated exposure to cold alters peripheral blood flow and skin temperatures,
allowing greater cold tolerance.
10
EXERCISE
(Thermal Regulation & Exercise)
Name : _______________________________________
1. What are the four major avenues for loss of body heat?
a. __________________________
c. __________________________
b. __________________________
d. __________________________
2. What is cardiovascular drift? Why might this be a problem with prolonged exercise in high
intensities?
a. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
b. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
1
5. Discuss the physiological adaptations occur that allow a person to acclimatize to exercise in the hot
environment.
a. _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
b. _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
c.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
d. _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
6. Identify and describe briefly the means by which the body avoids excessive cooling during exercise
in the cold.
a. ____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
b. ____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
c.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
1. Conditions at Altitude
i. Atmospheric pressure
The % of gases in the air remain unchanged at altitude (O2 = 20.93%, CO2 = 0.03%,
& N2 = 79.04%).
The partial pressures of each gas, is reduced in direct proportion to the increase in
altitude.
1
Atmospheric Pressure
Partial Pressure of O2
Ambient temperature
At sea level
760 mmHg
159.2 mmHg
15oC
At 8,900m
250 mmHg
48.4 mmHg
-40oC
Air temperature decreases as altitude increases. Air temperature drops about 1oC
for every 150m (490 ft) of ascent (Mt. Everest = -40oC).
Cold air holds very little water, so the air at altitude is dry. humidity of the air is
low
The dry air increased evaporative water loss through sweating during exercise at
altitude.
The cold & dry air can lead to cold-related disorders & dehydration through
increased insensible water loss.
The intensity of solar radiation increases at high altitude because the atmosphere
is thinner & drier.
The hypoxic conditions (diminished O2 supply) at altitude alter the bodys normal
physiological responses.
i. Respiratory Responses
Because the number of O2 molecules in air is less, more air must be inspired to
supply as much 02 during normal breathing at sea level.
People ventilate greater volumes of air at altitude because air is less dense.
Increased ventilation resulting in hyperventilation state in which too much CO2 can
be cleared & allows blood pH to increase, leading to respiratory alkalosis. In
response, the kidneys excrete more bicarbonate ion, so less acid can be buffered.
The diffusion gradient that allows O2 exchange between the blood & active tissue is
substantially reduced at elevation, thus O2 uptake is impaired. This is partially
compensated for by a decrease in plasma volume, concentrating the RBCs & allowing
more O2 to be transported per unit of blood.
During submaximal work at altitude, the body increases its cardiac output, by
increasing the heart rate, to compensate for the decrease in the pressure gradient
that drives O2 exchange.
During maximal work, stoke volume & heart rate are both lower, resulting in a
reduced cardiac output. This combined with the decreased pressure gradient
severely impairs O2 delivery & uptake.
3
3. Performance at Altitude
Anaerobic sprint activities (<1 min) are generally not impaired at moderate
altitude. This is because thinner air imposes less resistance to movement. This
explains the amazing performances of sprinters & long jumpers at the 1968
Olympics in Mexico City.
Although plasma volume decreases initially (within a few hours of arrival at altitude
as a result of fluid shifts and respiratory water loss), which also concentrates the
erythrocytes (RBC) - hemoglobin, this changes also increasing the bloods oxygencarrying capacity.
Muscle fiber areas decrease when at altitude, thus decreasing total muscle area.
Total muscle mass & total body weight decrease. Part of this is from dehydration
and appetite suppression, which leads to protein breakdown in the muscles.
Metabolic enzyme activities in the muscle also decreased.
Capillary density in the muscle increased, which allow more blood & oxygen to be
delivered to the muscle.
Decreased in VO2 max with initial exposure to altitude does not improve much (or
improve very little) during several weeks of exposure.
Athletes who must perform at altitude should do so within the first 24 hours of
arrival while the detrimental changes that occur have not yet become too great.
Water reduces the stress on the CV system, reducing its work load. When the body
is submerged, plasma volume also increases. Because of these factors, resting HR
drops even when the body is only partially submerged. This effect is enhanced by
cold water.
Hyperventilation is often practiced before breath-hold diving to increase how long
you can hold your breath. But this can lead to dangerously low O2 levels, which can
cause you to lose consciousness underwater.
During breath-hold diving, the gases in the body can become pressurized even when
swimming at a depth of only 1 to 2 m below the surface. At greater depths, the
volume of air in the lungs can be reduced to the residual volume, but not smaller.
The depth limit to breath-hold diving is determined by the ratio of the total lung
volume & the residual volume. Those with large TLV:RV ratios can safely dive
deeper than those with smaller ratios.
Scuba diving can alleviate many of the problems faced during breath-hold diving
because you breathe pressurized air while submerged.
Breathing gases under pressure can cause the body to accumulate gases in toxic
levels, so precautions must be taken when diving with pressurized gases.
