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Learning Outcome
When you complete this module you will be able to:
Describe the construction and operation of commonly used devices for measuring
pressure, level, temperature, flow, and composition.
Learning Objectives
Here is what you will be able to do when you complete each objective:
1. Sketch and describe the standard types of pressure sensing and measuring
devices.
2. Sketch and describe the standard types of level sensing and measuring
devices.
3. Sketch and describe the standard types of flow sensing and measuring devices.
4. Sketch and describe the standard types of temperature sensing and measuring
devices.
5. Describe the principle and basic operation of a chromatograph.
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INTRODUCTION
Process measuring devices are used either as stand-alone indicators of process
conditions, or as the sensing element components of control systems or alarm and
logic systems. Depending on their specific application they may provide an
output which is visual, mechanical, pneumatic or electronic. In this module we
will only be able to look at the most common and basic types, since there are
literally hundreds of specialized measurement devices. The most common
process conditions which must be measured are pressure, level, flow, temperature
and composition.
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Figure 1
U-Tube Manometer
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The U-tube manometer contains a liquid, often referred to as the manometer fluid,
which must not mix or react chemically with the fluid whose pressure is being
measured. Typical manometer fluids are water, mercury and light oils. Mercury
was a common manometer fluid in the past, but has largely been replaced due to
its environmental and health hazards.
With both sides of the manometer open to the atmosphere, the surface level on
one side will be the same as the level on the other side, or P1 = P2 as in Fig. 1 (a).
Suppose one end of the U-tube manometer is connected to an unknown pressure,
P1 whose value must be determined, while the other end is left exposed to the
atmospheric pressure, P2. If pressure P1 is greater than P2, the fluid on the right
side of the manometer, Fig. 1 (b) will be displaced from its previous position and
forced into the left side of the manometer until a balance in pressure is created at
points A and B, so:
Pressure at A
Pressure at B or
P1
P1
P2 + hg and
P1 - P2
hg
Where h
=
=
=
height, metres
density kg/m3
gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2)
If P2 is the atmospheric pressure, then the pressure represented by the liquid head,
hg, would be equal to the amount that P1, the gage pressure, is above
atmospheric pressure. P2 + hg would be equal to the absolute pressure applied
on the right side of the manometer. If the pressure P1 is below atmospheric, while
P2 is still the atmospheric pressure, the manometer fluid will be higher on the
right side. The main purpose of a manometer is to measure the difference
between two pressures which is often called pressure differential measurement.
Manometers can be used to measure low gage pressures, or the amount of vacuum
in a vessel. A common application is the measurement of furnace pressure or
draft in a boiler.
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2.
Inclined Manometer
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Figure 2
Inclined Manometer
Barometers
The earths atmosphere consists of a layer of gases, mainly nitrogen and oxygen,
to an altitude of about 75 km. This gas mixture in the atmosphere has a mass that
creates a pressure of approximately 101.3 kPa on the earths surface at sea level.
This pressure varies from day to day depending on the weather conditions and the
elevation above sea level.
One form of atmospheric pressure measurement is by the use of a mercury
barometer. It consists of a glass tube of uniform bore, approximately 900 mm
long, with one end sealed.
In Fig. 3 the tube is first completely filled with mercury, and is then inverted with
the open end submerged in an open dish of mercury. The pressure exerted by the
column of mercury, h, is balanced by the pressure of the atmosphere.
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Figure 3
Inverted Mercury Column
Fig. 4 shows the actual components of a mercury barometer. As you can see, the
mercury barometer is essentially a manometer, with atmospheric pressure on one
side and almost vacuum, or zero pressure, on the other side.
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Figure 4
Mercury Barometer
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Figure 5
Bourdon Tube Gage
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A Bourdon tube can also be shaped in the form of a spiral or helix as illustrated in
Figs. 6 and 7 respectively. These types are used to develop sufficient power and
rotation to position a pen directly on a chart without the use of gears. A greater
degree of rotation is achieved as more windings are added.
Figure 6
Spiral Bourdon Spring
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Figure 7
Helix Bourdon Tube
The Bourdon tube gage is generally a stand-alone device, more versatile and
rugged than manometers and probably the most commonly used instrument in the
process industry.
Diaphragm Elements
Bourdon tube gages are not well suited to low pressure ranges because of the
stiffness of their metal parts. A diaphragm element gage, using more flexible
material, can be used in low pressure applications.
