Philips Lighting

Light and Radiation

Correspondence Course
Lighting Application

Lighting Design and

Engineering Centre

PHILIPS

Contents
Introduction

1. Electromagnetic radiation

2. The electromagnetic spectrum

3. Wave aspects of electromagnetic radiation

3.1 Wavelength, amplitude, frequency
3.2 Phase
3.3 Light regarded as a wave phenomenon

7
7
9
9

4 Quantum aspects of electromagnetic radiation

11

5. Generation of light
5.1 Thermal radiation
5.2 Selective radiation
5.3 Photoluminescence

12
12
14
17

6. Propagation of light
6.1Reflect ion
6.2Absorption and transmission
6.3 Retraction

18
19
23
24

7. Colour
7.1 Additive and subtractive colour mixing
7.2 Systems of colour classification
7.3 The black-body locus in the ClE colour triangle
7.4 Colour appearance and colour renderIng
7.5 Metamerism

26
26
28
30
31
33

Conclusion

34

Exercise material

35

Introduction
The physics of light

This lesson deals with the physics at light, its nature, its place amongst
other physical phenomena - especially electricity and magnetism. and the
physical laws governing its behaviour As was mentioned in Lesson 2, it took
scientists a very long time to formulate a tenable theory relating to the
nature at light, even when its properties and behaviour were fairly well
understood, Even now, the first is still very much jn the domain of theoretical
physics, and therefore will only be treated Into some depth where a direct
link with lighting practice can be made. For the rest, this lesson will be
devoted mainly to the properties and behaviour of light, especially the laws
at propagation in various media, the energy content and various colour
aspects.
Although every effort has been made to keep things simple, this lesson will
certainly be one of the most difficult to tackle by those students lacking a
comprehensive education in the exact sciences. Nevertheless, a proper
understanding of the physical characteristic-s of light is indispensable for
those involved in lighting practice.
Certain topics, namely those that whilst being of secondary importance in
lighting practice, are nevertheless essential to obtain a complete picture of
the physics of light, have been printed in a smaller type and are optional.
Limitations of space have meant that not all physical concepts and units
used in this lesson are explained. Should problems arise, the reader is
advised to consult a suitable textbook or his course coordinator.

1. Electromagnetic radiation
Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation
Light terms a part of a complex of physical
phenomena included under the heading 'electromagnetic radiation', It is
therefore closely related to, For example, radio and TV radiation signals,
infrared and ultraviolet, roentgen or X-rays, and nuclear and cosmic
radiation.
As a matter of fact, the only major difference between light and the other
phenomena mentioned so far is that it is used by animals and man to see
with. Of the other forms of electromagnetic radiation, only infrared (viz heat)
radiation can be directly perceived, although the other forms may manifest
themselves in - sometimes destructive - after- effects.
Maxwells wave theory

The enormous amount of speculation surrounding the nature of

electromagnetic radiation has been narrowed down into two theories. One,
Maxwell's electromagnetic wave theory, suggests that electromagnetic
radiation and therefore light consists of 'ripples' or waves, that are
propagated in omnipresent fields of electric and magnetic force. The
different properties of the various forms of electromagnetic radiation are
explained by their differences in wavelength. The various laws governing
the propagation of light are based upon this theory.

Plancks quantum theory

The unified theory

The other theory, Plancks quantum theory, postulates that all forms of
radiation consist of very small, indivisible portions of energy, called
quanta: Different types of electromagnetic radiation are thought to
consist of quanta of different energy content, the higher energies
corresponding to the shorter wavelengths In Maxwells theory The
quantum theory provides a good explanation of the way in which
electromagnetic radiation is generated and absorbed.
The fact that each of these theories offers a perfect explanation of a
part of the characteristics at electromagnetic radiation - the wave
theory for the laws of propagation, and the quantum theory for the
energy distribution of radiators - made it impossible to choose in favour
of one or the other. Furthermore, the inherent incompatibility between
the two theories meant that there was little chance of finding a
compromise. Nevertheless, the problem was tackled along these lines
by De Broglie and Heisenberg, who in 1927 published a mathematical
equation for the degree of impossiblily in observing simultaneously the
wave and particle aspects of electromagnetic radiation (and in fact of
all fast-moving objects, electrons for example).
Although very difficult, if not impossible, to grasp, this uncertainty
principle or unified theory' appears to suit all experimental results, and
is therefore regarded as the final answer to the question of the nature
of electromagnetic radiation, at least for the present.

2. The electromagnetic spectrum

Long-wave radiation

The spectrum of electromagnetic radiation is extremely broad (Fig. ij

Starting from the very long wavelengths - or quanta with a very low
energy content. To use the Plancklan terminology associated with the
a.c. generators and transformers in our eleclriclty plants (wavelength
6000 kilometres!), we pass the bands of long-wave radio transmission
(up to 2000 metres, and even more for communication with
submarines), short- wave AM and FM radio, television broadcasting
(Fig. 2), and radar transmission (wavelengths of one metre and less).
Then follow the wave bands perceived by heat sensation, from the long
waves emitted by our central-heating radiators down to the short-wave,
or infrared, radiation from a red-hot coal stove. The latter radiates
wavelengths of no more than one thousandth of a millimetre.

Visible light

A hot coal-stove will glow dull-red in the dark, and so forms a link with
the next wave range, that of visible light. This stretches from 780 to
380 nanometers1). Different wavelengths present different colour
Impress ions to the eye, from red, via orange, yellow green and blue to
violet.

Short-wave radiation

Next comes the ultraviolet region. The longer wave lengths of this
range occur in the radiation we receive from the sun and are
considered beneficial. They also produce tanning. Short-wave
ultraviolet radiation! on the other hand, is potentially dangerous to the
skin and eyes, but is used as a disinfectant as it kills bacteria
1

) One nanometre (nm) is one millionth of a millimetre or 10-9 metre.

Fig. 1 The spectrum of

electromagnetic
radiation. The
extent of visible light is
shown to the right, much
enlarged.

Fig. 2 Radio or TV broadcasting uses

wavelengths from one metre up to two
thousand metres.

Fig. 3 X-rays allow us to see 'through' the

bodies of humans and animals.

We are now down to wavelengths of 100 nanometres or less, or, in

Planckian terminology, to high-energy quanta, sufficient, for example, to
form ozone from the oxygen in the air.
Still shader wavelengths bring us to Roentgen or X-rays, which penetrate
the body (Fig. 3); the highly dangerous gamma-rays, emitted as a result ot
nuclear decomposition; and, ultimately, the cosmic rays Cosmic rays result
from collisions between extremely fast-moving particles - travelling from the
outposts of the universe - and the atoms terming the upper atmosphere,
thereby smashing the latter into the basic building blocks of mailer, Cosmic
rays have wavelengths down to 10-18 metre, or one thousandth of a
millionth of a nanometre.
While light consists of 'White light' emitted by the sun or an Incandescent
lamp, Is a mixture of all wavelengths a mixture of various in the visible
spectrum (and also contains some radiation from the adjacent infrared and
wavelengths ultraviolet regions). A well-known way of separating while light
into its component wavelengths Is by means of a glass refracting prism
(Fig. 4). A spectrum obtained in this way exhibits the familiar colours of the
rainbow: red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet*). The corresponding
wavelengths are approximately:
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet

630 - 780 nm
600 - 630 nm
565 - 600 nm
500 - 565 nm
435 - 500 nm
380 - 435 nm

Not all wavelengths produce the same impression of brightness on the

human eye The highest eye sensitivity lies in the green region at 555 nm.
*)Older scientific works add indigo (deep blue), to arrive at the magic
number of seven rainbow colours.
6

Fig. 4 With the aid of

refracting prism, white
light can be spilt up into
its component colours.

