A food web is a summary of the feeding

interactions in a community of species

A few keystone species may control the
structure of a community
Exotic predators may
simplify the structure
(and diversity) of food
webs

To help describe, we
use graphic
shortcuts called food
webs
Example: A
simple Antarctic
food web
Major
components:

Food web of Bear Island, Arctic

Note: this web

includes land-based
predators

Density

Body size

Commonalities:

Question
Are all the links
all the same?
Some are weak = little impact on interacting
populations, others are strong (often fewer
than weak)

Question
What may influence
food web properties
in space and time?

Subtropical

Lets get up
close:
Temperate

Ignore details; focus

on different shapes
and diversity
More details next ..

Top predator
(Pisaster)
Middle level
predator

Prey
(15)

Only two
predators; limited
diversity

Many more predators

in the tropical food
web; greater diversity
Top predator

No.
Connection in
need of
testing
Middle
level
predators
(6)
Prey (34
species)

Does this prove

that predation
increases
diversity?

Starfish removal

Lesson: Food webs are

easy to disrupt; Leads to
loss of species

CAUSES A DIVERSITY DECLINE IN TWO AREAS

OF THE WORLD.

Question
Do top predators
determine the rest
of the community?

Natural arrangement:
Question:
Does
steelhead
control this
structure?
Experiment:

Protect algal
communities on
stones (where insects
live) by using cages
(3mm mesh); or add
fish in other cages

Insect predators and small fish were decimated and

algae eating insects multiplied
Does
change in
algal
biomass
offer proof?
No!
More
information
is required!

Adding fish reduces

algal biomass.
Why?

Midges

Effects of steelhead
predation (or of its
lack) cascade down
the food web

Young roach
and
sticklebacks

Question
Are there more
ways in which
species matter,
i.e., influence
strongly the
communities they
are members of?

Dominant species have large biomass or numbers

Pisaster, Littorina, sea

Keystone
species have
LARGE IMPACT
on community
structure;
disproportionate
to their biomass
or numbers

otter, steelhead

Green algae

Original food
web included
400 species of
fish
Nile perch
introduced to
provide more
food and game
fish opportunity
Now, dominated
by 3 species: Nile
perch, Nile tilapia,
and Omena

Question
Are humans a
keystone species
or
an important
species?

Native hunters in
Amazonia (Peru)
hunt 18% of
available mammal
species

Traditionally,
humans
hunted
animals
Such hunting pattern
may have a great
impact
Forests deprived of
large animals (human
action) begin to
develop different
regeneration patterns
create appearance
of health

These mammals
constitute 75% of
available
mammal biomass

A food web provides an

effective summary of feeding
relationships.
Feeding by a few keystone species may
shape community structure.
Exotic predators may collapse and
simplify community structure.
Humans, even with traditional life styles, may
act as a keystone or important species.

RECALL - Intermediate disturbance hypothesis

predicts highest S at intermediate intensity

How does it
work?

Imagine a homogeneous habitat with one species

and a fire that damages it, which allows another
S
species to use the burned areas

pi log e pi

i 1

H'

H = -1*loge1 = 0
Disturbance level
H = -(0.25*loge0.25 + 0.75*loge0.75) =0.562
H = -(0.5*loge0.5 + 0.5*loge0.5) = 0.693
H = -(0.75*loge0.75 + 0.25*loge0.25) = 0.562
H = -1*loge1 = 0

Rocky shore boulders are disturbed (overturned) at

different rates by waves. Their algae and inverts
suffer.
Most highly
disturbed boulders
had usually one
species (max 5)

Typical number of
species was 4 on
boulders with
intermediate
disturbance (max 7)

Typical number
of species was 2
on little disturbed
boulders (max 6)

Prairie dogs (squirrels) live in

patches (clumped)
Their grazing creates different
plant associations
Richness of these
associations conforms to IDH

Species composition and abundance change

Human disturbance: increase in cecropia, corn, soot

Community changes include increases in species

diversity and changes in species composition.
Ecosystem changes
include increases in
biomass, primary
production, respiration,
and nutrient retention.
Mechanisms of succession
include facilitation,
tolerance, and inhibition.

Community stability may be due to lack of

disturbance or community resistance.

Definitions
Succession Gradual accumulation and change
in plant and animal communities in an open area
Primary Succession
on newly exposed
geological substrates
Secondary
Succession following
disturbance that does
not destroy all life

Climax Community Late successional community remains stable until disrupted by disturbance.

Visual
Example
(Secondary)

Old field
succession:
4 snapshots

Glacier Bay - Primary Succession

Reiners et. al. studied changes in plant diversity

during succession
Total number of plant species increased with plot
age
Species richness increased rapidly in early years of
succession and more slowly during later stages

Not all groups of plants increased in density

throughout succession.

Glacier Bay Example

The number of plant

species increased rapidly at
first (200 years) and then
began to level off

Different plant forms

reach greatest diversity
at different stages of
succession

Succession & Nutrients

Hubbard Brook
deforestation lead to
nutrient loss

Vegetation starts to
recover (biomass
accumulates)
Exports of calcium,
potassium, and nitrate
decline to the predisturbance levels

Succession in Temperate Forests

Patterns of diversity
similar to Glacier Bay
for plants

and birds
Recall the connection between
bird diversity and habitat complexity?
How does it apply here?

In a Stream (after a flood)

Algal diversity, H, leveled off after 20 days and
then slightly declined

Animal H is affected by
a decline of the dominant
species

Biomass Accumulation Model:

Disturbing a forest ecosystem will include a series
of distinct recovery phases

~ 300 years

Only early
successional species
establish

Space available for

colonization
Succession
begins

Any species able to

survive as adults
establishes

First species to establish

modify habitat

Facilitation
Habitat less suitable for
early species but more
suitable for late
successional species:
early ones die out

Climax
Eventually resident
species are ones that
do not change habitat
to favor other species

Tolerance

Inhibition

Habitat less suitable for

early species but neither
less nor more favorable
for later successional
species

Habitat less suitable for

establishment by all
species

Climax

Climax

Eventually resident
species are ones able to
tolerate habitat change
by earlier species and no
other species can
tolerate conditions

Resident species
inhibit establishment of
all other species;
persist until disturbed

Disturbance destroys
climax conditions

Two Processes at Different Stages (Spruce)

Pioneer

Inhibition

Dryas

Inhibition

Lower germination Lower germination

Lower survival
Facilitation
Higher seed
Higher survival
mortality

Facilitation
Higher nitrogen
Higher growth

Alder

Inhibition

Spruce

Inhibition

Lower germination
Lower survival
Higher seed
mortality
Root competition
Light competition

Lower growth
Lower survival
Higher seed
mortality
Lower nitrogen
Root competition
Light competition

Facilitation

Facilitation

Higher nitrogen
Higher growth

Higher
germination

SUMMARY
Succession is a directional species replacement
and accumulation.
Several processes are involved: tolerance,
facilitation, and inhibition (often jointly).
Ecosystems change during succession:
biomass, primary production, respiration, and
nutrient retention.
Primary succession is different from secondary
one.

Consider this situation

A deforested area of the Amazon rainforest near
Novo Progresso in Brazil's northern state of Para.
Photograph: Andre Penner/AP/AP

Please check the Biology 2F03 Avenue website

DAILY for updates & new postings.
Read:
Chp. 19 Production and Energy Flow
Chp. 20 Nutrient and Elemental Cycling

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STUDY ECOLOGY!