Electrical Distribution Circuits

Learning Outcome
When you complete this module you will be able to:
Describe an electrical distribution system.

Learning Objectives
Here is what you will be able to do when you complete each objective:
1. List and describe the standard types of electrical voltage systems.
2. Interpret electrical circuit symbols as used in building systems.
3. Describe the major components of an electrical distribution system.
4. Describe the function and operation of alternate power supply system
equipment.

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INTRODUCTION
It is important that an operator understand an electric distribution system and
service. Operating the equipment, deciding what maintenance work should be
done, and isolating the equipment for maintenance work or as the first response in
case of a fire or accident are all important areas of an operators responsibility.
Knowledge of the location of the load centers and motor control centers is a must
so the complete system or portions of the system can be shut off at any time.

ELECTRICAL VOLTAGE SYSTEMS

AC electrical supplies and systems are divided into three voltage classes. Each
presents a different degree of hazard and requires a special class of equipment.
Extra Low Voltage (Below 30 V)
Live wires below thirty volts do not represent a serious threat of electrocution
under normal conditions. Caution is still advised. Extra low voltage devices such
as buzzers, doorbells, and flashlights can be handled with safety and little
concern. The low voltage is extremely susceptible to voltage drop therefore the
load must be in close proximity to the source. Extra low voltage is neither suitable
nor economical for power loads of any size.
Low Voltage (30 - 750 V)
All supplies classified as low voltage will pose a serious risk to life when
physically contacted. Voltages in this range are sufficient to supply power loads
of reasonable size.
High Voltage (Above 750 V)
The voltage is sufficient to cause arcing through the air over small distances to a
grounded body; therefore a mere approach may result in a threat to life. This extra
hazard severely restricts the use of high voltage supplies to utilities in industrial
applications and electric services in buildings.
The degree of access to equipment is a prime factor in determining the voltage
selected. High voltage installations must be locked and accessible only to
authorized personnel. Lighting which is normally out of reach and left untouched
by the layman may be on a 347/600 volt supply. Where no such restriction exists
receptacles, residential occupancies, and portable appliances will likely be
designed for systems of 120 volts to ground.
Presently there are several system voltages universally accepted as standard, as
shown in Table 1.
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Table 1
Standard System Voltages

The following voltages are nominal, that is, in name only. A voltage range of plus
or minus five percent can be expected due to load variances.
Voltages are indicated as phase/line. For example 347/600 V, 3, four-wire would
indicate a phase voltage of 347 (white to red, black, or blue), a line voltage of 600
V (between any two other than white), three phases, and four circuit conductors
(red, black, blue, white).
Low Voltage Systems
In this section the actual system and the restrictions imposed shall be discussed.
Equipment selection must conform to the constraints imposed by the system with
respect to the number of phases and the voltage. Three-phase equipment will not
work on a single-phase supply. Appliances designed for 240 V will not work
properly on a 208 V system, etc.
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Before looking at the constraints it is important that the systems and terminology
are understood. To review terminology, consider Fig. 1

Figure 1
Simple Two-Wire System
In Fig. 1, the system would be identified as a 120 V, 1 (single-phase), two-wire
circuit. There are two circuit conductors (black and white) and one grounding
conductor (green or bare). The grounding conductor is never used as part of the
circuit and is never interconnected with the identified conductor other than at the
service. Any other connection between the white conductor and ground will
enhance the possibilities of exposed metallic surfaces becoming energized.
The system in Fig. 2 would be identified as a 120/240 V, 1, three-wire circuit.
The red, black and white are the circuit conductors. There will always be zero
volts between the white conductor and ground because it is grounded at the
service. The identified conductor here is also a neutral. That is, it will carry the
difference or unbalanced load of the other two conductors. (4 A - 1 A = 3 A)

Figure 2
120/240 V 1, Three-Wire Circuit

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The system in Fig. 3 would be referred to as a 120/208 V, 3 (three-phase), fourwire system. In addition to an identified or grounded conductor, the white wire in
this case may also be referred to as a neutral as it also carries only the unbalanced
load. If each of the other conductors were loaded to 10 A, the neutral would carry
nothing. The grounding conductor is not considered as part of the four circuit
conductors (four-wire). When any one of the live conductors is dropped, as
indicated on the right, a 120/208 V, single-phase, three-wire circuit remains. Only
single-phase loads of 120 V and 240 V may be connected to such a system.

Figure 3
120/208 V, 3, Four-Wire Circuit
Table 2 outlines the possible source load combinations.