3. Wave aspects of electromagnetic radiation

3.1 Wavelength, amplitude, frequency
Light behaves like a train of waves
According to Maxwells theory, light behaves like a train ot
waves generated in a field of electrornagnelic forces, travelling away From
its source uniformly in all directions, unless intercepted. Unlike sound (In
which energy waves are propagated in air), where the vibration is in line
with the direction of travel (longitudinal vibration), experiments have clearly
demonstrated that light must be regarded as a vibration perpendicular to the
direction of travel - a so-called transverse vibration (Fig. 5)
Transverse vibration is most easily demonstrated by throwing a stone into a
pool of water. The surface of the water Immediately after the stone strikes
may appear as in Fig. 6.
Although Ihe waves travel outward from the point of agitation the water
particles themselves are not displaced In the same direction. This is easily
demonstrated by a cork floating on the water, which will be on top of a crest
at one moment and at the bottom of a trough shortly afterwards. But note
that the cork does not travel with the wave it simply moves up and down.
This demonstrates that wave propagation involves no transport of matter in
the direction of propagation *).
*)
it is another thing with the kinetic energy stored in the wave; this
travels with the wave front.

Fig. 5 Longitudinal waves (top) vibrate in line with the direction of travel;
transverse waves (bottom) vibrate perpendicular to the direction of travel.

Fig. 6 Waves travelling

outward ward from the
point where a stone
has been thrown into
the water.
Wavelength, amplitude and frequency
The distance from one crest of the wave to the next is
called the wavelength. This distance is denoted by the symbol (Fig. 7).
The height of the crest above (or the depth of the trough below) the average
level of the water surface is called the amplitude of the wave.
The cork, originally on top of the crest, will move down into the trough arid
then up again as the next crest comes along. Thus, the cork moves down
and up again in the time it takes for the wave to travel one wavelength. The
number of complete vibrations of this sort made by the cork in one second
Is called the frequency. It is denoted by the symbol . Frequency is
expressed in cycles per second also called herz (Hz).
Since, during each vibration, the wave travels through one wavelength, the
speed of propagation (v) equals the frequency multiplied by the wavelength.
Thus if is expressed in metres:
V=.
in m/sec
(1)
The speed of light in vacuum is constant
This relation applies to all types of waves. electromagnetic
waves included. Since Albert Einstein published his special Theory of
Relativity, we know that the speed of electromagnetic radiation, and thus of
light, in a vacuum. Is not only the highest possible velocity, but also the only
true constant in the universe. It is denoted by a and takes the same value
irrespective of wavelength. Thus:
c = 2,998x 108 m/sec

Fig. 7 Wavelength ()
and amplitude (a) of a
transverse wave.

Fig. 8 Waves showing phase shifts of 90o, 180o, 270o and 360 with
respect to each other.
or approximately 300 000 kilometres per second. The fact that c is a
constant implies that there is a fixed relationship between the wavelength
and the frequency of the electromagnetic radiation, as c = * . Thus:

= c / or = c /

(3)

3.2 Phase
Phase effects occur between waves of the same velocity and wavelength
Another aspect of
wave propagation that (although playing only a minor role in lighting
technology) must be briefly mentioned is that of phase. If two waves of
the same speed and wavelength *) interfere with each other - because
they coincide, fleet or intersect - much will depend on whether a crest of
one wave will coincide with a crest of the other wave - and a trough with
a trough - or that a crest of one wave will meet a trough of the other, In
the first situation the two waves will amplify each other (resulting in
summing of the amplitudes) in the latter case they will attenuate each
other, or even cancel each other out, ii the amplitudes are the same. Any
intermediate situation is possible as well, of course.
If the two waves perfectly coincide, we say they are In phase, otherwise
they are out of phase (Fig. 8). For reasons which will not dwelt upon,
phase shift is expressed in degrees of angle in this context the term
phase angle is also used. Two waves which are in phase are said to
have a phase shift of 0o, Greater angles correspond to an increasing
phase shill, and at 180o they are completely out of phase (i.e. canceling
each other out). Thus continuing, the phase shift decreases again, until
the two waves are in phase again at 360o**).
Phase shifts cause interference
Phase shifts occurring between light waves are responsible for
the phenomenon of light interference.
*)The frequency is then also the same, according to equation (1).
**)
Actually it is then in phase with the next wave crest, but that
doesn't matter as long as the wages are continuously generated.

3.3 Light regarded as a wave phenomenon

Phenomena explained from the wave theory
The wave theory of light is a particularly useful
tool with which to formulate mathematical explanations for those
phenomena that bear upon the propagation of light. To do this would be
beyond the scope of this lesson, but the most important of these
phenomena are briefly listed here. Some will be treated in greater depth
in Section 6 of this lesson.
Speed of light in a vacuum, the speed of light is independent of
wavelength, but in a denser medium the speed decreases - the more so
for longer wavelengths . and the frequency remains constant.
9

Fig. 9 Of the incident

light beam part is
reflected, an other part
absorbed, and the rest
transmitted.
Reflection. Of the light that tails on a surface, a part will be thrown back or
reflected (Fig. 9), This takes place according to simple, fixed laws.
Absorption. The light that is not reflected will disappear in the surface (is
absorbed by it). The absorbed light is ultimately converted into heat
Transmission. When light falls on the surface of a more or less transparent
medium, the part that is not reflected or absorbed will be let through
(transmitted), again according to fixed laws.
Refraction. When passing from one transparent medium into another of
different density, other than at right angles, the direction of a light ray will
change (Fig. 10), This takes place according to fixed laws.
Interference. Under various circumstances, phase differences between light
rays will manliest themselves in the form of bright and dark lines or rings, or
by colour affects, like on soap-bubbles (Fig. 1 1)
Polarisation. The transverse vibrations of light waves normally take place in
all planes perpendicular to the direction of propagation, fly reflection or
transmission through certain materials, the vibrations can be made to occur
in one plane only, those in the other planes being absorbed, This is called
polarisation (Fig. 12).

Fig. 10 A light ray is refracted when it passes from air into water.
Fig. 11 Interference is responsible for the colours that are
displayed by light reflected from a video long-pity or compact disc.

