Practice Test 1

1.) Define the following terms as completely as possible:

Hydrogen Bonding (5pts)

When hydrogen covalently bonds to a metallic element. The molecules formed are highly
polar. Hydrogen bonding is weaker than ionic and covalent bonding.

This is a secondary type of bonding. There are three types of hydrogen bonding that can
occur. Fluctuating dipole, where there will be a temporary dissymmetry in the atom or
molecule, which causes some level of attraction. Another is a polar molecule, which has a
built in electrical dissymmetry due to the larger difference in electronegativitys of the
two atoms that are covalently bonded. These are much stronger and in this case, the
single proton forms a bridge between two negatively charged atoms.

Hydrogen bonding is a secondary type of bonding. There are three types of hydrogen
bonding that can occur: fluctuating dipole, induced dipole, and polar dipole. The bonds
happen because bonding with hydrogen makes the molecule polar and thus this electrical
dysentery causes bonds to develop.

Solid solubility and what factors affect its limit (10pts)

A solid solution is very much like a liquid solution in that it is just a mixing of two
elements. For it to be considered a solution, the concentrations of the solute must be
distributed evenly across the solvent. The solute is what is introduced into the host metal,
or solvent, and it is impurity atoms that can make the entire solid solution stronger by
giving it special characteristics. However, in order for the impurity atoms to successfully
bond to the host metal, several considerations must be taken into account. Atomic Size
Factor, Crystal Orientation, Valences, and Electronegativity. The impurity atoms
cannot be too large or else it will cause lattice strains. The crystal structure must be the
same for both. The electro-negativities must be similar or else, it will form intermolecular
bonds rather than make a substitution. Also a metal with higher valences will tend to
dissolve in the solvent better than one with lower valences.

Burgers vector of an edge dislocation (5pts)

The burgers vector denotes the magnitude and direction of the lattice distortion
associated with a dislocation. The burgers vector of an edge dislocation is
perpendicular to the dislocation line. The burgers vector will point in the direction along
the close packed crystallographic direction and its magnitude will be equal to the
interatomic spacing.

Give the electronic configuration Kr Atomic Number 36 (5pts)

[ Ar ] 3 d10 4 s 2 4 p 6

2.) Briefly describe the following:-

The essential differences between surface, bulk and grain boundary diffusion (15pts)

In general the diffusivity is greater through less restrictive structural regions such as grain
boundaries, dislocation cores and external surfaces. The diffusivity order from lowest to highest
is bulk diffusion, grain boundary diffusion and surface diffusion. Surfaces and interfaces have
structure that is different from the bulk and can be reactive impurities tend to segregate there.
Since energy is associated with interfaces, grains tend to grow in size at the expense of smaller
grains to minimize energy.

Bulk diffusion is what happens inside the lattice structure of the material. However, this is also
where the most crystal structure is the most complete and there are fewer vacancies for adjacent
atoms to fill. So the movement of the atoms are much more restricted than the following two
types of diffusion.

At the grain boundary there are fewer atoms that are held rigidly in place, and the lattice
structure is not completely there due to the different orientations of the planes. Therefore, there
are more vacancies that the atoms can fill and diffusion happens much faster at these grain
boundaries. This is a boundary where there exists a different orientation in the crystallographic
plane. The higher the angle of the mismatch, the higher the energy of those atoms at those grain
boundaries.

At the surface, the atoms are free to move and since it is the edge of the materials and the atoms
here are not bounded to the full extent that they can be, they are at a higher energy state then
those inside the material. So diffusion happens to a much greater extent. They are not held in
place as rigidly as in the bulk or even the grain boundary.

ExternalSurfacesSurfaceatomshavehaveunsatisfiedatomicbonds,andhigherenergiesthanthebulkatoms
Surfaceenergy,(J/m2)Minimizationofsurfaceareasreducestheenergyofthesystem(e.g.liquiddrop)Solid
surfacescanreconstructtosatisfyatomicbondsatsurfaces.GrainBoundariesPolycrystallinematerialcomprised
ofmanysmallcrystalsorgrains.Thegrainshavedifferentcrystallographicorientation.Thereexistatomicmismatch
withintheregionswheregrainsmeet.Theseregionsarecalledgrainboundaries.

Surfacesandinterfaceshavestructurethatisdifferentfromthebulkandcanbereactiveimpuritiestend
tosegregatethere.Sinceenergyisassociatedwithinterfaces,grainstendtogrowinsizeattheexpenseofsmaller
grainstominimizeenergy.Thisoccursbydiffusion(Chapter5),whichisacceleratedathightemperatures.

The Ficks first and second laws of diffusion and illustrate for each a practical use of these laws.
(10pts)

The Ficks first law states that in a steady state diffusion the diffusion flux is proportional
dC
to the concentration gradient. J =D dx A practical use of this law is in calculating the
rate of mass transfer of air through a metal.

Ficks second Law is different from the first law in that the second is for non-steady state
diffusion so we use a partial derivate:

C
2 C
=D 2 . If there are cases where there is
t
x

an accumulation or a depletion of material one side of a solid or another then this

equation should be used. A practical application of this is in the making of alloys. We can
measure how much diffusion has occurred and times for different processes in the
manufacturing process.

3) Briefly describe four ways to strengthen a metal. Give diagrams to illustrate your answer.
(25pts)

Grain Size Reduction: A fine-grained materials is harder and stronger than on that has
coarser grains because the former has a greater total grain boundary area to impede the
motion of dislocations. The more grains that there are, the dislocations will be hindered
from moving, the slip planes must move from one grain to another but because they are
in different grains the planes are oriented differently and thus it is harder for them to
move. The more the misalignment of the planes the more energy is needed to push the
dislocations from one grain to another.