Table 2
Source Load Combinations

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The actual ratings on devices selected for nominal system supplies are about four
percent lower, to account for any voltage drop of the supply system. Loading on
any system must be as balanced as possible between all the live conductors.
Proper load distribution over all the phases not only allows optional use of
existing capacity, but also reduces line losses and thus reduces energy costs.

High Voltage Systems

In commercial and residential applications, if high voltage equipment is used, it
will be restricted to the service entrance and perhaps some feeders. High voltage
is not often used as a utilization voltage due to the extra problems and hazards it
causes, and the subsequent safety requirements. The equipment must be kept
clean and dry as the systems sensitivity to arc tracking due to accumulations of
moisture or dirt is directly proportional to the voltage.
Open contacts on a high voltage circuit may not necessarily mean a de-energized
circuit. The downstream conductors may store enough charge (capacitance) to
pose a threat to life. Hence, high voltage lines must be interconnected and
grounded before working on any equipment (working grounds). Only then can the
system be treated as dead. Indeed any ungrounded metal near a high voltage
system may be energized through capacitance without any direct electrical
condition.
A high voltage may arc through the air if the humidity is high and the distance is
small. The distance of approach to energized high voltage conductors should not
be less than two metres. Most high voltage equipment however will be completely
guarded by grounded metal and interlocked to prevent inadvertent access. All
high voltage installations should be clearly marked, locked, and accessible only to
authorized personnel. A warning notice DANGER - HIGH VOLTAGE should be
conspicuous. Some electrical vaults are required to be sealed. Qualified personnel
are a must when setting up appropriate maintenance schedules. Be sure service
contractors are experienced in high voltage work. Unqualified personnel should
stay away and keep everyone else out. Generally, little maintenance is required
from year to year, if left alone.

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BUILDING INFORMATION
Each building should have a complete set of plans, diagrams, and specifications.
A building operator should study the plans and diagrams carefully to gain
familiarity with all aspects of the building. Diagrams are the medium of
communication between the equipment designers and the equipment users. The
actual equipment should be correlated to the symbol on the prints and vice versa.
By constant use of the prints an operator will soon be able to use them effectively
when required. Plans or diagrams that do not accurately reflect the system are
useless. Thus, whenever there are changes or alterations to any part of the system,
the appropriate diagrams must be revised, and only the most up-to-date versions
kept. It is good practice to keep several copies of such plans and diagrams
available for reference by maintenance and construction personnel.

Specifications
When a building is designed, wiring methods may reflect the specific
requirements of the owners, tenants, or users of the building. Additional
requirements are laid out and described in the building specifications that
accompany the plans. The specifications may include items pertaining to:

Special circuitry
Equipment quality
Manufacturer
Aesthetics
Coding systems
Terminal markings

Whenever repairs or alterations are performed, ensure that the specifications are
followed. This will ensure:

Easy servicing and troubleshooting

Interchangeable parts
Easy circuit tracing and identification
Reduced errors
Compatibility and desired effects
Reduced inventory and purchasing problems

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Symbols
Tables 3a, 3b, and 3c depict the symbols used in line diagrams. The table is only a
sample of the most common items. Legends on prints and diagrams should be
referred to for additional symbols and specific use of the given ones.

Table 3a
Electrical Diagram Symbols

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Table 3b
Electrical Diagram

Symbols
Table 3c
Electrical Diagram Symbols

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Types of Diagrams
There are many types of diagrams. Each has its own purpose. It is important that
each diagram be used appropriately. The limitations of each type must be known,
otherwise the diagram may be misleading.
1. Schematic or Elementary Diagrams
A schematic or elementary diagram (Fig. 4) shows, by means of graphical
symbols, the functions, sequence, and electrical relationships (series, parallel,
wye, or delta) of a specific circuit arrangement. A schematic diagram will not
indicate any physical relationships of size, positioning, shape or location of
component devices, parts, or terminals.

Figure 4
Schematic Diagram of a Combination Starter

2. Connection or Wiring Diagrams

A connection or wiring diagram (Fig. 5) displays the relative physical
arrangement of components, including all wiring and connections. The physical
relationships and positioning will obscure the actual electrical operations and
relationships.

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Figure 5
Wiring Diagram of a Combination Starter

3. Terminal and Connection Diagrams

Terminal and connection diagrams illustrate the locations and markings of each
terminal and the interconnection that is required. Terminal diagrams are
frequently used to show an isolated detail of the terminations.

4. Riser Diagrams
A riser diagram indicates by means of single lines and simplified symbols the
distribution of electrical systems in a multistoried structure. It shows the major
equipment interconnections and the characteristics of the interconnections. The
riser diagram (Fig. 6) provides a simple pictorial layout of the system distribution
that is easy to read, whereas one-line diagrams do not show the physical
relationships.