10

Fig. 12 When passing

through a polarizing
medium, the
transverse light waves
are directed into one
plane.

4. Quantum aspects of electromagnetic radiation

Limitations of the wave theory
With the electromagnetic wave theory, it became possible to
calculate the energy content of radiation spread over different wavelengths.
However, it soon emerged that the calculated results did no! agree with those
obtained tram experiments, especially where shorter wavelengths were
concerned. Max Planck, in 19001 offered a solution by assuming that radiated
energy Is not emitted in randomly small amounts, but in discrete, Indivisible
portions, which he called quanta'*). He found that the energy content of a
quantum of radiation is directly related to the frequency of the corresponding
waveform (and so Is inversely proportional to the wavelength). Thus, the
higher the energy of a quantum, the shorter the corresponding wavelength will
be. This is clearly in agreement with practical experience. For example, X-rays
have a far higher destruction potential than do radio waves.
Quanta of short-wave radiation have a high energy content
The relationship between the energy
of a quantum and the frequency of the radiation is noted down in the formula:
E = h * or E = h * c /

(4)

where: E is the energy (expressed in joules).

is the frequency (in herz)
h is a constant (Planck's constant), which is equal to 6,626 x 10-34 J.sec
c is de velocity of light in vacuum (2,998 x 108 m/sec)
is the wavelength (In metres)
According to the quantum theory electromagnetic radiation can be regarded as
a stream of particles moving away from the emitter. When at rest, these
particles have neither mass, nor energy - and therefore cannot exist - but
when moving, they can be expected to exercise a certain pressure. This has in
fact been demonstrated experimentally.
With the equations derived from the quantum theory, the energy distribution
over the various wavelengths emitted by a source of radiation can be exactly
predicted. [he quantum theory Is therefore very useful in gaining a proper
understanding of how light is generated. We shall come back to this subject in
the following Section.
*) For a quantum of visible light, the name photon has also become popular.

11

5.

Generation of light

5.1

Thermal radiation

If a solid body is heated to a temperature of about 525oC*), It will

begin to emit a dull-red light, lithe temperature increases, the colour
will change from dull-red to brig hi red, to orange, yellow, white, and
finally to a blueish-white. The flame of a candle (consisting of glowing
carbon particles at approximately 2000 K) emits a yellow light. The
filament of a tungsten incandescent lamp (temperature around 2800 K)
is yellowish-while, and the sun at noon (temperature 5500 K) is while.
Energy distribution over the wavelengths depends on temperature
It Is thus made clear that
the way the energy of an incandescent body is distributed over the
different wavelengths depends on us temperature, the point of
maximum emission shifting toward the blue end of the spectrum
(shorter wavelength) as the temperature Increases. Oodles that emit
electromagnetic radiation as a result of their increased temperature
are called thermal radiators.
A black-body radiator is a perfect thermal radiator
Not every material, when heated, will
emit energy over the whole spectrum up to the
theoretical
maximum according to its temperature A body that does so, will not
only be a
thermally perfect radiator, but also a perfect absorber of
the radiant energy that falls upon it. At temperatures too low for the
emission of visible radiation, ii will therefore look perfectly black, hence
the description black-body radiator.
*)From here on, temperature will be expressed in K (Kelvin). This
follows the familiar Celsius (or centigrade) scale, but starts from the
point of absolute zero, which lies at - 273 oC, So the freezing point of
water lies at 273 K,
and our body
temperature (37 oC) Is
approximately 310 K.

Fig. 13 Energy
distribution curves for
thermal radiators at
different
temperatures. The
broken line follows
the shift of the point
of maximum
emission, according
to Wien's
displacement law.

12

The concept of the black-body radiator is one of the most fundamental in

thermodynamics. True black-body radiators, however, do not occur in nature,
although very close approaches can be built in the laboratory. But although
the black-body radiator remains a theoretical concept, it does give a fairly
accurate description of the behaviour of solid incandescent bodies, with the
exception of those that exhibit pronounced luminescent or phosphorescent
characteristics, e.g. gas mantles.
Temperature determines the energy distribution of a black-body radiator The spectral energy
distribution of a black-body radiator is fully determined by its temperature.
Fig. 13 gives the energy distribution curves over a temperature range from
1000 K to 10 000 K. It shows that energy is radiated not only in the visible
region but also in the infrared and, for temperatures of 2000 K and Over, in
the ultraviolet range as well, With increasing temperature. the peak of radiant
energy shifts to shorter wavelengths. Between 3715 K and 7625 K, it lies
within the visible range, which means that an incandescent lamp (2800 K) although not a perfect black-body radiator emits most of its energy in the form
of infrared radiation, or heat.
Also, with increasing temperature, the total amount of energy radiated rapidly
increases, with an ever greater contribution from the shorter wavelengths.
This means that a radiator becomes more efficient as its temperature
Increases, but alas this effect cannot be used to increase the efficiency of the
incandescent lamp, as the filament would melt.
Black-body radiator laws The behaviour of black-body radiators is laid down in two formulae The first
allows us to calculate the wavelength at which the radiated energy is at
maximum from the temperature of the radiant body, or vice versa It is called
Wien's Displacement Law:
(5)
max = 2,8978 - 10 -3 / T
where- max = the wavelength of the energy maximum, in metres (m), and
T = the temperature in Kelvin (K).
The other formula describes the relationship between the amount of energy
radiated per unit of surface and the temperature difference between the
surface and its surroundings.
II is called the Stephan-Boltzmann Law:
F = 5,669*10-3(Ts4 - To4)
(6)
where: F = the radiated energy. In joules per square meter (J/m2),
Ts = the temperature of the surface. in Kelvin (K), and
To = the temperature of the surroundings, in Kelvin (K).
Thermal radiators display a continuous spectrum Because - within the limits of minimum and
maximum wavelengths - all wavelengths are present in the spectrum of a
thermal radiator be it with different energy contents - such a spectrum is
called a continuous spectrum (Fig. 14).
Temperature determines the colour of a black- body radiator
As the total spectral composition
(and especially the wavelength of maximum energy dissipation) of a blackbody radiator is determined by its temperature, the term colour temperature
has been introduced. Pt defines the colour impression obtained from an
incandescent body of that temperature- Thus, a black body with a colour
temperature of 1000 K will be red, one of 2000 K yellow, one of 6000 K while,
and so forth.
Fig. 14 The continuous spectrum of a thermal
radiator in this case a halogen incandescent lamp
(colour temperature 3000 K).

