Slides MH1810 2016 Part 1 1 Complex TWK Mon 8 8

MH1810 Math 1 Part 1 Algebra
Tang Wee Kee

Nanyang Technological University
(Nanyang Technological University)
Complex Numbers
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Imaginary number
Does the quadratic equation x 2 + 1 = 0 have a real root? That is, are
there real numbers x at which x 2 = 1?
To deal with the above irreducible quadratic equation, a new symbol iis
introduced, where
i 2 = 1.
Thus, x 2 + 1 = 0 has two distinct roots namely i and
Complex Numbers
i.
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Powers of i
i2 =
1,
i 3 = (i 2 )(i ) =
i,
i 4 = (i 2 )(i 2 ) = ( 1)( 1) = 1, i 5 = (i 4 )(i ) = i, . . .

Let k 2 Z. Then we have
i 4k = (i 4 )k = 1, i 4k +1 = i, i 4k +2 =
1, i 4k +3 =
i.
Note: Values of i n depends on the remainder when n is divided by 4.
Complex Numbers
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Complex number
(i) A complex number z is a mathematical object of the form x + yi,

where x, y are real numbers. We have z = x + yi.
(ii) The real numbers x and y are called the real part and imaginary part
of the complex number z respectively. We denote the real and
imaginary parts of a complex number z by Re z and Im z respectively.
(ii) We represent the set of all complex numbers by C.
Complex Numbers
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Examples of complex numbers
3 + 5i,
3.5
i,
3 + i,
+ 9i,
Re(3 + 5i ) = 3 and Im(3 + 5i ) = 5.
Complex Numbers
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Denition (Equality of complex numbers.)

Two complex numbers z = x + yi and z 0 = x 0 + y 0 i, where x, x 0 , y and y 0
are real numbers, are said to be equal if
x = x 0 and y = y 0 .
That is, Re(z ) = Re(z 0 ) and Im(z ) = Im(z 0 ).
Complex Numbers
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Example
Example
Suppose x and y are real numbers such that the two complex number
(2x 3) + 5i and (x + 7) (y + 1)i are equal. Find the values of x and
y.
Comparing both real and imaginary parts of the complex number
respectively, we obtain
(2x
3) = x + 7, and 5 =
which gives x = 10 and y =
(y + 1),
6.
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Remark
We may identify every real number x 2 R as a complex number

(why?). In view of this we may think of the set of real number as a
subset of the set of complex numbers, i.e., R C.
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Remark
We may identify every real number x 2 R as a complex number

(why?). In view of this we may think of the set of real number as a
subset of the set of complex numbers, i.e., R C.
We say that a complex number z = x + iy is purely imaginary if the
real part of z, namely x, is zero.
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Argand Diagram
The representation of the complex number z = x + iy is said to be in

rectangular form. By identifying each complex number z = x + yi by the
point with coordinate (x, y ), we actually represent the complex number z
by a unique point on the xy -plane.
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Modulus of z
The modulus jz j of the complex number z = x + yi is

p
jz j = x 2 + y 2 .
It is the distance of the point (x, y ) from (0, 0).
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Argument of z
For z = x + yi, the angle where the line joining points (0, 0) and (x, y )
made with the positive x-axis is known an an argument of z, denoted by
arg (z ).
The counter-clockwise direction is considered positivedirection, whereas
the clockwise is considered negativedirection.
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Argument of z
Therefore, arg(z ) is the angle such that

x = jz j cos & y = jz j sin .
Note that tan = yx , if x 6= 0.
If arg(z ) = (radians), then
arg(z ) = + 2k for every integer k.
In particular, when the angle is chosen such that < , we say
this is the principal argument of z. It is denoted by Arg(z ).
Complex Numbers
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Polar form of z
Using the modulus and argument we can express a complex number

z = x + iy as
z = r (cos + i sin ),
where r = jz j and is an argument of z.
This representation is known as the polar form (also known as
trigonometric form ) of z.
We also use the notation cis for (cos + i sin ), and write z = r cis
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Exponential form of z
The exponential form of a complex number z = r (cos + i sin ) is

written as
re i .
commonly used in electronics, engineering and physics;

convenient in discussing multiplication, division of complex numbers;
formally discussed in advanced courses in mathematics via series.
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Example
Example
Let z = 3
3i.
(a) Find the modulus and principal argument of z, and hence nd its polar
representation.
(b) Write down the exponential form of z.
First, nd the modulus of z :
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Example
Example
Let z = 3
3i.
(a) Find the modulus and principal argument of z, and hence nd its polar
representation.
(b) Write down the exponential form of z.
First, nd the modulus of z :

p
p
Note that r = jz j = 32 + ( 3)2 = 3 2.
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Example
Next we nd the argument.
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Example