Diaphragms are made of materials such as leather, cotton lined rubber,
impregnated silk, copper, and stainless steel, depending upon the pressure applied
and the temperature of the fluid. The diaphragm is a flexible disc, either flat or
with concentric corrugations to increase motion and sensitivity. Nonmetallic or
limp diaphragms are used for pressure from 0 to 0.5 kPa while the metallic type
are suitable for pressures of 0 to 2500 kPa.
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Figure 8
Diaphragm-Type Pressure Indicator
Bellows Elements
The bellows element is most often used for pressure measurement between a
pressure equivalent to 250 mm water head to approximately 350 kPa. It consists
essentially of a corrugated metal tube that will expand in the direction of its length
when a pressure is applied. Special calibrating springs are also used (Fig. 9) to
provide greater accuracy.
The expansion and (or contraction of a bellows can be used as a transducer, that
is, to convert different types of signals. Bellows are commonly used in pneumatic
devices to position nozzle and flapper clearances, and in electronic devices to
position rheostats and solenoid cores. Thus, unlike the Bourdon tube elements,
they are often incorporated in control loops rather than as stand-alone devices.
Fig. 9 illustrates a bellows used as a low-pressure gage. Pressure exerted on the
outside of the bellows tends to compress it, stretching the calibration spring and
moving the pen linkage on a chart an amount that is proportional to the applied
pressure. When the maximum design pressure is reached, the bellows comes to
rest against the over-range tube which protects the linkage and recording parts
from damage.
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Figure 9
Low Range Element
Strain Gages
A strain gage is an extremely sensitive transducer that can be used to measure
pressure or force on a column, shaft, etc. This pressure or force is converted into
a proportional electrical signal.
The most common type of strain gage is the resistance type similar to the one in
Fig. 10 (a). It consists of a fine wire grid, the size of a small postage stamp,
which is cemented to a paper or plastic base. This base is then bonded firmly to
the column or shaft on which the force is measured. When a tensile force is
applied, the wire grid will increase in length while its cross-sectional area will
decrease. These two physical changes will cause an increase in electrical
resistance of the conductor. If this conductor is part of a bridge circuit, the
voltage imbalance across the bridge will be proportional to the pressure or force.
Since the output of a strain gage is electrical these devices are well suited to being
sensing elements for control loops using electronic signals.
Fig. 10 (b) shows a strain gage that can be used to measure the pressure in a
cylinder. A change in pressure, acting on the flush diaphragm, will vary the
compressive force on the tube on which the strain gage is bonded, causing a
proportional change in electrical resistance of the strain gage. The imbalance of
voltage across the bridge is amplified to provide sufficient power to operate a
controller and/or a recorder.
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Figure 10
Strain Gages
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Chemical Seal(b)
Figure 11
Pressure Sensor Protectors
Figure 12
Line Pulsation Dampener
Fig. 12 (a) consists of a rubber bulb and felt plug that are connected to a pressure
gage and completely filled with glycerine. When the pressure from the process
fluid increases, the rubber bulb is compressed, causing the glycerine to be forced
through the plug, which acts as a restriction to the flow. The degree of damping
depends on the compression of the felt plug which is adjusted before the bulb is
filled with glycerine.
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Another practical means of restricting pulsations in the line leading to the pressure
gage can be achieved by means of a needle valve, Fig. 12 (b), which is placed
between the pressure source and the gage.
LEVEL MEASUREMENT
Level measurements include boiler water level, fuel tank level, water storage and
heater levels. In many applications, gage glasses are used to indicate the level of
liquids while other devices are used to record and control. Different types of gage
glasses will be illustrated in the next section of this course when boiler fittings
will be studied. Attention will be directed in this lecture to other basic level
measurement techniques that can be used for indicating, recording, and control
purposes.
Float-Type Level Measurement
One method of measuring and indicating level in an open tank is shown in Fig. 13
(a) where a float is attached to a weight by means of cables and pulleys. The float
is positioned within the tank while the weight hangs outside adjacent to a scale
which is marked in units of level.
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Figure 13
Float-Type Level Measurement and Control Level
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Fig. 13 (b) shows a float-type level control system where a float positions the inlet
valve through a linkage arrangement. By moving the pivot to the left, a greater
change in level is required to produce full valve travel.
