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Terminology
An earthquake can be likened to the effect observed when a stone is thrown into
water. After the stone hits the water a series of concentric waves will move outwards from the
center. The same events occur in an earthquake. There is a sudden movement within the crust
or mantle, and concentric shock waves move out from that point. Geologists and Geographers
call the origin of the earthquake the focus. Since this is often deep below the surface and
difficult to map, the location of the earthquake is often referred to as the point on the Earth
surface directly above the focus. This point is called the epicentre.
Earthquakes are three dimensional events, the waves move outwards from the focus,
but can travel in both the horizontal and vertical plains. This produces three different types of
waves which have their own distinct characteristics and can only move through certain layers
within the Earth. Lets take a look at these three forms of shock waves.
Types of Shockwaves
P-Waves
Primary Waves (P-Waves) are identical in character to sound waves. They are high
frequency, short-wavelength, longitudinal waves which can pass through both solids and
liquids. The ground is forced to move forwards and backwards as it is compressed and
decompressed. This produces relatively small displacements of the ground.
P Waves can be reflected and refracted, and under certain circumstances can change into SWaves.
instead of being longitudinal they are transverse. They move in all directions away from their
source, at speeds which depend upon the density of the rocks through which they are moving.
They cannot move through liquids. On the surface of the Earth, S-Waves are responsible for
the sideways displacement of walls and fences, leaving them 'S' shaped.
Causes of Earthquakes
Tectonic Earthquakes
Tectonic earthquakes are triggered when the crust becomes subjected to strain, and
eventually moves. The theory of plate tectonics explains how the crust of the Earth is made of
several plates, large areas of crust which float on the Mantle. Since these plates are free to
slowly move, they can either drift towards each other, away from each other or slide past
each other. Many of the earthquakes which we feel are located in the areas where plates
collide or try to slide past each other.
The process which explains these earthquakes, known as Elastic Rebound Theory can
be demonstrated with a green twig or branch. Holding both ends, the twig can be slowly bent.
As it is bent, energy is built up within it. A point will be reached where the twig suddenly
snaps. At this moment the energy within the twig has exceeded the Elastic Limit of the twig.
As it snaps the energy is released, causing the twig to vibrate and to produce sound waves.
Volcanic Earthquakes
Volcanic earthquakes are far less common than Tectonic ones. They are triggered by
the explosive eruption of a volcano. Given that not all volcanoes are prone to violent
eruption, and that most are 'quiet' for the majority of the time, it is not surprising to find that
they are comparatively rare.
When a volcano explodes, it is likely that the associated earthquake effects will be
confined to an area 10 to 20 miles around its base, where as a tectonic earthquake may be felt
around the globe. The volcanoes which are most likely to explode violently are those which
produce acidic lava. Acidic lava cools and sets very quickly upon contact with the air. This
tends to chock the volcanic vent and block the further escape of pressure.
When extraordinary levels of pressure develop, the resultant explosion can be
devastating, producing an earthquake of considerable magnitude. When Krakatoa ( Indonesia,
between Java and Sumatra ) exploded in 1883, the explosion was heard over 5000 km away
in Australia. The shockwaves produced a series of tsunami ( large sea waves ), one of which
was over 36m high; that's the same as four, two story houses stacked on top of each other.
These swept over the coastal areas of Java and Sumatra killing over 36,000 people.
By contrast, volcanoes producing free flowing basic lava rarely cause earthquakes.
The lava flows freely out of the vent and down the sides of the volcano, releasing pressure
evenly and constantly. Since pressure doesn't build up, violent explosions do not occur.
Induced seismicity
While most earthquakes are caused by movement of the Earth's tectonic plates, human
activity can also produce earthquakes. Four main reasons contribute to this phenomenon:
constructing large dams and buildings, drilling and injecting liquid into wells, and by coal
mining and oil drilling. Perhaps the best known example is the 2008 Sichuan earthquake in
China's Sichuan Province in May; this tremor resulted in 69,227 fatalities and is the 19th
deadliest earthquake of all time.
from all observing stations are averaged after adjustment with station-specific corrections to
obtain the ML value.