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Figure 6
Riser Diagram Illustrating the Feed to Each Floor
5. One-Line Diagrams
Although each of the aforementioned diagrams serves a specific need, this lecture
will use a diagram called a single line diagram or one-line diagram. A one-line
diagram is best for illustrating supply and distribution systems. Each line
represents all the conductors of the circuit. The equipment is illustrated by
symbols in sequence along the line. The line diagram effectively illustrates the
sequence of series connected devices, taps, and the grouping of loads on feeders.
The diagram presents an energy flow map but does not show connections, exact
circuitry or complex control circuits. Also, physical characteristics of positioning,
shape, and size are not illustrated, but may be given in supplementary
information.

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Figure 7
One-Line Diagram of a Combination Starter

Fig. 8 is a typical or one-line diagram. There are many things to note in the
diagram. The following is a sample of the information that can be retrieved from
the diagram:
1. It is possible to determine which equipment is indoors or outdoors.
2. It is possible to identify and locate the different voltages and systems of
13.8 kV, 480/277 V, and 120/208 V.
3. There are two services, each has a 1200 A capacity.
4. Each main transformer is at least 1000 kVA and is connected step down
delta to grounded wye.
5. The main breakers are plug-in and draw-out devices.
6. The amperage capacity is given at each distribution point.
7. There will be metering on the supply, 13.8 kV line and at the load side of
the 480 V line. The metering is accomplished through current and
potential transformers.
8. There are two 1600 A distribution busses interconnected by a plug-in tie
breaker that is normally open.
9. Each feeder bus has four taps; at 200, 300, 600, and 400 amperes.

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10. Each supply system feeds a 400 A plug-in bus system for flexible
distribution at 480/277 V, three-phase, four-wire.
11. The 480/277 V, three-phase, four-wire system is grounded at the star point
of the wye.
12. The energy path to each load.
13. The types of loads grouped on feeders.
14. The ratings of each component.

Information we cannot glean from the line diagram of Fig. 8:

1. The control operation of each chiller.
2. The terminal connections required.
3. The location of the connections.
4. The location of the equipment.
5. The physical size, shape, and layout of the equipment.
6. How the equipment operates.

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Figure 8
Typical One-Line Diagram for a Building

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DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
The distribution system is composed of the service, feeders, and branch circuits.
Fig. 9 represents a distribution system from the generating plant to the customers.
The voltage is transformed from 13 800 V to 345 000 V for the best efficiency
when power is transmitted over large distances.

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Figure 9
Overall Power Distribution System
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Fig. 10 shows a distribution system within a building.

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Figure 10
Building Power Distribution System
Services
The function of the service is to act as an electrical supply or source to the
building. All conductors, bus, switch gear, and other equipment which supply the
building with electrical energy are part of the service. The service usually consists
of two distinct sections: the supply service, and the consumers service. The
supply service is the responsibility of the utility and therefore its care and
maintenance is also their responsibility. The other section of the service, which is
the consumers responsibility, extends from the supply service to the first
overcurrent device. This section is called the consumers service. The division
between the two parts can vary from being almost entirely the consumers to
entirely the utilitys, depending on the agreement between the parties. The
building prints and specifications should define the two sections.

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It the consumer owns the supply transformer and high voltage is brought into the
building, then electrical billing will be at a reduced rate, perhaps 5% to 10%
lower. The diagram of Fig. 8 indicates pretransformer metering or metering at the
13.8 kV supply. If such is the case, be sure to be billed pretransformer rates and
not post-transformer rates. Note that on a reduced (pretransformer) rate the
consumer is responsible for the energy losses of the transformer, which may
amount to several thousand dollars a year.
It is possible that a building may have services of different voltages. As an
example, a building may have several operating systems such as a 120/208 V
supply for convenience outlets and a 347/600 V supply for power and lighting
loads. Two services may be installed. It is much more common however to supply
one service at the higher potential and transform within the building to supply
lower voltage systems as illustrated in Figs. 11 and 12.
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Note that the numbers in the two diagrams correspond.

