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Internal Combustion Engines I

Learning Outcome
When you complete this module you will be able to:
Describe the application, construction, and operation of internal combustion
engines.

Learning Objectives
Here is what you will be able to do when you complete each objective:
1. Discuss the fuels used in internal combustion engines.
2. Describe the working cycles of the 4-stroke and 2-stroke spark ignition
engines.
3. Describe the working cycle of the 4-stroke compression ignition (i.e., diesel)
cycle.
4. Describe the construction of a basic spark and compression cycle engines.
5. Explain the basic operating considerations for diesel engines.

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INTRODUCTION
The power engineer of today frequently comes into contact with internal
combustion engines in the course of a workday. They are employed as small
standby or emergency generating units in many power plants or as the driving unit
for an item of auxiliary equipment such as a fire pump.
The term internal combustion engine is applied to all engines in which the
burning of the fuel takes place within the engine cylinder. Compare this concept
with the steam engine, where work is done by steam in the engine cylinder but the
transfer of the chemical energy in the fuel into useful heat in the steam takes place
in the boiler.
In order to describe an internal combustion engine type it is necessary to specify
the fuel used and the working cycle. In addition, for each type of fuel and cycle
there are different possibilities for the method of ignition, the method of fuel
delivery to the cylinder, and the way in which the output of the engine is
governed. Added to these, a particular engine will be quoted on its brake power,
and number and arrangement of working cylinders.

FUEL USED
The most commonly used fuels in internal combustion engines are natural gas,
gasoline, light oil fuels, and heavy oil fuels. Propane is slowly gaining acceptance
as a fuel for internal combustion engines, but mainly for vehicles rather than
stationary power generation.

Natural Gas
Engines burning this fuel are in common use in locations where natural gas is
plentiful and particularly as the drive units for gas compression machinery. These
engines work on a two- or four-stroke cycle with ignition supplied by a hot
ignition tube or electric spark. Governing is by throttling.

Gasoline
The gasoline engine is a high speed type working on either a two- or four-stroke
cycle. Ignition is by spark. The fuel is in liquid form and is vaporized by being
drawn through fine jets by the powerful suction of the engine during the intake
stroke. This process of vaporization is known as carburetion. Governing takes
place by throttling the resulting air/fuel mixture.

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Light Oil Fuel


Engines using light oils such as kerosene are in use although not as extensively as
the gasoline engine. The cycle used may be two-stroke or four-stroke. The fuel is
sprayed into a vaporizer heated by the exhaust gases and then drawn into the
cylinder together with air. Governing is by throttling of this air/fuel mixture.

Heavy Oil Fuel


This is an important type of modern high compression engine. It may be low
speed or high speed and it may be two-stroke cycle or four-stroke cycle.
Compression is carried out on a charge of air and then fuel is injected in atomized
liquid form near the end of the compression stroke. Ignition of the fuel occurs by
virtue of the high temperature developed during the compression of the air. Hence
the name compression ignition engine. Governing is carried out by varying the
fuel quantity injected at each stroke, reduced fuel quantity giving reduced engine
output.
Note that since the air quantity drawn in remains the same, the air/fuel mixture
changes with each load setting. This is quite different from the gasoline engine
where the governing is by quantity of mixture, the quality remaining
substantially constant at all loads.

WORKING CYCLE
Internal combustion engines can be grouped according to the number of strokes
that constitute a working cycle. Working cycles for internal combustion engines
include two- and four-stroke cycle spark ignition and two- and four-cycle
compression ignition.
Four-Stroke Spark Ignition Cycle
The four-cycle engine, more properly called the four-stroke cycle engine was
developed earlier than the two-cycle engine. One stroke is taken as meaning a
complete movement of the piston in one direction, corresponding to one-half
revolution of the crankshaft. Each cylinder is fitted with two or more poppet
valves, intake and exhaust, which are kept closed by springs and opened at a
precise moment by cams on a camshaft which is geared to the crankshaft.

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Referring to Fig. 1, it will be seen that the four-cycle engine requires four strokes
or two complete crankshaft revolutions to produce one power stroke.

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Figure 1
Four-Stroke Cycle Gasoline Engine Operating Principle
1. Intake Stroke

The inlet valve is open while the piston moves down, drawing a mixture of
gasoline and air from the carburetor into the cylinder.
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2. Compression Stroke

The inlet valve is closed and the piston moves upward compressing the mixture in
the combustion chamber. Near the upper end of this stroke the spark plug is timed
to ignite the mixture.
3. Power Stroke

The mixture burns, generating a high pressure which forces the piston downward
and produces useful power. Near the end of this stroke the exhaust valve opens to
begin the removal of burned gases from the cylinder.
4. Exhaust Stroke