When it is not practical to have the float in a vessel or tank, a float cage or
chamber (Fig. 14) is mounted on the outside, with the bottom part connected to
the liquid space and the top to the vapor space in the vessel. If the level in the
vessel increases, the float rises to open the control valve further so more liquid
will flow from the vessel. Note that the cage will be under the same pressure as
that in the vessel. Similar float arrangements can be connected to a boiler drum
where the float may operate a switch to start and stop a feedwater pump and to
operate a low water-level fuel cutoff in case the water becomes dangerously low
in the boiler.
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Figure 14
Float Cage Unit
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Figure 15
Remote Water-Level Indicator
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Colored screens illuminate the inside of the indicator; blue represents the water in
the lower portion of the gage and red the steam in the upper part. If the water
level rises in the boiler drum, the diaphragm will move the shutter and pointer
upward so more blue color is visible in the gage glass.
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Figure 16
Differential Pressure Sensors
In Fig. 16 (b) the differential pressure manometer has been replaced by a
differential pressure transmitter that uses a diaphragm as a sensing element,
similar to the type used for the remote level indicator in Fig. 15. Fig. 16 (b)
shows a differential pressure transmitter being applied to the same type of level
measurement as in Fig. 16 (a).
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An increase in level will move the diaphragm slightly to the right causing a
proportional increase in the output of the transmitter.
If a diaphragm-actuated differential pressure transmitter is used to measure level
in an open tank, the right side of the diaphragm is open to the atmosphere.
FLOW MEASUREMENT
Flow is probably one of the most widely measured process variables. Many
methods are used to measure the rate of flow of steam, feedwater, fuel, and air,
but only the most common sensing elements will be discussed at an introductory
level.
Head Meters
Head type or differential pressure flow meters include a number of sensing
devices for fluid flow measurement such as orifice plates, venturi tubes, and
nozzles. Each of these devices will cause a restriction in the flow stream which
will result in a pressure drop, which has a certain relationship with the velocity,
and with the flow. If the net cross-sectional area of the fluid stream is reduced,
the velocity of flow increases and hence results in an increase in kinetic energy.
Since energy cannot be created or destroyed, the increase in kinetic energy results
in a reduction in pressure downstream from the restriction.
1.
Orifice Plate
An orifice plate is the most common form of head meter that is used in flow
measurement. It consists of a flat metal plate with an opening of a fixed area, Fig.
17. The concentric type shown in (a) is the most common, but the eccentric and
segmental in (b) and (c), respectively, are also used in special applications. The
outside of the plate is designed to fit inside the bolt circle on standard flanges.
Figure 17
Orifice Plates
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Fig. 18 illustrates the pressure drop or differential pressure across an orifice plate.
Note that the flow pattern shows an effective decrease in cross section beyond the
plate, with the maximum velocity and maximum change in static pressure
occurring at the narrowest point of flow called the vena contracta. After this;
point in the flow stream only some of the pressure drop is recovered, as
turbulence and friction have created considerable permanent pressure loss.
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Figure 18
Pressure Drop Across an Orifice Plate
The pressure differential across an orifice is measured by two pressure
connections, one before the plate and another downstream from the plate. Fig. 19
(a) and (b) shows two types of connections. In (a) the pressure connections or
taps are located directly on the flanges, while in (b) the taps are located on the
pipe at a specific distance from the orifice plate.
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Figure 19
Flange and Pipe Taps
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The orifice plate is easy to install and replace. It is low in cost, and different sizes
may be easily substituted if the flow range is varied, but it is the least accurate and
creates the highest permanent pressure loss.
2. Venturi Tube
This flow sensing element, installed between flanges, Fig. 20 converges to a
minimum cross section, called the throat, and then diverges to the original pipe
size. High- and low-pressure connections are installed at specified locations as
indicated. The venturi tube produces less permanent pressure loss than an orifice
plate. On the other hand, it has the disadvantages of higher cost and bulkiness.
Figure 20
Venturi Tube
3. Flow Nozzle
The flow nozzle in Fig. 21 is an adaptation of the venturi tube. It consists
essentially of a venturi tube without the diverging section, but its pressure
recovery is not as efficient. Flow nozzles are used principally for measurement of
high velocity flows. The high-pressure connection is located one internal pipe
diameter before the inlet face of the nozzle, while the low-pressure tap is usually
one-half the pipe diameter downstream.