The complex number 3
tan = 33 .
3i lies on the fourth quadrant, and
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Example

tan = 33 .
Let 0
such that tan = j
3
3 j
Complex Numbers
= 1. (Basic angle.)
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Example

tan = 33 .
Let 0
Thus, =
4.
such that tan = j
3
3 j
Complex Numbers
= 1. (Basic angle.)
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Example

tan = 33 .
Let 0
Thus, =
4.
such that tan = j
We have arg(3
3i ) =
3
3 j
= 1. (Basic angle.)
4.
Complex Numbers
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Example

tan = 33 .
Let 0
Thus, =
4.
such that tan = j
We have arg(3
3i ) =
3
3 j
4.
Thus the polar form of z = 3
3i is
3 2 cos(
) + sin(
)
4
4
= 1. (Basic angle.)
Complex Numbers
= 3 2 cis(
).
4
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Example
We have
p
r = jz j = 3 2,
Thus the exponential form of 3
arg(3
3i is
p
3 2e
4 i
3i ) =
.
4
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Example
Example
Express z = 5e
5
3 i
in rectangular form.
Note that arg(z ) =
5
3 .
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Example
Example
Express z = 5e
5
3 i
Note that arg(z ) =
5
3 .
The principle argument is Arg(z ) =
3.
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Example
Example
Express z = 5e
5
3 i
Note that arg(z ) =
5
3 .
3.
Therefore, we have
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Example
Example
Express z = 5e
5
3 i
Note that arg(z ) =
5
3 .
3.
Therefore, we have
z = 5e
5
3 i
= 5e 3 i
Complex Numbers
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Example
Example
Express z = 5e
5
3 i
Note that arg(z ) =
5
3 .
3.
Therefore, we have
5
3 i
= 5e 3 i
= 5(cos + isin ) =
| {z 3}
| {z3 }
p
z = 5e
1/2
5
2
p
5 3
2 i.
3/2
Complex Numbers
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Conjugate of a complex number
Denition
The conjugate of a complex number z = x + yi is the complex number
z = x yi.
Notation for the complex conjugate of z: z or z .
Argand Diagram representing z and z :
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Examples
z
3 + 5i
10
3.5
p i
3+i
z or z
+ 9i
7i
Complex Numbers
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Conjugate in Polar Form
The conjugate of the complex number

z = r (cos + i sin ) (in polar form) or z = re i (in exponential form), is
respectively
z
z
= r (cos( ) + i sin( )) , or
= re i .
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Theorem
Let z = x + yi, where x and y are real numbers.
(a) (z ) = (z ) = z.
(b) z is real if and only if z = z .
(c) z is imaginary if and only if z = z .
(d) jz j = jz j and arg(z ) = arg(z ).
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Addition and subtraction
Given two complex numbers z1 = x1 + y1 i and z2 = x2 + y2 i, we dene

z1
z2 = (x1
Example
(a) (3 + 5i ) + (3.5 i ) = 6.5 + 4i
p
p
(b) (
3 + i ) ( + 9i ) = (
3
x2 ) + (y1
y2 )i.
) + ( 8)i
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Algebraic Properties
z +0 = z = 0+z
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z +0 = z = 0+z
For every z = x + iy , the complex number
satises z + ( z ) = 0 = ( z1 ) + z.
Complex Numbers
z=
x + ( y )i
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z +0 = z = 0+z
satises z + ( z ) = 0 = ( z1 ) + z.
z=
x + ( y )i
z1 + z2 = z2 + z1
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z +0 = z = 0+z
satises z + ( z ) = 0 = ( z1 ) + z.
z=
x + ( y )i
z1 + z2 = z2 + z1
(z1 + z2 ) + z3 = z1 + (z2 + z3 )
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z +0 = z = 0+z
satises z + ( z ) = 0 = ( z1 ) + z.
z=
x + ( y )i
z1 + z2 = z2 + z1
(z1 + z2 ) + z3 = z1 + (z2 + z3 )
z1 z2 = z1 z2 .
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To multiply two complex numbers z1 = x1 + y1 i and z2 = x2 + y2 i, we can