O2 poisoning occurs when PO2 values are above 318 mmHg. Less O2 will be removed
from hemoglobin for use by tissues. This impairs the biding of CO2 to hemoglobin,
so less CO2 is removed by this route. High PO2 also causes vasoconstriction in the
cerebral vessels, which decreases blood flow to the brain.
Decompression sickness (the bends) results from ascending too rapidly. The
nitrogen dissolved in the body cannot be removed by the lungs quickly enough, so it
forms bubbles. The bubbles can form emboli, which can be fatal. To treat this, the
diver must undergo recompression to force the nitrogen back to solution, then
undergo gradual decompression at the rate that allows the nitrogen to be removed
during normal breathing. Tables have been formulated that specify how much time
must be allowed for ascension from various depths, 7 divers must adhere strictly to
these.
Nitrogen narcosis (rapture of the deep) results from the narcotic effects of
nitrogen when its partial pressure is high, such as during depth diving. The
symptoms are similar to alcohol intoxication. Judgment is impaired, which can lead
to fatal mistakes.
Spontaneous pneumothorax (rupture alveoli) & ruptured eardrum are other health
risks associated with the changing pressure experienced when diving.
EXERCISE
(Exercise in Hypobaric Environment)
Name : _______________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
d. ____________________________________________________________________________
a. ____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
b. ____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
c.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3. What types of activities are detrimentally influenced by exposure to high altitude? Why?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
4. Explain briefly the adaptations that occur in the blood with prolonged altitude exposure.
a. _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
b. _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
5. Explain briefly the adaptations that occur in the muscle with prolonged altitude exposure.
a. _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
b. _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
c.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
6. Explain briefly the adaptations that occur in the cardiorespiratory with prolonged altitude exposure.
a. _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
b. _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Ergolytic substance
Placebo
Placebo effect
4. Nutrition Agents
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Fats
Vitamins & minerals
Water & special beverages
5. Psychological Phenomena
Hypnosis
Mental practice or Covert rehearsal
Stress management
6. Mechanical Factors
Clothing
Equipment
Environment structures & surfaces
A. Pharmacological agents:
1. Alcohol
Classified as a drug because of its depressant effects on the CNS.
Can elicit both stimulant and depressant effects (initial sensation of excitement
and followed by depressive effects).
Used by athletes because of its psychological effects.
It is thought to increase self-confidence, calm nerves, reduce anxiety, increase
mental alertness, and reduce pain & muscle tremor.
Risks: No improvements in physiological functions. Decreases psychomotor
functions. Can negatively affect health.
Can cause physically addictive.
Have ergolytic effects (decrease performance).
2. Amphetamines
CNS stimulant.
Increase concentration & mental alertness, elevate mood, decrease the sense of
fatigue, and produce euphoria.
Used as appetite suppressants in medically supervised weight-loss programs.
Recent studies showed increase in strength, acceleration, and increase maximal
lactate response during exhaustive exercise and increase time to exhaustion.
Risks: increase HR and BP that can trigger cardiac arrhythmias. Excessive use can
cause deaths.
Also cause psychological & physically addictive.
2
3. Beta blockers
Block betaadrenergic receptors, therefore preventing neurotransmitters binding.
This reduces the effects of stimulation by the sympathetic nervous system.
Lowers HR, therefore advantage to shooters & archers.
Impair endurance performance, reducing VO2max because cardiac output is
decreased due to decreased in HR.
Risks: cause bradycardia that can lead to heart block, hypotension, bronchospasm,
fatigue and decreased motivation.
4. Caffeine
CNS stimulant.
Increases mental alertness, increases concentration, elevates mood,
enhances catecholamine release, increases free-fatty-acid mobilization, increases
muscle use of triglycerides to spare glycogen, decreases fatigue & delays its onset.
Risks: Can cause nervousness, restlessness, insomnia, tremors, and diuresis.
Diuresis increases the risk of dehydration & heat-related illness when performing
in hot environment.
Disrupt normal sleep patterns, contributing to fatigue.
Can cause physically addictive.
5. Cocaine
CNS stimulant.
Produce euphoria that is thought increase self confident & motivation. Masks
fatigue & pain, increase alertness & cause energetic.
No evidence that has any ergogenic properties.
Risks: Extremely addictive. Trigger major psychological disorder and has numerous
undesirable physiological effects, includes stress to heart function, which leads to
death.
6. Diuretics
Affect the kidneys, increasing urine formation and excretion.
Often used by athletes for weight reduction or maintenance (weight category
sports), and also by those trying to mask the use of other drugs during drug
testing.
Weight loss is proven the ergogenic effect of diuretics, but the weight loss is
primarily from the extracellular fluid compartment, including blood plasma.