13

5.2 Selective radiation

Unless under extremely high pressure (as in the core of the sun), a gas will not
light up when heated in the same way as an Incandescent body does. This is
not belied by the luminous flames of a wood-fire or a candle, as here the right
comes train glowing solid carbon particles in the flame. Nevertheless, gases can
be made to emit electromagnetic radiation, and their subsequent behaviour has
afforded us a fundamental insight into the ultimate structure of matter.
The most effective way of making a gas emit light Is by sending a stream of
electrons through it (Fig. 15). This happens, for example, in our familiar
fluorescent and other (gas) discharge lamps, but lightning and polar light have
much the same origins.
Gases display a line spectrum characteristic for the gas
The radiation emitted by gases does not
display a continuous spectrum, spreading over the visible and adjacent Infrared
and ultraviolet ranges, but is con lined to a number of lines or bands of exactly
defined wavelengths. ranging from short-wave radio waves to Rntgen waves
end beyond*).
As Long ago as 1850 Kirchhoff and Bunsen discovered that each element
displays its own characteristic pattern of lines (Fig. 16) indeed, the element
helium was found by spectral analysis of sun light in 1868, twenty-five years
before it was discovered on earth.
LIne spectra are explained from the structure of the atom
An explanation for the consistency of
spectral lines was altered by Niels Bohr in 1 913. From the atomic model of
Rutherford, in which negatively charged electrons orbit a positively charged
nucleus at a restricted number of fixed distances, he concluded that an atom is
stable as long as ii does not emit or absorb energy **). but that when hit by a
fast-moving particle or shod-wave electromagnetic radiation, an electron may be
ejected to an orbit farther from the nucleus than the stable orbit belonging to that
electron (Fig 17) The atom is then said to be excited.***)
*) Most of these extreme wavelengths will be indiscernible under normal conditions, because they
are absorbed in the atmosphere.
**) This assumption is in conflict with Maxwell's theory, according to which an orbiting electric
change (i.e. an electron) Should be a continuous emitter of electromagnetic radiation, as ii forms
an oscillator. This, however was in such flagrant contradiction with practical observation, that
Bohr was forced to conclude that Maxwell's theory could not be applied an atomic scale, and
that a stable atom therefore does not emit radiation.
***) It is also possible that the electron is ejected completely away from the atom, and becomes a
free-moving object (until captured by another atom). This is called ionization.

Fig. 15 Gas discharges in mercury vapour (left) and neon (right).

14

Fig. 16 Line spectra of various elements compared with the low pressure
mercury spectrum (top). In the high-pressure mercury spectrum the lines have
broadened to bands.

in the same way as with the stable orbits, only a specific number of excited
orbits are possible with any Mom of a given element. The electric charges of the
nucleus and electrons are also fixed values, so that a defined amount of energy
will be required to bring an electron from its stable orbit into a given excited
orbit, When, a moment later, this electron tails back to its stable orbit, the same
amount of energy will be released in the form of a flash of electromagnetic
radiation, in other words a quantum.

Fig. 17 Schematic representation of carbon atom, showing the stable

state (left) and an excited state (right).

15

Fig. 18 The various

stable metastable end
excited levels of a
mercury atom, showing
the wavelengths of the
spectral lines produced
when an electron 'jumps
between two levels
According to Plancks theory, the energy content of such a quantum can be
expressed as:
Eh - El = h *
where; Eh is the energy associated with the excited (high) orbit
El Is the energy associated with the stable (low) orbit
h is Planck's constant
is the frequency according to MaxweII's theory
For electromagnetic radiation there is a fixed relationship between frequency
and wavelength - as shown in equation (3) - so that electrons 'jumping' a
given energy difference (Eh - El) will produce a sharp spectral Fine of a def in
lie wavelength.
Each element has only a restricted number of possible excited levels. Also,
for each element, there is a certain number of stable (and metastable) levels.
The number of possible combinations and their probability determines the
number of spectral lines displayed by an element when excited (Fig 18).
Sometimes, only a few of these lines lie within the visible range. A famous
example is sodium, which displays two closely separated lines, one at 589
nm and one at 589,5 nm On the basis of the quantum theory, the position of
spectral lines can be calculated, with results that are fully in agreement with
those obtained from observation.
Only rarefied gaseous elements produce clear line spectra
Only elements in the form of rarefied
gases or vapours will produce clear line spectra. Spectra obtained from
gases composed of molecules (such as carton dioxide), or from compressed
gaseous elements lake the form of broader spectral bands, which under
closer examination really consist of closely spaced lines. Finally, so lid
bodies and also gases under very high pressure - display a continuous
spectrum, as was described in the previous Section. The reason for this
behaviour must be sought in the intense interaction between the atoms of
solid matter, which has the result that the electrons are not normally
associated with a specific atom. Thus, the whole body acts as a single,
complex radiator.
16

(7)

5.3 Photoluminescence
Two important forms of luminescence
There are a few light phenomena related to discharges in
rarefied gases that occur only rarely in nature, because they are restricted to
certain materials in a pure form. Nevertheless, for the past fifty years these
phenomena have found an important place in lighting technology.
5.3.1 Fluorescence
Some solid materials, when irradiated by last-moving particles or
electromagnetic radiation, will themselves start to emit electromagnetic
radiation at very specific wavelength This phenomenon is known as
fluorescence. it is a typical phenomenon that finds its explanation in the
quantum theory. A quantum of high energy (a fast-moving electron must also
be regarded as such) will release a quantum of lower energy, the rest being
lost in the form of heat. This means that the light or radiation used to
stimulate a material to fluorescence must always have a shorter wavelength
than the specific wavelength of the fluorescent material. Otherwise nothing
will happen, no matter how high the intensity 01 the incident light. (This Is
known as Stokes Law.)
Fluorescence is used in TV-screens and TL lamps
Fluorescence produced by fast-moving
electrons makes a TV-screen light up. while fluorescence produced by
(mainly) ultraviolet radiation - the result of an electric discharge in mercury
vapour is used to generate light in a tubular fluorescent lamp (Fig. 19). For
black-and-white TV-screens and general-service fluorescent lamps a mixture
of several fluo crescent compounds is used, to spread the spectral response
in the best possible way over the entire visible region to obtain white light. In
a colour TV-screen there are three fluorescent compounds, which are
stimulated separately to produce red, green and blue light.
Fluorescence can also occur in fluids . Those who frequent bars or discos
will perhaps know that a glass of tonic, which contains quinine-sulphate, will
light up under ultraviolet radiation (Fig. 20). (The same happens to those
white shirts and dresses, which contain an optical whitener.)
Flu crescent powders are obtainable in many varieties. They normally consist
of an inorganic crystalline chemical compound of extremely high purity to
which a small amount of another compound (the activator') has been added.
The wavelengths emitted range from ultraviolet (Thallium-activated calcium
phosphate, 310 nm) to infrared (iron-activated lithium penta-aluminate, 743
nm), with almost any other desired spectral colour in this range.

Fig. 19 Fluorescent powders used in tubular fluorescent lamp; shown under

visible fight (left) and ultraviolet radiation (right).
17

Fig. 20 Tonic lights up under ultraviolet radiation (right) due to its

containing quinine sulphate, whereas water does not.