perform the multiplication treating i as a symbol. But we replace i 2 by
( 1) when we simplify it :
z1 z2 = (x1 + y1 i )(x2 + y2 i )
= x1 x2 + x1 y2 i + (y1 i )x2 + (y1 i )(y2 i )
= (x1 x2 y1 y2 ) + i (x1 y2 + x2 y1 )
Example
(3 + 5i ) (2 i ) = 3(2) + (5i )(2) + (3)( i ) + (5i )( i )
= 6 + 10i 3i (5i 2 ) = 11 + 7i.
Complex Numbers
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Theorem
(i) z 1 = z = 1 z.
(ii) z1 z2 = z2 z1 .
(iii) (z1 z2 ) z3 = z1 (z2 z3 ).
(iv) z1 z2 = z1 z2 .
(v) z z = jz j2 . In particular, if z 6= 0, then z z > 0.
(vi) z1 (z2 + z3 ) = z1 z2 + z1 z3 .
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Product in Polar Form
Given two complex numbers expressed in polar form:

z1 = r1 (cos 1 + i sin 1 ) & z2 = r2 (cos 2 + i sin 2 )
Their product is
z1 z2 = r1 (cos 1 + i sin 1 ) r2 (cos 2 + i sin 2 )
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Their product is
= r1 r2 [(cos 1 cos 2
sin 1 sin 2 ) + (cos 1 sin 2 + sin 1 cos 2 )i ]
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Their product is
= r1 r2 [(cos 1 cos 2 sin 1 sin 2 ) + (cos 1 sin 2 + sin 1 cos 2 )i ]

= r1 r2 (cos( 1 + 2 ) + i sin( 1 + 2 )) .
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Their product is

= r1 r2 (cos( 1 + 2 ) + i sin( 1 + 2 )) .
Then jz1 z2 j =
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Their product is

= r1 r2 (cos( 1 + 2 ) + i sin( 1 + 2 )) .
Then jz1 z2 j =
and arg (z1 z2 ) =
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Important Result
Theorem
(a) Modulus of product is the product of moduli:
jz1 z2 j = r1 r2 = jz1 j jz2 j

(b) Argument of the product is the sum of arguments:
arg(z1 z2 ) = 1 + 2 = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 ).
This implies the complex number z1 z2 lies on the line obtained by
rotating the line segment representing z1 by the angle arg(z2 ).
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Represent the product on an Argand diagram:
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Represent the product on an Argand diagram
In particular, for a complex number z, the complex number z e i is

represented on the Argand diagram by by rotating z through .
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Division of complex numbers
p
1
p in the form a + b 5, we use the
Recall that to express
3 + 2p 5
p
conjugate 3 2 5 of 3 + 2 5 to perform the following
p
p
1
3 2 5
3 2 5
3
2p
p
p =
p
=
+
5.
11 11
3+2 5 3 2 5
32 (2 5)2
Complex Numbers
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Division of complex numbers
To divide a complex number z1 = x1 + y1 i by a non-zero complex number

z2 = x2 + y2 i (i.e., z2 6= 0), we use the conjugate z2 = x2 y2 i as follows:
z1
z1 z2
z1 z2
z1 z2
=
=
=
z2
z2 z2
z2 z2
jz2 j2
Note that z2 z2 = x22 + y22 is a positive real number.
Complex Numbers
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Example
Express
3 +5i
2 i
in the form a + bi.
The conjugate of the denominator 2

3 + 5i
(3 + 5i ) (2 + i )
(6
=
=
2 i
(2 i ) (2 + i )
i is 2 + i. We have
5) + (10 + 3)i
1 13
= + i.
5
5
5
Complex Numbers
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Division in polar form
In polar form, we have z1 = r1 (cos 1 + i sin 1 ) and

z2 = r2 (cos 2 + i sin 2 ), such that
z1
jz1 j
=
z2
jz2 j
arg(
z1
) = arg(z1 )
z2
arg(z2 )
Thus, we have
z1
r1
= (cos( 1
z2
r2
2 ) + i sin( 1
Complex Numbers
2 )) .
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Division in polar (exponential) form
Using the exponential form, for z1 = r1 e i 1 and z2 = r2 e i 2 we have

z1 z2 = (r1 r2 )e i ( 1 + 2 ) , and
r1 i ( 1
z1
=
e
z2
r2
2 )
where z2 6= 0.
Both coincide with the law of exponents we are familiar with in real
numbers.
Complex Numbers
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Example
Let z = cos + i sin . Find jz j and show that z1 = z .
p
Note that jz j = cos2 + sin2 = 1. Thus, we have z z = 1 and
1
1 z
z
=
=
= z = cos
z
z z
z z
Complex Numbers
i sin .
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The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
Theorem (The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra)