Figure 21
Flow Nozzle
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Figure 22
Rotameters
When comparing the head or differential pressure meter with a variable area
meter, one finds that the area is fixed and the differential pressure varies in a head
meter, while in a variable area meter or rotameter, the differential pressure is
constant and the area varies with a change in flow rate.
This rotameter is used mainly as an indicating device. It is fairly low in cost,
simple in construction, and quite accurate.
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TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
Glass Stem Thermometers
A glass stem thermometer, shown in Fig. 23, consists of a glass bulb, stem, and an
indicating scale. The bulb is completely filled with liquid, while the stem has a
uniform bore called the capillary in which the liquid expands when its
temperature increases. Usually the space above the liquid is evacuated, but in
some thermometers this space may be filled with an inert gas such as nitrogen to
increase the temperature range of the thermometer. The scale may be marked on
the stem or it may be mounted beside the thermometer, Fig. 23.
Figure 23
Glass Stem Thermometers
Mercury is the most common thermometer liquid because its coefficient of
expansion is nearly linear for temperatures between -39C and 450C. If the space
above the mercury is pressurized with nitrogen or argon, the upper temperature
limit may be increased to about 550C. At temperatures lower than -39C, the
mercury will freeze.
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Alcohol and other hydrocarbons can be used at lower temperatures but at higher
temperatures the liquid will evaporate.
Bimetal Thermometers
The bimetal thermometer consists of two thin strips of metal, with different
coefficients of expansion, laminated together without the use of any filler metal.
When one end is fixed, as illustrated in Fig. 24 (a), the other end will deflect in
nearly direct proportion to the change in temperature. Brass and invar, an ironnickel alloy, are the metals often used because the linear coefficient of brass is
over twenty times higher than that of invar.
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Figure 24
Bimetal Thermometers Bimetal Strip
To amplify motion, the bimetal strip may be wound into a helix or spiral. Fig. 24
(b) shows an industrial bimetal thermometer that uses a helical bimetal element
whose motion is transmitted to a pointer by a shaft.
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Figure 25
Filled System Thermometer
Thermocouples
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The thermocouple is probably one of the most widely used temperature sensing
devices. Basically, it consists of two wires, each made of a different metal or
alloy. These wires are connected at one end to form the measuring junction as
shown in Fig. 26. The free ends of the two wires are connected, directly or by
means of extension wires, to a measuring instrument to form a loop in which
current can flow. This connection is often called the reference junction. When
the measuring and reference junctions are at different temperatures a voltage is
produced by the thermocouple causing a current to flow. The magnitude of the dc
voltage is not quite proportional to the temperature difference between the two
junctions.
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Figure 26
Basic Thermocouple Circuit
Temperature Range ( C)
Iron - Constantan
-20 to 760
Chromel - Alumel
260 to 1260
Platinum/Rhodium - Platinum
540 to 1480
Copper - Constantan
-185 to 370
Table 1
Thermocouple Ranges
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DETERMINING COMPOSITION
A chromatograph, Fig. 27 (a), is used to analyze the components of a gaseous
mixture or of a liquid in vapor form. It operates on the principle that if a gaseous
mixture is forced through a certain material that resists its flow, gases that have a
lower density or boiling point will pass through more quickly than the ones that
are more dense.
A basic chromatograph consists of a separation column, packed with an absorbent
material and installed in an oven that is maintained at a constant temperature. The
column is connected to a regulated supply of inert carrier gas, such as helium or
argon, indicated in Fig. 27 (a). The gas sample mixes with the carrier gas and
flows through the column. Each component of the gas mixture is identifiable by
the time that elapses between the injection of a sample into the column and the
emergence of that component.
Quantitative measurement of each component depends on the difference in
thermal conductivity between the mixture of carrier gas in the reference leg and
that of the carrier gas and a component in the detector leg. The heat sensitive
elements in the detector are often thermistors or semiconductors whose electrical
resistance decreases rapidly with an increase in temperature. When a greater
quantity of a specific gas passes through the detector, the wheatstone bridge, to
which these heat sensitive elements are connected, will become more unbalanced.
The resulting trace on a chart will appear like that shown in Fig. 27 (b). Peak
heights and peak areas above the base line are used to calculate the quantity of a
particular gas component in the mixture.
Figure 27
Gas Chromatograph
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