The exhaust valve remains open while the piston moves upward and pushes out
most of the remaining burned gases in preparation for the next intake stroke.
The four-cycle engine is usually lubricated by a definite quantity of oil in its
crankcase which is either pumped under pressure to the bearing surfaces or is
splashed onto them by rotation of the crank webs. The piston rings limit the
amount of oil entering the combustion chamber and keep the carbon deposits to a
minimum.
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The four-cycle engine gives good fuel economy, good control at all speeds and
high torque at low speeds, though it is more mechanically complicated and
heavier than a two-stroke engine of the same power rating.
Two-Stroke Spark Ignition Cycle
The two-stroke cycle engine is noted for its simplicity. As can be seen in
Fig. 2, this engine functions by utilizing three openings or ports in its cylinder
wall which are covered or uncovered by the piston. Thus there are no valves of
the ordinary type and no camshaft.
Since the intake and exhaust functions are performed simultaneously during only
a part of one stroke, the two-cycle engine gives a power stroke every crankshaft
revolution.
As shown in Fig. 2(a), the upward stroke of piston F compresses a mixture of
gasoline vapour and air into the combustion chamber D. The same piston stroke
also creates a partial vacuum in crankcase B which draws in the next mixture
charge through the carburetor and port A. Near the upper end of the stroke, spark
plug G is timed to ignite the compressed mixture.

(a)

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(b)
Figure 2
Two-Stroke Cycle Engine Operating Principle

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In Fig. 2(b), the pressure in the cylinder resulting from fuel combustion, forces
piston F downward on its power stroke, closes intake port A, and compresses the
new mixture charge in the crankcase B. Near the lower end of this stroke the
piston uncovers exhaust port E which releases cylinder pressure and discharges
most of the burned gases.
Further piston movement then uncovers the transfer port C which allows the
compressed new mixture in the crankcase to flow upward into the combustion
chamber where it assists in pushing the exhaust gases through the exhaust port E.
The head of the piston is usually shaped to direct the flow of new mixture upward
to get the maximum displacement of exhaust gas with minimum loss of new
mixture out of the exhaust port.
The two-cycle engine is lubricated by thoroughly mixing a measured quantity of
special lubricating oil with the gasoline in the tank. When this gasoline/oil
mixture passes through the carburetor the gasoline is vaporized, the oil is carried
through as an oil fog and lubricates all parts of the engine in its passage through.
Theoretically the two-stroke engine should produce twice as much power as a
four-stroke of the same size and speed but it does not attain this because of its less
efficient cylinder scavenging. Two-cycle engines find application where
maximum power with minimum size and mass are required and they will operate
best at high engine speeds.
Almost identical diagrams could be drawn to illustrate the operation of diesel
engines (compression ignition); both two- and four-stroke cycles can be used. The
major differences are that the fuel is injected at high pressure directly into the
engine cylinder in liquid form, though finely atomized, and that ignition takes
place without the aid of a spark.

Four-Stroke Compression Ignition Cycle


Referring to Fig. 3, the four strokes in sequence are suction, compression, power
and exhaust. Fig. 3 shows diagrammatically the operation of a four-stroke cycle
diesel and is almost self-explanatory.

1. Suction Stroke

On the suction stroke, the inlet valve is opened just before the piston reaches the
top dead center position, and the exhaust valve closes just after the piston reaches
top dead center. This allows a charge of air to be drawn into the cylinder through
the inlet valve as the piston descends.

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Figure 3
The Four-Stroke Cycle Compression Ignition Engine

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2. Compression Stroke

After the piston has passed the bottom dead center position, the air inlet valve is
closed and compression begins as the piston rises. Shortly before top dead center,
fuel injection begins. Meanwhile compression of the air will have raised its
temperature to between 540 and 650C, and its pressure in the range 2800 to 4200
kPa. Under these temperature and pressure conditions, the fuel will ignite almost
as soon as it enters the cylinder and mixes with the hot air. There will be a
momentary increase of temperature and pressure as the fuel burns and the power
stroke commences.
3. Power Stroke

The hot gases of combustion expand and force the piston downwards. Before it
reaches bottom dead center, the burning gases have expended their energy and the
exhaust valve is opened to allow them to escape from the cylinder.
4. Exhaust Stroke
As the piston again ascends in the cylinder, the remaining exhaust gases are
forced out through the open exhaust valve. Just before the piston reaches the top
dead center position, the inlet valve is opened and the whole cycle of events is
repeated.
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The Two-Stroke Compression Ignition Engine


Figs. 4 and 5 show two types of two-stroke cycle diesel engines. One difficulty
experienced in two-stroke engines is in achieving a complete clearing of the
exhaust gases from the cylinder after the completion of one working stroke and
the beginning of the next.
The operation of removal of exhaust gases is called scavenging. In order to get
a more complete clearance of the cylinder it is common, in the larger engine sizes,
to provide inlet air at a slightly increased pressure. This becomes known as
scavenging air and is supplied by a scavenge pump.
Fig. 4 shows cylinder scavenging being carried out across the cylinder much as
was done in Fig. 2(b), the two-stroke gasoline engine.