Every polynomial equation of the form
an x n + an
1x
n 1
+ a1 x + a0 = 0,
in which the coe cients a0 , a1 , . . . , an 1 , an are any complex numbers,

whose degree n is greater than or equal to one, and whose leading
coe cient an is not zero, has exactly n roots in the complex number
system, provided each multiple root of multiplicity m is counted as m
roots.
Proof (Omitted): Textbook on theory of complex analysis.
Complex Numbers
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Solving Quadratic Equations
Consider a quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b and c are real

numbers.
Recall that its discriminant D, is dened as D = b 2 4ac.
(i) If D > 0, the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has two distinct
real roots given by
p
b
b 2 4ac
x=
.
2a
(ii) If D = 0, the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has repeated real
roots given by
b
x=
.
2a
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Solving Quadratic Equations
(iii) If D < 0, the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has two distinct

complex roots given by
p
b i
(b2 4ac )
.
x=
2a
Note that the two complex roots are conjugate of each other.
When D < 0, the quadratic equation or expression is said to be
irreducible.
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Example
Example
Solve the quadratic equation 2x 2
3x + 5 = 0
For the given quadratic equation 2x 2 3x + 5 = 0, its discriminant D is

D = ( 3)2 4(2)(5) = 31 < 0.
Thus, 2x 2 3x + 5 = 0 is irreducible.
p
p
3 + 31i
3
31i
and
which form a
The two distinct roots are
4
4
conjugate pair.
Question: From the from the above example, we see that the roots of the
equation appear in conjugate pairs. Is this true in general?
Complex Numbers
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Polynomial with Real Coe cients
Theorem
Suppose p (x ) = an x n + an 1 x n 1 +
+ a1 x + a0 is a polynomial in x
with real coe cients ak s. If z is a solution to p (x ) = 0, then the
conjugate z is also a solution of p (x ) = 0.
For example: suppose z0 is a complex root of 9x 5 + 7x 2 6x + = 0,
then z0 is also a complex root of 9x 5 + 7x 2 6x + = 0. Therefore,
(x z0 )(x z0 ) is a quadratic factor of 9x 5 + 7x 2 6x + . Moreover,
(x z0 )(x z0 ) = x 2 (z0 + z0 )x + z z0 is a real coe cient quadratic
factor.
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As a consequence of the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra and the above

result, we have the following useful result.
Theorem
Every odd degree polynomial p (x ) with real coe cients has at least one
real root.
For example: 9x 5 + 7x 2
6x + = 0 has at least one real root.
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Example
Example
Let z = (cos + i sin ). Find expressions for z 2 and z 3 in the same form.
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De Moivres Theorem
Theorem (De Moivres Theorem)

For every rational number n,
(cos + i sin )n = cos n + i sin n.

The Euler representation DeMoivres Theorem is
ei
= e i (n ) .
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Examples
(a) (cos + i sin )9

(b) (cos + i sin )
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Example. Simplify each of the following complex numbers
(a) cos 4 + i sin 4

(b) cos 3 + i sin 3
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Example
Example
Express each of the following complex numbers in the form
(cos + i sin )n
(a) cos 7 + i sin 7.
(b) cos 5
i sin 5.
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PROOF of De Moivres Theorem
We prove the theorem by considering two cases:

First Case: n is a non-negative integer, i.e., n
0.
Second Case: n is a negative integer, i.e., n < 0.
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PROOF of De Moivres Theorem
Case: n is non-negative integer

We shall prove
(cos + i sin )n = cos n + i sin n,

for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . by Mathematical Induction.
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PROOF: n is an non-negative integer
1. Verify the result holds for n = 0
(cos + i sin )0 = 1, cos 0 + i sin 0 = cos 0 = 1.