Risks: Loss of body fluid leads to dehydration, which can impair thermoregulation &
cause electrolyte imbalances, can cause fatigue & muscle cramping.
7. Marijuana
Act on CNS & can elicit both stimulant and depressant effects (initial sensation of
excitement and followed by depressive effects).
No ergogenic qualities & in fact ergolytic.
Impair performance that requires hand-eye coordination, fast reaction time, motor
coordination, tracking ability & perceptual accuracy.
Risks: can lead to personality changes, short-term memory impairment,
hallucinations, & psychotic-like behavior.
8. Nicotine
CNS stimulant.
Ingest by smoking (cigarettes) or in smokeless forms - chewing (chewing tobacco),
& snuff (powdered tobacco).
Thought to increase alertness, better concentration & more calm.
Detrimental to performance & cause several changes in CV, metabolic, respiratory &
hormonal function.
Risks: can lead to cancer & CV disease.
B. Hormonal Agents:
1. Anabolic Steroids
Androgenic-anabolic steroids: include androgenic (masculinizing) & anabolic
(building) properties.
Synthetic steroids have been designed to maximize the anabolic effects while
minimizing androgenic effects.
Proposed to increase muscle mass, strength, and endurance capacity, & to facilitate
recovery from exhaustive training bouts.
Proven can increase muscle mass, and strength.
Do not increase endurance capacity & ability to facilitate recovery from exhaustive
exercise has not been proven.
Risks: personality changes, cardiovascular disease, liver damage, masculinization in
women, breast regression in women, breast enlargement in men, prostate gland
enlargement, testicular atrophy, & reduced sperm count.
3. Oral Contraceptives
Birth control pills contain synthetic versions of natural estrogens & progesterones.
Proposed as ergogenic aids foe women due to its ability to regulate menstrual cycle
(function as contraceptives by preventing ovulation).
Little research that support as ergogenic aid. May be beneficial for women athletes
who suffer from PMS or dysmenorrheal.
Risks: nausea, weight gain, fatigue, hypertension, liver tumors, blood clots, stroke, &
heart attack.
C. Physiological Agents:
1. Blood doping
An artificial increase in a persons total volume of red blood cells (RBCs) via
infusion of RBCs in effort to increase hemoglobin concentration & O2- carrying
capacity of blood.
2. Erythropoietin (EPO)
Hormone that stimulate RBC production.
Proposed with the premise that increasing the number of RBCs would increase the
bloods O2-carrying capacity.
Proven increase maximal O2 consumption (VO2max) & increased time to exhaustion.
Risks: very dangerous because we cannot predict the magnitude of the bodys
response to EPO supplementation. Can lead to death if RBCs are overproduced,
because increased blood viscosity can cause clotting and heart failure.
5
3. Oxygen Supplementation
During exercise improves endurance performance but is too cumbersome to be
practical.
Supplementation before or immediately after exercise has not been proven
ergogenically effective.
Risks: no serious risks associated with brief (2-3 min) periods of O2 breathing.
4. Aspartic Acid
An amino acid involved in the livers conversion of ammonia to urea. Because excess
ammonia is associated with fatigue, ingestion of aspartates has been postulated to
reduce the ammonia that builds up during exercise, thus delaying fatigue.
Research on its effectiveness as an ergogenic aid & risk is insufficient.
5. Bicarbonate Loading
Bicarbonate is an important component of the bodys buffering system, needed to
maintain normal pH by neutralizing excess acid.
Proposed to increase the bloods alkalinity, thus increasing the buffering capacity
so that more lactate can be cleared. This would delay the onset of fatigue.
Ingest of at least 300 mgkg-1 body weight can delay fatigue & increase
performance in all-out bouts of exercise lasting more than 1 min but less than 7
min.
Risks: cause gastrointestinal distress, including cramping, bloating, & diarrhea.
6. Phosphate Loading
Ingestion of sodium phosphate has been postulated to improve general CV &
metabolic functioning.
During exercise, phosphate loading has been proposed to elevate phosphate levels
throughout the body, which would increase the potential for oxidative
phosphorylation & phosphocreatine synthesis, enhance O2 release to the cells,
improve CV response to exercise, improve the bodys buffering capacity, & improve
endurance capacity.
Research on its effectiveness as an ergogenic aid & risk is limited.
EXERCISE
(Ergogenic Aids)
Name : _______________________________________
2. What is placebo? Why must an investigator use placebo treatment to evaluate the effectiveness of
an ergogenic aid?
a. _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
b. _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
4. What are beta blockers? What are the ergogenic and ergolytic properties?
a. _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Ergogenic properties
b. _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Ergolytic properties
c.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
5. What is presently known about the use of amphetamines in athletic competition? What are the
potential risks of using amphetamines?
Recent studies indicate that amphetamines can:
a. ____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
b. ____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Potential risk of using amphetamines
c.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________