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Figure 4
Cylinder Scavenging

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Fig. 5 shows an alternative method with the air inlet in the same position but the
exhaust being carried through the exhaust valve in the cylinder head, giving a
Uniflow type of action. In other words, the flow of scavenge air and exhaust gas
is unidirectional.
Note that with this latter arrangement, we have a two-stroke engine with valves.

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Figure 5
Uniflow Form of The Two-Stroke Cycle

BASIC ENGINE CONSTRUCTION


Now that we have discussed the operating cycles of internal combustion engines,
we will take a brief look at their overall construction.
Spark Ignition Engine
Fig. 6 shows a four-stroke gasoline engine in diagrammatic form. This engine
operates with spark ignition, and so has a carburetor to vapourize the fuel. The
major parts are indicated and named. Only one cylinder is shown, though the
engine may comprise four, six, eight or even twelve cylinders.

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Figure 6
Schematic Diagram of Four-Stroke Cycle Gasoline Engine
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Four-Cycle Diesel Engine


Fig. 7 shows the basic construction of a four-cycle diesel engine. Diesel engines
use compression ignition, and so have no carburetor. Fuel, delivered to the
cylinder via a pump and injector nozzle, mixes with air in the cylinder. The frame
and bedplate will be of either cast or welded construction depending upon engine
size. The frame carries the cylinder liners. Note that the illustration shows only
one cylinder because it is an end view but in fact there may be four, six, eight,
twelve, or sixteen cylinders.

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Figure 7
Parts of Four-Cycle Diesel Engine
The cylinder head closes one end of the cylinder and the moving piston closes the
other end. The figure shows the piston approaching top dead center with both inlet
and exhaust valves closed and fuel being injected into the cylinder through the
fuel nozzle.
The cylinder head carries the fuel nozzles, the valves and their operating rockers
and is cast with passages for connection to inlet and exhaust manifolds. Both
cylinder and head have water jackets through which cooling water is circulated.
The moving parts - piston, connecting rod, crank pin, crankshaft, and main
bearings - are essentially similar to those of a steam engine. The camshaft is
driven from the crankshaft through gearing or a chain and operates the valve push
rods by forcing them to ride up over the lobes or peaks on the cams; each
individual push rod is operated by its own respective cam. The push rods in turn
operate rocker arms and so transmit their movement to the valves. The fuel pump
supplies high pressure fuel to the nozzle and is driven from the camshaft in this
case.
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Note that the spark plug, high tension coil and distributor of the spark ignition
engine are absent from this engine.
The cylinder head, liner and piston top form the combustion space into which a
charge of air is compressed to high pressure and temperature. A carefully metered
quantity of fuel oil is then injected by fuel pump and injector into this space at
sufficiently high pressure to overcome the compression pressure and to cause the
oil to break into a finely atomized spray, and combustion takes place. The
resulting rise of pressure and temperature of the mixture in the cylinder provides
the driving force for the engine.
The arrangement shown can be said to be typical of four-stroke diesel engines.
Individual engines will differ in details but the general principle is standard.

Diesel Engine Operation


The following are some operating notes for diesel engines. These notes must be
considered as general remarks only; where manufacturers instructions are
available, these must be strictly adhered to.
1. Starting

The majority of stationary industrial type diesel engines are started up by the use
of compressed air, although some of the smaller ones may have electric starter
motors or even be hand-cranked to start. In any case the object is to turn the
engine crankshaft and so produce in the air charge a temperature capable of
igniting the fuel when injected into the cylinder.
Starting by compressed air takes one of two forms: the air might be directed to an
air motor to carry out cranking, or it might be led through a distributing device to
the main power cylinders of the diesel engine.
In the latter arrangement, the air distributing device is operated by the camshaft
and serves to direct high pressure air, usually about 2100 kPa, to each cylinder in
turn on its power stroke through air-starting valves fitted in the cylinder heads.
The air thus admitted drives the engine in a similar manner to that of steam
driving a steam engine.
Before starting up, special care should be taken to see that the fuel injection pump
is primed and that it will deliver fuel oil to the cylinders with the first revolution
of the engine.
Precautions should also be taken to see that all valves work freely in their guides.
If the valve stems should appear sticky a little clean kerosene applied with a brush
will usually free them.
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All lubricators, mechanical and otherwise, should be filled, the feeds opened and
the pumps primed to ensure prompt delivery of lubricating oil to all the relative
moving parts. In circulation systems, the level of oil in the main reservoir should
be checked and where independently driven circulating pumps are employed, they
must be put into operation before starting the engine. Some engines have hand
operated lubricating pumps fitted to the engine circulation system in order that oil
can be manually fed to the moving parts before the engine actually starts up. In
such cases these pumps must be so used.
The starting air is now applied via the starting air control valve, through the
distributor to those cylinders fitted with starting air valves as mentioned earlier.
After the engine has commenced turning on compressed air, the fuel is injected
into the cylinders by the fuel injection pump. The starting air is then shut off and
the engine operates by burning fuel in all cylinders. Both two-stroke and fourstroke engines may be started in this manner.