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Figure 11
Electrical Equipment Layout Pictorial
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Figure 12
Electrical Equipment Layout Line Diagram
The service will often enter a main switchboard and the equipment room of the
line diagram in Fig. 8 would probably contain such a switchboard. The
switchboard provides an enclosure for the distribution and control of the feeders
as well as switching and protection of the service. As indicated in Fig. 12 the
switchboard will probably contain metering equipment including instrument
transformer cabinets. Such metering can be used to monitor the operation of the
system to ensure it is functioning within acceptable limits.
Feeders
Distribution is the function of the feeders. Beyond the first protective device the
feeders form the distribution network to the last protective devices which protect
the branch circuits. The division of supply through multiple feeders is done on the
basis of:
1. Locale - Equipment in close proximity is often connected to one feeder to
reduce installation costs.
2. Load Type - Loads of similar operations and voltage sensitivity are
grouped. Motors are often grouped together and kept separate from
lighting. Independent feeders may be used to supply lighting, receptacles,
and computers.
3. Emergency Supply - Equipment that must be switched to alternate sources
of power may be grouped together on one feeder.
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In Fig. 12, the bus duct, which contains solid copper bars to conduct the electrical
energy, is used to ease modification. The duct will contain all the lines of the
system. Feeder #2 consists of a tap plugged into the duct and includes the
necessary protection and disconnection for the circuit. Then a transformer is used
to transform the supply to the voltage required for lighting. The transformer feeds
a panel which is used to tap, feed, and protect the branch circuits supplying the
light fixtures. Feeder #3 is a special type of feeder called a riser. Risers (vertical
feeder ducts) are common in multiple storey buildings. The riser is used to supply
several floors as taps are taken off at each level. The riser may be at the utilization
voltage or a transformer may be used at each tap to provide the proper voltage.

Branch Circuits
Circuits which extend beyond the final overcurrent device are termed branch
circuits. Utilization is the function of the branch circuits. They are the last system
of conductors and deliver energy to the individual loads. The branch circuit
amperage capacity may range from 15 A to several hundred amperes. Each
branch circuit may have several loads connected in parallel to each other. All
loads on one branch circuit will have the last breaker or fuse in common therefore
each tap into the branch will have the same amperage capacity. Each branch
circuit will contain at least two circuit conductors, but may have as many as four
conductors in the case of three-phase supplies. All of the live conductors of the
circuit will be disconnected simultaneously together by a multiple pole switch.
The branch circuits #1 and #2 illustrated in Fig. 12 are the motor and lighting
branch circuits.

ALTERNATE SYSTEMS
Transfer Switches
Transfer switches are really double throw multiple pole devices which may be
manual or automatic. They are used to select alternate circuits. Two examples of
the use of transfer switches are given in Fig. 13.
In the first circuit (source transfer) the load may be supplied from either source to
provide extra reliability. An automatic transfer switch will switch over when the
voltage falls below 70% of rated and will return automatically upon a resumption
of service. In the second case (load transfer) the transfer switch transfers load.
Such a circuit may be used to reduce energy and installation costs for seasonal
loads using the same supply capacity for the loads alternately. Heating and car
receptacles may be switched alternately with air conditioning.

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Figure 13
Types of Transfer Circuits

Where certain loads are essential, selecting appropriate combinations for alternate
loads and backup supply systems will provide for servicing of the loads and
ensure their reliability.
Tie Circuit Breakers
Although most low voltage distribution systems are the simple radial type in
which the switchboard is fed from only one source of power, maximum service
continuity and flexibility result when two sources of power are available. Then, if
one source becomes inoperative or needs to be removed from service, power can
still be maintained to the switchboard main bus and service will continue. One
good way of accomplishing this without paralleling normal power sources
involves the use of a tie breaker.
A normally open tie breaker between two switchboards or two power centres, or
in a double-ended power centre, can be used to form a secondary circuit selective
arrangement as illustrated in Fig. 14, a simplified version of Fig. 12. The two
transformers normally operate independently of each other with the tie breaker
open. However, under emergency conditions such as failure of one transformer,
one of the main breakers (No. 2 in Fig. 14) is opened and the tie breaker is closed
to ensure continued service to critical loads with a minimum of delay. The
transfer can be accomplished manually or electrically depending on the job
specifications. Automatic return to normal operation can be built into the transfer
scheme if required.

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Figure 14
Alternate Power Sources and Tie Breakers
The continuous current rating needed for a tie breaker depends on the anticipated
load on the tie circuit. One extreme is to make the tie breaker the same size as the
main breakers; the other extreme is to size it to carry emergency loads only.
Unless each transformer is sized to accommodate the entire load normally
supplied by both transformers, load-dumping schemes will need to be planned to
avoid overloading the one remaining transformer during emergency conditions.
Often the tie breaker will be key interlocked with either main breaker. One of the
main breakers will have to be off before a key is released to close the tie breaker.
Then the tie breaker will have to be reopened before the key can be returned to
close the main breaker. Such a system ensures that the two main services are
never paralleled; that is energizing the same bus at the same time.

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