5.3.2Phosphorescence
Phosphorescence or afterglow
Phosphorescence is a form of fluorescence, which persists after
the stimulant radiation is taken away. This happens, because in some
fluorescent materials the excited level to which an electron is brought by
stimulation is metastable therefore, the electron is 'trapped' in the excited
orbit (for a time which can vary from nanoseconds to days) before falling
back to the stable orbit. The effect is that these materials will continue to
emit light alter the stimulant radiation has been taken away.
Phosphorescent compounds generally also display fluorescence in the
same colour.
Some phosphorescent compounds have two metastable levels, one of
longer phosphorescence than the other. So the colour of the emitted light
changes with time.
Compounds of short-duration phosphorescence are helpful in fluorescent
lamps to reduce the flicker resulting from 50 Hz a.c. supply.
Two other similar forms of luminescence A few familiar phenomena, although showing effects
similar to phosphorescence, are the results of other forms of
luminescence. The light emitted by white phosphorus - where the name
'phosphorescence' has been derived from - and certain plants and
animals (glow-worms) is the result of luminescence stimulated by a slow
oxidation process (chemi-luminescence). The luminous paint formerly
used on the hands of watches and alarm-clocks to make them glow in the
dark, was brought to luminescence stimulated by radio active compounds
present in the paint (radio-luminescence).

6. Propagation of light
Light travels in a straight line Several light phenomena, some of which are at great importance In
every-day lighting practice , result from the laws of propagation of light.
The principal law is that In a medium of uniform density, light travels in a
straight line *). As soon as flight enters a medium of different density,
however, various phenomena occur, all of which can be fully explained
from the wave theory of light.
*) It has, however, been proved that light rays curve slightly under the
influence of strong gravitational fields, For example, the light from a star
may travel along a curved path to reach our eyes after passing close to
a heavenly body. The reason for this - according to Planck and Einstein
- is that when photons are On the move they have a definite mass.
18

Fig. 21 Huygens principle. Each point at The circular wave front acts as the
source of a new waveform (left) , and the same holds true for the opening in
the screen obstructing the primary wave (right).
Huygens principle

Most of these phenomena follow the Huygens principle, which assumes that
each point at the front of a wave will act as the source of a secondary waver
behaving like the original wave (Fig. 21). This explains why a wave spreads
uniformly In all directions from its source.

6.1 Reflection
Reflection depends on the structure and the colour of the surface
When light strikes the surface
of a solid or liquid (and, under exceptional conditions, a gas or vapour as
well), part of it will be thrown back, or reflected. Under normal conditions,
only a part of the light falling on a surface will be reflected. The reflected
portion can vary from less than one per cent for black velvet, to more than 90
per cent for aluminium silver or certain types of white paint. The ratio of the
reflected to the incident light Is called the reflectance of the surf ace. ii Is
given the symbol , and is expressed in values between 0 and 1.
Normally, reflectance Is not the same for all spectral colours. A red surface,
for example, will mainly reflect red light. This subject will further be treated in
Section 7 of this lesson.
Specular surfaces

Laws of reflection

6.1.1 Specular reflection

it the reflecting surface is smooth - smooth with respect to the wavelength of
light . e.g. a reflect in a specific still water surface or a plate of polished glass
or metal, the reflected beam of light will be direction exactly the same as the
incident beam.
The laws of reflection are then extremely simple: Firstly, reflection takes
place in the plane perpendicular to the reflecting surface, and secondly, the
angle ci incidence = the angle QI reflection, with respect to the normal (the
perpendicular) to the surface at the point of reflection *).
This type of reflection is called specular reflection, or mirror reflection, as it
enables us to see ourselves in a mirror, but with left to right inversion (Fig.
22).
*) A billiard ball rebounds from the cushion In exactly the same way (if
played without 'side, of course)
19

Fig. 22 Specular reflection. The eagle of reflection (r) equals the angle of
incidence (i), and the image exhibits left-to-right inversion with respect to
the original.

Mirrors used for light control

Because of their light weight and high efficiency, mirror
reflectors, especially curved ones are very popular for light control be
it as part of the luminaires or integrated in the lamp construction.
Depending on the shape of the mirror (spherical, elliptical, parabolic)
and the position of the light source, divergent, parallel or convergent
light beams can easily be produced (Fig. 23).

Fig. 23 Various types of mirror reflectors used in lighting equipment: A

spherical, B - elliptical, C-E - parabolic, F combination of a bowlreflector lamp and a separate parabolic reflector.
20

Fig. 24 Diffuse reflection, as from a snow-covered field. The light is

reflected in perfectly random way.

6.1.2 Diffuse reflection

Matt surfaces reflect in a random way
A different type of reflection occurs if the surface
shows a certain degree of irregularity. Although under a microscope the
laws of reflection remain valid, there are so many minute reflecting
surfaces, orientated in all directions. That incident light will be reflected in
a random way (Fig. 24). This type of reflection is called diffuse reflection.
Purely diffuse reflectors occur relatively seldom in nature, but a snowcovered field or a whitewashed wall form good approximations.
Lambert's cosine law

The reflection characteristics of perfectly diffusing (or mail) surfaces are

laid down in Lambert's Cosine Law, which states that the luminous
intensity reflected by a diffusing surface in any direction is proportional to
the cosine of the angle which that direction makes with the normal to the
surface (Fig. 25) Thus:
I = I0 * cos
where l0 = luminous intensity perpendicular to the surface
I = luminous intensity in the given direction
= angle between l0 and I
This law and its derivations are very important in practical lighting
technology.

Fig. 25 Lambert's cosine law, applying to perfectly

diffusing surfaces, I = I0 * cos for any value of
alpha between 0o and 90o.

Fig. 26 Spread reflection from wet road surface.

6.1.3 Mixed reflection
Transitional forms of reflection
There are several transitional forms of reflection between
specular and diffuse reflection. One is spread reflection, which is
essentially specular, but with the reflected light forming a spreading
beam. A wet road surface is a well-known example (Fig. 26).
Another form is compound reflection, which is diffuse reflection with a
dominating component in the specular direction. Painted surfaces and
glossy paper exhibit this form of reflection (Fig. 24
6.1.4 Total internal reflection
If light travels in a medium of greater optical density than that by which
it is surrounded - for example. in a glass rod placed in air - it will be
completely reflected from the interlace between the two media so long
as the angle of incidence with respect to the normal exceeds a certain
critical value. This phenomenon is called total internal reflection. The
value at the critical angle depends on the difference in optical density
between the two media. For glass and air for example, it is 42. If the
aforementioned glass rod has no sharp curves in relation

Fig. 27 Compound reflection is the form of reflection which most

frequently occurs under practical conditions. It Is clearly visible in the
op and side of this television set.
22

Fig. 28 Total internal reflection in a curved glass rod.

The light can only pass from the grass into the air if
the angle of incidence with respect to the normal to
the interface is smaller than 42
to us diameter. the light will be unable to leave it, except at the ends, and can
thus be transmitted over long distances, with only small losses due to
absorption
(Fig. 28).
Total reflection is used in telecommunication
The principle of total internal reflection is used in
certain decorative luminaires, and for data transmission along cables
consisting of large numbers of glass fibres.