2. Assume the result hold for some non-negative integer k
(cos + i sin )k = cos k + i sin k.

3. We shall prove the result holds for k + 1 i.e.,
(cos + i sin )k +1 = cos(k + 1) + i sin(k + 1).
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PROOF: n is an non-negative integer
Indeed:
(cos + i sin )k +1 = (cos + i sin )k (cos + i sin )

= (cos k + i sin k ) (cos + i sin )
= (cos k cos
sin k sin ) + i (sin k cos + cos k sin )
= cos(k + 1) + i sin(kn + 1).

Therefore by Mathematical induction, (cos + i sin )n = cos n + i sin n
for all non-negative integer n.
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PROOF: n is anegative integer

Case n is a negative integer, i.e., n =
Let n =
1,
2,
3, . . ..
m where m is a positive integer. Note that
(cos + i sin )n = (cos + i sin )
1
1
m =
cos m + i sin m
(cos + i sin )
1
cos m
cos m + i sin m cos m
cos m i sin m
= cos m
cos2 (m ) + sin2 (m )
i sin m
i sin m
i sin m
= cos( m )+i sin ( m ) = cos n + i sin n.

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Finding nth roots
We begin with an example to have a geometrical idea of nding roots of a

complex number before we state the formula for all distinct nth roots of
z = r (cos + i sin ).
Example
Find all distinct cube roots of cos 3 + i sin 3 .
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Distinct nth roots
Theorem (Distinct nth roots)

Consider a complex number z in polar form
z = r (cos + i sin ), where r > 0 and
<
Then the distinct nth roots of the complex number z = r (cos + i sin )
are
zk =
p
n
cos
+ 2k
+ 2k
+ i sin
n
n
Complex Numbers
, k = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , n
1.
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Distinct nth roots - exponential form
In exponential form, we have all n distinct nth roots of the complex

number z = re i are
p
+2k
, k = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , n 1.
zk = n r e i n
The n integers can be chosen to be any n consecutive integers.
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Example
Find all distinct 5th roots of
First, we express
3 + i.
3 + i in polar form.
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Example
3 + i.
p
First, we express 3 + i in polar form.
p
p
p
Note that r = 3 + 1 = 2, and 3 + i = 2( 23 + i 21 ) = 2e i 6 .
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Example
3 + i.
p
p
p
p

Then apply the formula, we have
(1 +12k )
/6 +2k
21/5 e 5 i = 21/5 e 30 i , k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4;
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Example
3 + i.
p
p
p
p

(1 +12k )
/6 +2k
21/5 e 5 i = 21/5 e 30 i , k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4;
p
13
All distinct 5th of 3 + i are z0 = 21/5 e 30 i , z1 = 21/5 e 30 i ,
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Example
3 + i.
p
p
p
p

(1 +12k )
/6 +2k
21/5 e 5 i = 21/5 e 30 i , k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4;
p
13
All distinct 5th of 3 + i are z0 = 21/5 e 30 i , z1 = 21/5 e 30 i ,
25
37
z2 = 21/5 e 30 i , z3 = 21/5 e 30 i = 21/5 e

11
49
z4 = 21/5 e 30 i = 21/5 e 30 i .
Complex Numbers
23
30 i
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Distinct nth roots
Corollary
The n distinct nth roots of cos + i sin are
wk = cis (
+ 2k
+ 2k
+ 2k
) = cos(
) + i sin(
),
n
n
n
k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n
1.
In exponential form, we have

wk = e i (
+2k
)
n
, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n
Complex Numbers
1.
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Roots of Unity
Note that 1 = 1 + 0i = cos 0 + i sin 0 = cos 2k + i sin 2k, where k is

an integer. We call n-th roots of 1 the n-th roots of unity.
Corollary (nth roots of unity)

The n distinct nth roots of unity are
zk = cos
2k
2k
+ i sin
, k = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , n
n
n
1.
By De Moivres Theorem, we have

zk = (z1 )k , where z1 = cos
Complex Numbers
2
2
+ i sin
.
n
n
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Roots of Unity
On the Argand diagram, all n-th roots of 1 are represented by points on