Solid-Solution Strengthening: alloying with impurity atoms. Solute impurity atoms can
diffuse and fill up void space at the dislocation. This will decrease the strain energy so
itll take more applied stress to initiate deformation. Alloys are stronger because they
have impurity atoms within the lattice structure, which imposes lattice strains on the
crystal structure. These lattice strains then restrict the movement of the dislocations and
thus make it harder for a material to plastically deform.

Strain Hardening- Process of strengthening by plastically deforming a material As a

material plastically deforms more and more dislocations are created. This means that the
dislocation density increases. However, dislocations are repulsive in nature and the lattice

constrains on them by the other dislocations hinder the movement of the dislocations and
thus strengthens the material.

Quenching- The rapid cooling of a material that has been heated. After the heating and
rapidly cooling, the grain become finer so therefore, the material itself is harder and
stronger.

4) Describe fully the atomic processes which give rise to Plastic deformation (5pts)

Plastic deformation occurs when the stress is removed but the specimen does not return to
its pre-stress form. This occurs when the stress reaches the yield strength. Plastic deformation is
due to a large member of dislocations and the process of this is called slip. Strain fields interact
so that dislocations impose forces n each other resulting in change.

Sketch and label the Energy-distance curve for the following metals exhibiting:

a) high elastic modulus

b) low hardness
c) high self diffusivity
d) low melting point.

Explain your answers briefly (20pts)

Test 2
Typical questions for Exam #1
1.) Define with sketches if necessary the following:The TLK model of metal surfaces? (5pts)
The TLK model of metal surfaces describes crystal surface formation and
transformation. The position of an atom is determined by counting the and ...
describes the thermodynamics of crystal surface formation and transformation, as well as
the energetics of surface defect formation. It is based upon the idea that the energy of an
atoms position on a crystal surface is determined by its bonding to neighboring atoms
and that transitions simply involve the counting of broken and formed bonds.
Electronegativity (5pts)
The tendency to attract a bonding pair of electrons. Such an element is more likely to
form a compound with an electropositive element.

Covalent bonding (5pts)

Bonding elements through the sharing of electron by sharing valence electrons, the
compounds formed will have more stability.
The two atoms that are covalently bonded together will each contribute at least one
electron to share. Covalent bonds are very strong in some compounds but they may also
be very weak in others. The number of covalent bonds that an atom can have is given by
the number of valence electrons it has; the equation is 8-Number of valence electrons.
Ionic bonding (5pts
Bonding of atoms/elements through the transfer of electrons.
Attractive bonding forces are columbic; positive and negative ions attract one
another. However, there is no such thing as a completely ionic or completely
covalent bond, when we talk about ionic bonding it just means that the bond is

mostly or predominantly ionic. Ionic bonds are non-directional and the magnitude
of the bond is equal in all directions.

Electronic configuration. Give an example from Fe Atomic Number 26 (5pts)

F e 16=[ Ar ] 3 d 6 2 s 2

2.) Describe the following;The essential differences between surface, bulk and grain boundary diffusion (7pts)
Answered above

The role of imperfections in mechanical strength of metals (10pts)

Imperfections are various defects in solids. There are no such thing as a perfect solid, so
there are always impurities in solids. These impurity atoms in metals aca form alloys which can
impart characteristics to the metal such as enhanced mechanical strength and corrosion
resistance. The two types of defects are interstitial and vacancies in the crystal lattice structure.
Different atoms can be inputted into the vacancies, and atoms can be bonded into the interstitial
spaces as well in order to strengthen the material by alloying.

How does the Energy-distance curve relate to material properties? Give examples using sketches
with explanations (8pts)
This curve tells us that the minimum energy required to break bonds of the atoms to
infinite separation. Materials with high bonding energy tends to have high melting temperatures.
Also tells how much material expands or contracts upon heating/cooling. Deep trough means that
there are large bonding energies and low coefficient of thermal expansion.

3) Write a comprehensive essay on all the ways a metal can be strengthened Give diagrams to
illustrate your answer. (25pts)

4) Describe fully the atomic processes which give rise to the following:Elastic deformation (5pts)
This is deformation that is not permanent and reversible after the stress on the material is
removed. This is possible as long as it doesnt exceed the elastic limit of the material. On
the atomic scale, there are small changes in the interatomic spacing and there is a
stretching of interatomic bonds. Therefore, the modulus of elasticity is a measure of
resistance to deformation of atoms. The interatomic forces are what keeps the
deformation elastic.
Plastic deformation (5pts)
This results when the stress makes the material surpass its elastic limits and it causes
permanent deformation. Some of the interatomic bonds break and so the specimen is
permanently deformed. From there on, the atoms will form new bonds with its new
neighbors.

Cold working (5pts)

When a metal becomes stronger and harder after plastically deforming under cold
temperature conditions relative to the metals absolute melting temperature. After the
atoms create new interatomic bonds, they plastically deform. These will be more
dislocations, which hinder other dislocations.
Recovery (5pts)
During recovery, some of the stored internal strain energy is relieved by virtue of
dislocation motion. This is the result of enhanced diffusion at high temperatures. After, these is a
reduction in the number of dislocations and dislocation configurations produced have low strain
energies.

Recrystallization (5pts)
This is the formation of a new set of strain-free grains that have low dislocation densities.
The new grains start as small nuclei and expand until it completely consumes parent material
through diffusion. The driving force of this is the difference in internal energies between the
strained and non-strained materials.