6.2 Absorption and transmission

The light failing on a surface that is not reflected is either absorbed or
transmitted.
Absorbed light is converted into heat
If the material is not transparent, the non-reflected light
'disappears in the surface and is converted into another form of energy,
ultimately heal. This is called absorption (Fig. 29). The percentage of light
absorbed by a surface (the absorptance) depends on both the angle of
incidence (the more perpendicular the direction of incidence, the greater the
absorption) and on the colour of the light. A red surface, for example, will
absorb blue light more than red light.
If the material on which the light falls shows a certain degree of
transparency, part of the light will pass through it. This is called transmission.
Some materials transmit almost all the light that is not reflected, like clear
water and clear glass. Others, like a sheet of paper. will only transmit a very
small proportion of the incident light. The ratio of the transmitted light to the
incident light is termed the transmittance.
Forms of transmission

Transmission can be image-forming or 'clear (as through clear, polished

glass), diffuse or 'opal (as through milk-glass) or mixed (as through etched
glass, see Fig. 30). Transmittance can also differ for various colours. A piece
of red glass, for example, will transmit more light from the red end than from
the blue end of the visible spectrum. Most types of glass will not transmit
short-wave ultraviolet radiation at all, whereas quartz does.

Fig. 29 Absorption of light in a milky liquid. Fig. 30 The bulbs of these three lamps show
from left to right - clear, mixed and opal
transmission characteristics.

23

Fig. 31 Bouquets or
Lambert's transmission
Law. The drawn line shows
the decrease in
transmission, plotted
against thickness of the
material, for a
transmittance of 0,8 per
mm and the broken line for
a transmittance of 0,5 per
mm.
Law of transmission

For any material of uniform transmission characteristics, transmittance

decreases
exponentially with the thickness of the material *). Thus, if a pane of a certain
material 1 mm thick will transmit 50 per cent of the incident light, a pane 2 mm
thick will transmit 25 per cent and 3 mm 12,5 per cent, and so on (Fig. 31).
In all situations where a light ray traverses a medium or is intercepted by it,
the sum of reflectance. absorptance and transmittance will be equal to one.
*) This is Bouguer's or Lambert's transmission Law, laid down in the formula:

where: lt =
Il =
=
t=

I t = II * t
intensity of transmitted light
Intensity of Incident light
transmittance per millimetre
thickness in millimetres

6.3 Refraction
Refraction results from difference in optical density
If a light ray passes from one medium into
another of different optical density, at an angle other than perpendicular to the
Interface between the two media, the ray will be broken This phenomenon is
called refraction, and has to do with the change In the speed of the light as it
passes between media of different optical densities.

Fig. 22 Snell's law: sin r / i = n1 / n2

24

Fig. 33 Refraction in a parallel-sided glass

pane. The light ray is merely displaced.

The refractive properties of a medium are expressed by the refractive Index,

which is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in air to Its speed in the
medium In question. For example, the refractive Index (n) of crown glass
(transmission speed 195 200 km/sec (or a wavelength 01 589 nm) with respect
to air (transmission speed 299 800 km/sec) is:

n=

299 800 or approximately 1.5

196200

(10)

Retraction depends on wavelength The refractive index varies with the wavelength, short waves being
refracted more than long ones.
Snell's law

The angle between the incident and the refracted light rays - the angle of
deviation depends (for a given wavelength) on the angle of incidence of the
light ray, with respect to the normal to the interface, and the ratio between the
two refractive indexes (Hg. 32). This Is laid down In Snells Law':
sin r / i = n1 / n2
Where
r = angle of refracted light
i = angle of incident light
n1 = refractive index of first medium
n2 = refractive index of second medium

(11)

if a light ray passes through two parellel retracting surfaces, as will be the case
with a parallel-sided glass pane, the change of direction which the light ray
undergoes when entering the glass will be fully counteracted when re-entering
the air again. The ray will only be displaced (Fig. 33).
Refraction, like specular reflection, can be accurately pre-calculated. This is of
great value in the construction of lenses, which are sometimes used for light
control in various types of luminaires.
Dispersion

Where lenses for optical instruments are concerned there is however, a snag,
for the different wavelengths of light are retracted by different amounts. This
effect Is called 'dispersion' (Fig. 34) In a prism It is used to separate white light
in its spectral colours, but in lenses it is sometimes a very inconvenient
phenomenon, known as chromatic aberration' (Fig. 35). It can be (partly)
compensated by using compound lenses of different types of glass.

Fig. 34 Dispersion in a refracting prism.

Fig. 35 Chromatic aberration in a convex lens.

The blue wavelengths focus nearer to the lens
Then do the red ones.

25

7. Colour
White light can be composed from various combinations of spectral colours
White light, as we
experience it, is in fact composed of a mixture of colours. We have already
seen that light from a thermal radiator, the sun or an incandescent lamp, can
be separated into the full range of spectral colours: red, orange, yellow,
green, blue and violet. But not all spectral colours occur in all light sources,
and if they do, It may be in varying proportions.
Apart from coloured light, we are also familiar with coloured surfaces. If
white light strikes a surface, generally not all the spectral colours from which
it is composed will be reflected, or will be reflected to the same degree.
Those that are most reflected will together determine the colour impression
given by the surface. Thus, a green surface will reflect the light from the
green part of the spectrum and, to a lessor degree, blue and yellow as well.
But it will absorb red and violet.

7.1 Additive and subtractive colour mixing

Two fundamentally different ways of colour mixing can be distinguished. it
coloured lights are mixed, the result will always be brighter than the
individual component colours, and it the right colours are mixed in the right
intensities, the ultimate result will be white. This is called additive colour
mixing.
It coloured paints are mixed, on the other hand, the result will always be
darker than the constituent colours. if the right colours are mixed in the right
proportions the ultimate effect will be black. This form of coiour mixing is
called subtractive colour mixing.
Three basic colours

Additive and subtractive colour mixing can be explained by considering the

three basic colours of the visible spectrum: red, green and violet-blue, These
are termed the primary colours.

Fig. 36 Additive mixing of the primary colours

makes the complementary colours and white
colour

26

Fig 37 Additive mixing of a complementary

colour with the non-constituent primary
always makes white.

Fig. 38 Subtractive mixing of the primary

Fig. 39 Subtractive mixing of the

colours always makes black.

colours makes the primary colours and black.

complementary

Additive colour mixing

Additive mixing (in the form of light) of these colours will produce the
following results (Fig. 36):
red + green makes yellow;
red + violet-blue makes a purplish red, called magenta;
green + violet-blue makes a sky blue, called cyan;
red + green + violet-blue makes while.
Yellow, magenta and cyan are called secondary colours, because they result
from a mix of two primary colours. But they are also called complementary
colours. This is because a complementary colour, when mixed with the nonconstituent primary colour, will again produce white. Thus (Fig. 37):
yellow + violet-blue makes white;
magenta + green makes white;
cyan + red makes white.