the unit circle and they are equally spaced by 2
n :
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Deriving Certain Trigonometric Identities I
Express cos n, sin n and tan n in terms of powers of cos , sin and
tan .
Tools:
cos n = Re(cos n + i sin n ) = Re (cos + i sin )n ,
sin n = Re(cos n + i sin n ) = Im (cos + i sin )n ,
Apply binomial expansion to (cos + i sin )n
Notation used: c cos , s sin , t tan .
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Example
Example
Express sin 3 in terms of powers of sin .
The rst step is to note that
sin 3 = Im(cos 3 + i sin 3 )
Now, we apply de Moivres theorem
sin 3 =
=
=
=
=
=
Im(cos 3 + i sin 3 )
Im (cos + i sin )3 (why?)
Im (c + is )3
Im c 3 + 3c 2 is + 3ci 2 s 2 + i 3 s 3
Im c 3 3cs 2 + i (3c 2 s s 3 )
3c 2 s s 3
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Example
Using c 2 + s 2 = 1, we have
sin 3 = 3c 2 s
s3
= 3(1 s 2 )s s 3
= 3s 4s 3
= 3 sin 4 sin3 .
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Example
From the above, we have also obtained an expression for cos 3:

cos 3 = c 3
3cs 2 = c 3
3c (1
c 2 ) = 4c 3
3c
Using the expression for both sin 3 and cos 3, we obtain a similar
expression for tan 3:
tan 3 =
sin 3
3c 2 s s 3
= 3
cos 3
c
3cs 2
3c 2 s s 3
.
c 3 3cs 2
1/c 3
1/c 3
Complex Numbers
3t t 3
1 3t 2
63 / 66
Deriving Certain Trigonometric Identities II
Express cosn or sinn in terms of cosines and sines of multiples of , i.e.

cos k, sin k.
Main Tool: Let z = cos + i sin , we have z1 = cos i sin .
Thus we have cos = 12 z + z1 and sin = 2i1 z z1 .
Complex Numbers
64 / 66
Deriving Certain Trigonometric Identities II
Next, we apply binomial expansion and group z k and

By De Moivres Theorem, we have
z k = cos k + i sin k and
1
= cos k
zk
1
zk
together.
i sin k
which gives
zk +
1
= 2 cos k and z k
zk
1
= 2i sin k.
zk
Thus, we obtain an expression involving sines and cosines of multiple of .
Complex Numbers
65 / 66
Example
Example
Prove that cos3 =
1
4
(cos 3 + 3 cos )
Proof.
Let z = cos + i sin . We have
3
cos = (cos ) =
1
8
z 3 + 3z 2
1
1
1
+ 3z ( )2 + ( )3
z
z
z
1
1
(z + )
2
z
1
8
(z 3 +
1
1
) + 3(z + )
3
z
z
1
1
[2 cos 3 + 3(2 cos )] = (cos 3 + 3 cos ) .
8
4
Complex Numbers
66 / 66

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MH1810 Math 1 Part 1 Algebra

Tang Wee Kee

(Nanyang Technological University)

(Nanyang Technological University)

i 4 = (i 2 )(i 2 ) = ( 1)( 1) = 1, i 5 = (i 4 )(i ) = i, . . .

Note: Values of i n depends on the remainder when n is divided by 4.

(Nanyang Technological University)

(i) A complex number z is a mathematical object of the form x + yi,

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Examples of complex numbers

Re(3 + 5i ) = 3 and Im(3 + 5i ) = 5.

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Denition (Equality of complex numbers.)

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which gives x = 10 and y =

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We may identify every real number x 2 R as a complex number

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We may identify every real number x 2 R as a complex number

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The representation of the complex number z = x + iy is said to be in

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The modulus jz j of the complex number z = x + yi is

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(Nanyang Technological University)

Therefore, arg(z ) is the angle such that

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Using the modulus and argument we can express a complex number

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The exponential form of a complex number z = r (cos + i sin ) is

commonly used in electronics, engineering and physics;

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First, nd the modulus of z :

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First, nd the modulus of z :

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Next we nd the argument.

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Next we nd the argument.

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3i lies on the fourth quadrant, and

Next we nd the argument.

3i lies on the fourth quadrant, and

such that tan = j

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Next we nd the argument.

3i lies on the fourth quadrant, and

such that tan = j

(Nanyang Technological University)

Next we nd the argument.

3i lies on the fourth quadrant, and

such that tan = j

(Nanyang Technological University)

Next we nd the argument.

3i lies on the fourth quadrant, and

such that tan = j

Thus the polar form of z = 3

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Thus the exponential form of 3

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Note that arg(z ) =

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Note that arg(z ) =