2. System Checks

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During the operation of a diesel engine watch must be kept upon the temperatures
and pressures of the lubricating oil and the cooling water and the engine exhaust
temperatures.
One of the problems which can occur is that the pistons, cylinder walls, fuel
injectors, and exhaust valves can become coated with deposits. These deposits
may be carbonaceous, or caused by impurities in the fuel oil or the intake air, or
result from incomplete combustion or the burning of lubricating oil. If these
deposits accumulate rapidly, frequent engine cleaning will become essential: this
is always a costly procedure so every effort must be made to avoid incorrect
operating procedures.
Incomplete combustion will usually be indicated by a dirty, smoky exhaust and
excessively high exhaust gas temperatures. It may result from any one of the
following: improper fuel injection, insufficient combustion air, unsuitable fuel,
overloading, or overcooling.
Improper fuel injection may be due to worn or choked injector orifices, sticking or
leaking nozzle or pump check valves, wear in the fuel pump or its driving cams
and cam followers. Insufficient air will occur if excessive piston blowby permits
the compressed air to leak past the piston during compression or if inlet or exhaust
valves fail to seat properly. Compression pressures should be checked at regular
intervals since a drop in this pressure will give warning of the development of
these conditions. Two-stroke engines may suffer from improper scavenging due
to partially clogged air ports and choked air intake filters, either of which will
result in incomplete combustion.
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An incorrectly selected fuel oil may also be the cause of incomplete combustion
by being too heavy to atomize correctly when injected into the cylinder, or by
having poor ignition qualities with too small a proportion of highly volatile
components.
Under some circumstances overloading can be responsible for incomplete
combustion. Cylinder overloading may occur even though the engine as a whole
is not overloaded; this would be indicated by a high cylinder exhaust temperature.
3. Engine Cooling

The engine manufacturers instructions with regard to the cooling system and
arrangements should now receive detailed attention and any recommendations
strictly observed.
Fig. 8 shows one typical diesel engine cooling system layout. This system
employs heat exchangers between the jacket water circulating the diesel engine
cooling system and the raw water circulating the cooling water system. This
allows the jacket water to be kept in clean and treated condition which in turn
maintains the cylinder jacket cooling passages clean and free from sludge and
scale.

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Figure 8
Closed Cooling System with Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
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Engine cooling is a particularly important item in the correct operation of a diesel


engine. An ideal state of affairs exists when the cooling system is so arranged that
the discharge water temperature can be maintained at the engine manufacturers
suggested figure at all loads and at normal full flow.
In closed cooling systems such as shown in Fig. 8, control will be effected by
regulating the cooling water flow through the heat exchanger. In open systems the
outlet temperature from the engine may be maintained during periods of light load
by recirculating some of the discharge water. This method is preferred because
reducing the cooling water flow can result in localized hot spots developing in the
engine.
High speed automotive type diesel engines run best with cooling water
temperatures near boiling point. Larger, heavier, industrial type engines run most
efficiently with lower cooling water temperatures. In the absence of a specified
temperature, this might be taken to be in the region 50 - 65C (122 - 149F).
Water temperatures much above this will reduce the sealing qualities of the
lubricating oil film on the cylinder walls and encourage piston leakage. Water
temperatures much below this will tend to make this oil film too thick and
sluggish; this will prevent proper distribution and cause oil drag on the piston.
Both conditions will result in cylinder deposits and reduced engine efficiency.

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Figs. 9, 10, 11, and 12 illustrate some applications of internal combustion engines
in industry.

Figure 9
16 Cylinder V Gas Engine Driving a Compressor
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Figure 10
Bristol Siddeley V 12 970 kW Diesel Engine Applied to
Electric Generator as a Package Unit

Figure 11
Horizontally Opposed Compressor Driven by a
Two-Cycle Turbo-Charged Gas Engine

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Figure 12
Large Gas Engine Driven Compressor

Fig. 13 shows a solid injection system on a small engine, each cylinder or ram of
the fuel pump supplies one cylinder of the four cylinder engine.
The section shows the operation in one of the cam driven plungers; the circled
detail shows the external appearance of the fuel pump.
The oil for each cylinder is discharged through an injection nozzle in the cylinder
head, which atomizes and directs the spray.

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Figure 13
Solid Injection Fuel System

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