Subtractive colour mixing Subtractive mixing (In the form of paints) of the primary colours will always
produce black (not a pure, deep black, but a brownish or blue-ish black, because the colour pigments
of
paints are less saturated then coloured light). Thus (Fig. 38):
red + green makes black;
red + violet-blue makes black;
green + violet-blue makes black;
and the three primary colours mixed make black as well.
By subtractive mixing of the complementary colours the primary colours are
again obtained. Thus (Fig. 39):
yellow + magenta makes red:
yellow + cyan makes green;
magenta + cyan makes violet-blue;
but, yellow + magenta + cyan makes black.
This is the reason why yellow, magenta and cyan (and black) are the ink
colours used in multi-colour halftone printing.
27

7.2 Systems of colour classification

7.2.1 The Munsell System
Hue, Value and Chroma of a colour
Several systems have been developed for the practical,
quantitative classification of colours. A much-used one is the notation developed
by A.H. Munsell for surface colours (Fig. 40). This makes use of three
characteristics of a colour, which are expressed numerically: the Hue' (or
dominant spectral wavelength'), the 'Value (or lightness), and the Chroma (or
saturation). A typical notation in the Munsell system might be 5YR6/4, which
means a 'yeIlow-red' of Hue 5, Value 6 and Chroma 4. This is a shade of
brown.
7.2.2 The CIE System
In 1931, the Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (ClE) published its
recommendations for a system of colour classification, which has been proved
invaluable for the measurement of light colours. It is based upon the theory of
additive colour mixing.
The colour triangle

The spectral colours have been plotted along the two sides of a triangle, with the
primary colours - red, green and violet-blue - placed at the corners (Fig. 41) Along
the base of the triangle the transitional colour values between red and violet-blue
have been plaited, i.e. various shades of purple. These do not occur in the
electromagnetic spectrum, but can be obtained by mixing the spectral colours red
and violet-blue in various proportions.
Two changes had to be made to make the system practicable. First of all, the
triangle has been so deformed that more space could be allocated to those
spectral colours which appear more saturated to the human eye. These are found
in the green and blue part of the spectrum, where more subtle differences in
colour impression can be perceived than in the spectral regions. Thus, the typical
shape of the ClE colour triangle was obtained (Fig. 42) It is circumscribed by a
curve containing the spectral wavelengths (spectrum locus).

Two coordinates define a colour

Another change was that numerical colour values have been plotted
along the axes of a right-angled triangle containing the colour triangle. Thus, each colour can now be
defined by its x and y-values, which are called the chromaticity coordinates.

Fig. 48 The Munsell system of colour classification makes use of

the three colour characteristics: Hue, Value and Chroma, here
intermediate represented in a three-dimensional diagram.
28

Fig. 47 basic form of the

colour triangle with the
primary colours placed at
corners and the
colours along the sides.

29

The most saturated colours are found at the circumference of the colour
triangle Going inwards, they become lighter and at the same time less
saturated, and the centre at the triangle - where all colours meet - is white.
This is in accordance with the law of additive colour mixing.
For surface colours the reflectance is also taken into account
Compared with the Munsell System,
with its three colour characteristics: Hue, Value and Chroma, in the CIE
system the Hue of a colour could be determined by the corresponding point
on the spectrum locus and the Chroma by the distance to that point. Both are
defined by the chromaticity coordinates of the colour, also called colour
point'. For surface colours only, the Value in the Munsell System is replaced
by the reflectance of the coloured surface. Thus, in the CIE colour system a
colour is defined by the chromaticity coordinates x and y and - in the case of
a surface colour - also by the reflectance (which in this case takes values
between 0 and 100). For example, X = 0,545, y = 0,398, = 28,8 represents
a shade of orange.

7.3 The black-body locus in the CIE colour triangle

The colour temperatures of thermal radiators plotted in the colour triangle
In Section 5.1 of this
lesson it was explained that a body when heated will, from a certain
temperature on, emit visible radiation of a colour specific to the temperature
of the body. Such bodies are called 'thermal radiators or more specifically
'black-body radiators, and the colour of the light they emit is called the
colour temperature'. The colour-temperature scale can be plotted In the CIE
colour triangle and forms there a curve: the black-body locus, also called the
Planckian Iocus.
Any light source with a spectral energy distribution analogous to that of a
black-body radiator will find a place corresponding to its colour temperature
on the Planckian locus. To this category belong, for example, sunlight (colour
temperature around 5500 K), light from a tungsten-filament lamp (2800 K),
and a candle (2200 K).
In contrast with thermal radiators, the white light from other sources may
correspond to any random colour point within the central area of the colour
triangle. Examples from the latter are selective radiators, such as fluorescent
and other discharge lamps.
Light from selective radiators, compared with thermal radiators As the need arose to compare the
light characteristics of these sources with those of thermal radiators - i.e. in
terms of colour temperature - the concept of correlated colour temperature
was introduced. This is the colour temperature of a black-body radiator that

Fig. 43 CoIour
points of various
tubular fluorescent
and high intensity
discharge lamps in
the CIE colour
triangle.

30

resembles most closely that of the source. In the CIE colour triangle lines of
constant correlated colour temperature (iso-colour-temperature lines) have
been drawn. By first assessing the colour point of (he source in quest ion, and
then following the corresponding iso-colour-temperature line to the point where
it Intersects the black-body locus, the correlated colour temperature of the
source can be determined (Fig. 43). Of course, this method is only valid if the
colour point of the light source is not too far away from the black-body locus.
This means, for example, that it is inappropriate to allocate a correlated colour
temperature to the light from a low-pressure sodium lamp.
By following this method, correlated colour temperatures have been obtained
for the following select ion of discharge lamps:
'TL' lamps
Colour /82
Colour /83
Colour /84
Colour /54
Colour /57
High pressure sodium (SON)
High pressure mercury (HPL)
Metal halide (HPI)

2650 K
3000 K
4000 K
6200 K
7400 K
2000 K
4000 K
5000 K

7.4 Colour appearance and colour rendering

The relation between colour temperature and colour appearance For light sources that have their colour
point on or near the black-body locus, there is a distinct relationship between
the (correlated) colour temperature and the colour appearance of the light
source, Thus, lamps used for general lighting serdce - fluorescent ('TL) lamps
in particular - are classified according to their colour temperature. The
following three groups can be distinguished:
Colour temperature
less than 3300 K
3300 - 5000 K
more than 5000 K