Richter
Description Earthquake effects
magnitudes
Frequency
occurrence
of
2.0-2.9
Minor
3.0-3.9
4.0-4.9
Light
5.0-5.9
Moderate
6.0-6.9
Strong
7.0-7.9
Major
18 per year
8.0-8.9
Great
9.0-9.9
10.0+
Epic
Witness Observations
Equivalent
Richter
Magnitude
1.0 to 2.0
II
2.0 to 3.0
III
3.0 to 4.0
IV
4.0
4.0 to 5.0
VI
5.0 to 6.0
VII
6.0
VIII
6.0 to 7.0
IX
7.0
7.0 to 8.0
XI
8.0
XII
8.0 or greater
focus earthquakes may occur at much greater depths (ranging from 300 up to 700
kilometers).
Earthquake clusters
Most earthquakes form part of a sequence, related to each other in terms of location
and time. Most earthquake clusters consist of small tremors which cause little to no damage,
but there is a theory that earthquakes repeat themselves.
Aftershocks
An aftershock is an earthquake that occurs after a previous earthquake, the
mainshock. An aftershock is in the same region of the main shock but always of a smaller
magnitude. If an aftershock is larger than the main shock, the aftershock is redesignated as
the main shock and the original main shock is redesignated as a foreshock. Aftershocks are
formed as the crust around the displaced fault plane adjusts to the effects of the main shock.
Earthquake swarms
Earthquake swarms are sequences of earthquakes striking in a specific area within a
short period of time. They are different from earthquakes followed by a series of aftershocks
by the fact that no single earthquake in the sequence is obviously the main shock; therefore
none have notable higher magnitudes than the other.
Earthquake storms
Sometimes a series of earthquakes occur in a sort of earthquake storm, where the
earthquakes strike a fault in clusters, each triggered by the shaking or stress redistribution of
the previous earthquakes. Similar to aftershocks but on adjacent segments of fault, these
storms occur over the course of years, and with some of the later earthquakes as damaging as
the early ones. Such a pattern was observed in the sequence of about a dozen earthquakes that
struck the North Anatolian Fault in Turkey in the 20th century and has been inferred for older
anomalous clusters of large earthquakes in the Middle East.
Effects/Impacts of Earthquakes
There are many effects of earthquakes including, but not limited to the following:
Shaking and ground rupture
Shaking and ground rupture are the main effects created by earthquakes, principally
resulting in more or less severe damage to buildings or other rigid structures. The severity of
the local effects depends on the complex combination of the earthquake magnitude, the
distance from epicenter, and the local geological and geomorphological conditions, which
may amplify or reduce wave propagation. The ground-shaking is measured by ground
acceleration.
Specific local geological, geomorphological, and geostructural features can induce
high levels of shaking on the ground surface even from low-intensity earthquakes. This effect
is called site or local amplification. It is principally due to the transfer of the seismic motion
from hard deep soils to soft superficial soils and to effects of seismic energy focalization
owing to typical geometrical setting of the deposits.
Ground rupture is a visible breaking and displacement of the Earth's surface along the
trace of the fault, which may be of the order of several meters in the case of major
earthquakes. Ground rupture is a major risk for large engineering structures such as dams,
bridges and nuclear power stations and requires careful mapping of existing faults to identify
any likely to break the ground surface within the life of the structure.
Landslides and avalanches
Landslides are a major geologic hazard because they can happen at any place in the
world, much like earthquakes. Severe storms, earthquakes, volcanic activity, coastal wave
attack, and wildfires can all produce slope instability. Landslide danger may be possible even
though emergency personnel are attempting rescue.
Fires
Prediction
In order to determine the likelihood for future seismic activity, geologists and other
scientists examine the rock of an area to determine if the rock appears to be "strained".
Studying the faults of an area to study the buildup time it takes for the fault to build up stress
sufficient for an earthquake also serves as an effective prediction technique. Measurements of
the amount of pressure which collocates on the fault line each year, time passed since the last
major temblor, and the energy and power of the last earthquake are made.