Colour appearance
warm (yellowish) white
intermediate white
cool (bluish) white

Light sources of the same colour appearance do not necessarily give the same colour rendering
Although light sources having the same (correlated) colour temperature will
also have the same colour appearance, this does not necessarily mean that
coloured surfaces will look the same under them, for as was explained earlier,
surface colour is due to selective reflection. In other words, those spectral
wavelengths contained in the Incident light that are reflected, together
determine the colour impression we obtain from the surface.
This is all quite straightforward as long as the light source is a thermal radiator,
and thus displays a continuous spectrum with all wave lengths represented.
But a selective radiator, such as a discharge lamp. emits light In a selected
number of spectral lines or bands only, the other wavelengths being absent.
How does this affect colour appearance and colour rendering?
That the colour appearance obtained from such a light source can
nevertheless be white is explained by the theory of additive colour mixing
(Section 7.1) Any spectral colour together with its complementary colour will
produce white light, and as the complementary colour Itself is generally also
present in the spectrum - or can be obtained by mixing of two other spectral
colours - it is possible to obtain white light by the combination of only two or
three single wavelengths (Fig. 44). And although the white light thus obtained
may be of a colour appearance comparable with that of a thermal radiator and
therefore can be assigned a correlated colour temperature - surface colours
31

Fig. 44 The line spectrum of a mercury lamp (left) while the continuous
spectrum of sunlight (right) both give an impression of ''white' light.
illuminated by it will often be difficult to distinguish, as most of the colour
shades they are composed of, are absent in the light tailing upon them.
This effect is not restricted to white light compare, for example, the
monochromatic yellow light from a low-pressure sodium lamp with that from an
incandescent lamp tilted with a yellow filter. Although the colour appearance of
the two light sources is the same, colours can be distinguished fairly well
under the light of the incandescent lamp, whereas under the sodium light this
is absolutely impossible (Fig. 45).
The number, arrangement and relative intensity of the spectral lines or bards
present in the visible part of the spectrum of a selective radiator, together
determine how tar a random selection of surface colours can be faithfully
reproduced under this light This is called the colour rendering capability of the
light source.
Standard colours for assessing the colour rendering index Ra In 1965 the CIE developed a method
for the quantitative assessment of the colour rendering capability on the basis
of eight test colours*) (see Fig. 46). First the correlated colour temperature of
the light source under test is assessed. Then, for each test colour,
*) For purposes the number of test colours is extended to fourteen.

Fig. 45 Yellow light from an incandescent source, fitted with a yellow filter (left),
allows fairly good colour perception, but under the monochromatic yellow light
from a low-pressure sodium lamp (right), it is impossible to distinguish between
colours.
32

Fig. 46 The eight CIE test

colours used for assessing
the colour rendering index
(Ra) of a light source.
the colour appearance under the source is calculated as a percentage of
that of a black-body radiator of the same colour temperature. The average
result for the eight samples is called the colour rendering index (Ra). This is
a number that may vary between no colour rendering *) for monochromatic
light sources, such as low-pressure sodium lamps - and one hundred, for
true black-body radiators.
The colour rendering index is given below for a selection of much-used lamp
types:
Lamptype
Incandescent
Fluorescent

Ra
100
Colour /29
Colour /33
Colour /54
Colour /82, /83, /84
Colour /93, /94
Colour /57
Colour /37
Colour /47

Low pressure sodium (SOX)

High pressure sodium (SON)
High pressure mercury (HPL-N)
Blended light (ML)
Metal Halide (HPI)

52
66
77
86
93
94
96
98
(-44)
26b
45
60
70

For values below 25, the colour rendering index has no practical meaning.
As a matter of fact because of the calculation method used - it can even take
negative values.

7.5 Metamerism
Colour samples may look the same under ore, but different under another light source Metamerism
is the property whereby coloured surfaces may produce the same colour
impression under one light source, and lock different under another. The
term is also used to describe light sources of different spectral composition,
but of the same colour appearance.
Colours that are particularly susceptible to metamerism, when viewed in the
light from discharge lamps, are brown and purple textile dyes. These are
generally obtained by
33

Fig. 47 Metamerism.
The drawn line shows
the approximate
reflection curve of a
brown dye
obtained by mixing
deep-red and green.
The deep red is
scarcely present in
the spectrum of a
colour /83 tubular
fluorescent lamp,
resulting in the brown changing to green.

mixing standard colours in various combinations, one method being by

mixing of deep-red and green for brown, or deep-red and blue for purple,
respectively. Under a light source that Is deficient In the deep-red part of
th spectrum - as is the case with high-pressure mercury and some
fluorescent lamp types. brown or purple dyes thus mixed will appear
green or blue, respectively, with respect to brown or purple dyes obtained
by mixing more colours, although they look exactly the same under day
light or light from an incandescent lamp (Fig. 47)

Conclusion
The existence of two rivaling and, on the face of it, incompatible theories
on the nature of light - the wave theory and the corpuscular theory- has
exercised a deep influence on the explanation of every-day aspects of
light. The phenomena linked with light propagation transmission,
reflection, refraction, interference. etc. - find a simple and mathematically
exact explanation in the wave theory. By contrast, those aspects having
to do with light as a selective transmitter of energy can only be adequately
explained by attributing a corpuscular character to electromagnetic
radiation.
The importance of colour Of great importance is the colour aspect of light. That this is not a simple
matter is due to the fact that the way we perceive colours does not
necessarily betray the way they are composed, and that both the colour
composition of the light source and of the object which receives the light
play a role in this.
The reader will perhaps conclude that the physical behaviour of light is a
difficult subject to grasp, but he can rest assured that it will give him a
better and deeper insight in the problems later encountered in lighting
application.

34

Exercise material
The answers must be sent in to the local course coordinator.
1. Ultraviolet radiation roughly occupies the
wavelengths between:

a. 100 and 380 nm

b. 380 and 780 nm
c. 500 and 600 nm
d. 700 and 2000 nm
a. red
2. Light waves with a frequency of 500 - 1012
b. yellow
Hz will be of the colour
c. blue
d. violet
3. A black-body radiator emitting its maximum a. 2650 K
at wavelength of 555 nm, the point of
b. 4100 K
maximum eye sensitivity, has a temperature of c. 5200 K
approximately
d. 6250 K
4. A piece of glass which when hit by a beam
a. 0%
of light under specific conditions, shows a
b. 20%
transmittance of 0.7 an absorptance of 0.1, will c. 50%
reflect from its surface:
d. 75%
5 A piece of red-coloured glass will transmit
a. red
mainly
b. blue
c. all colours except red
d. all colours except blue
6. In a certain type of glass (flint glass) the
a. 0.6
speed of light Is 182 000 km/sec. The
b. 1.46
refractive index, with respect to air, is then
c. 1.56
d. 1.65
7. If light enters (from air) a piece of glass with a. 28o
a refractive index 1.5 at an angle of 45o, the
b. 30o
c. 45o
angle of refraction will be
d. 67.5o
8. The complementary colour of a secondary
a. white
colour must be:
b. black
c. a primary colour
d. doesn't exist
9. The chromaticity coordinates x = 0,34 and y a. a shade of green
= 0,35 in the CIE colour triangle correspond
b. a shade of pink
to:
c. white of colour temperature of 5200 K
d. white of correlated colour temperature of
4800 K
10. An uncoated mercury lamp emits visible
a. violet
light at wavelengths of 405, 435 and 545 nm. b. blue
Which colour will be particularly poorly
c. green
rendered under the light of such a lamp ?
d. red