Environmental Engineering and Management Journal

March 2016, Vol.15, No. 3, 613-625

http://omicron.ch.tuiasi.ro/EEMJ/

Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iasi, Romania

ECO-INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGIES FOR MITIGATING GASEOUS

EMISSIONS FROM WASTEWATER COLLECTION SYSTEMS
Iulia Carmen Ciobotici Terryn, Andreea Cocarcea Rusei,
Marius Stamate, Iuliana Lazar
Vasile Alecsandri University of Bacau, Faculty of Engineering, Calea Marasesti 157, 600115 Bacau, Romania

Abstract
The study aims to identify important challenges that the practitioners and researchers in wastewater collection systems are facing
in order to reduce the emissions of hydrogen sulphide and greenhouse gas emissions. Based on literature review, it identifies the
main technologies used for avoiding and removing odorous compounds from wastewater gas streams. The paper also highlights
issues pertaining to the emission and biofiltration of hydrogen sulphide, methane and nitrous oxide from sewage conveyance
from Bacau city. The results illustrate that the eco-innovative technologies as it is the case in the vacuum system and biofiltration
have an important potential to mitigate the environmental impact of wastewater collection in what concerns the emission of
harmful gases (hydrogen sulphide) and greenhouse gas emissions at the level of lift stations or vacuum stations.
Key words: biofiltration, green-technologies, sewer gas emissions, vacuum sewer system, wastewater conveyance
Received: August, 2015; Revised final: February, 2016; Accepted: February, 2016

1. Introduction
Due to worldwide increasing of urbanization
and large connection to wastewater collecting
systems, the development of economic and effective
techniques to control air emissions are necessary to
fight global warming and other air-related issues. Air
pollution has become a worldwide concern because
different pollutants play an important role in
atmospheric pollution and global warming (Aldabe et
al., 2012; Iordache and Dunea, 2013; Vincze-Csom
et al., 2012). The sustainable design thinking and
operations around the carbon footprint and
greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) abatement
technologies represent an important aspect on
environmental policy agenda (Li et al., 2014).
There are two types of innovations:
incremental and radical (Valle and Vazquez-Bustelo,
2009). Some of the GHG emissions abatement
technologies are labelled as radical innovations, and
it is considered that they have the capacity to

contribute to the overall impact on the climate

change. A radical innovation (Garcia and Calantone,
2002; Schuh et al., 2016), as it is the case of vacuum
sewer system, requires flexibility and creativity in
resource use and functioning, with a strong resilience
capacity, while incremental innovations follow more
formal and predictable route, considering the
traditional model of wastewater collection.
Incremental innovations do not have the capacity to
improve the environmental conditions radically; that
is why our study focuses both on radical and
incremental innovations.
In what concerns the impact of wastewater
collection, the literature points out on hydrogen
sulphide and fugitive greenhouse gas emissions
(carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, etc.). These
sewer gases bring an important contribution to the
global warming impact category (GHG), or pose
human health risks for operators and population and
may deteriorate de structural integrity of the sewers
(H2S). The review of the most important literature

Author to whom all correspondence should be addressed: e-mail: julyci@yahoo.com; Phone: + 40745434232

Ciobotici Terryn et al./Environmental Engineering and Management Journal 15 (2016), 3, 613-625

emphasizes that the level of sewer system emissions

is not sufficiently analyzed, and there are
uncertainties associated with these emissions in what
concerns the emission factors (Table 1). There are no
standardized methods of evaluating fugitive
emissions in sewer networks. Regarding the
conventional wastewater collection, the literature
points out on the fugitive emissions as methane
(Czepiel et al., 1993; Daelman et al., 2012; Foley et
al., 2010a; Lane and Lant, 2012) nitrous oxide
(Denman et al., 2007; Foley et al., 2010b; Short et
al., 2014) and hydrogen sulphide (Lahav et al., 2006)
generated at the level of manholes and wastewater
lift stations that bring an important contribution to
the impact category global warming.
The paucity of research in technologies to
control and remove the odorous compounds from the
wastewater stream gas can have a significant impact
on the implementation of innovative technologies for
wastewater collection. Nowadays, the choice of the
most suitable techniques needs to be taken into
consideration because there are different air
emissions abatement methods that can be used based
on the wastewater system characteristics, flow rate
and concentration of volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) and other gases in the effluent sewer gas to
be treated. The purpose of this paper is to address this
research gap to conduct a check of literature
regarding main sewer emissions and available
technologies that have the potential to make a
considerable contribution to reduce the emissions of
GHG production and hydrogen sulphide in
wastewater collection process. New perspectives on
the potential of eco-innovative technologies for
greening the wastewater collection make the subject
of investigation.
The development of alternative wastewater
collecting systems or technologies to treat odorous
gases from wastewater collection system has the
potential to reduce the emissions of sewer gases, and
consequently their impact on the environment and
human health. The study is the result of a literature
review on main sewer gases emissions, technological
advancement on sewer gases treatment. Literature
review surveyed scholarly articles, books and other
sources relevant to the topic of sewer gases emissions
and techniques and technologies that have the
potential to mitigate these emissions. Technical
standards, regulations, websites of the companies that
produce or supply vacuum sewer systems, were
reviewed to catch up with the newest advancements
wastewater collections and treatment of sewer gases.
Case studies, where biofilters were used successfully
to treat emissions from wastewater facilities, made de
subject of the literature review. Limitations of
biofiltration were obtained from the literature and
discussed. Technical details and performance
indicators about the vacuum sewer systems were
obtained from the respondents of DFR System
Romania and Valrom Industrie, companies that
supply in Romania vacuum sewer technologies. A
case study was analyzed in order to test the potential

614

of application of biofiltration for mitigating sewer

gases from wastewater lift stations in Bacau City.
2. Review of odor problems around conventional
wastewater collection system
There are two types of conventional sewers
based on hydraulic characteristics and purposes:
gravity and pressure sewers. Gravity sewers are used
when the natural slopes are sufficient enough to
convey a flow while the pressure or pumped sewer
transports wastewater using pressure to collect
wastewater (Lim et al., 2013). The conventional
sewer system is used to collect wastewater from
multiple sources and convey the wastewater by
gravity to a wastewater treatment plant or one or
more lift stations, and then gradually to a wastewater
treatment plant (Buchanan et al., 2010b; USEPA,
2013). The sewers are designed that the slope and the
pipe dimensions are adequate to maintain flow
towards the discharge point and create self-cleaning,
therefore preventing suspended solids from settling.
The sewers follow a specific alignment, with
manholes placed at set intervals. Concrete or PVC
manholes allow access for inspection, cleaning, and
repair. The installation of the system on flat terrain
typically requires deep excavations (between 2 to 6
m below ground level), and proper preparation and
bedding materials are required in the pipeline
trenches. Installation of pipes, manholes, lift stations,
building connections, junction chambers or boxes
and terminal cleanouts, requires large amounts of
excavation. When required, one or more lift stations
are installed at lower elevations of the network to
collect and pump the sewage up to another gravity
line, to convey wastewater over higher elevations or
up to a wastewater treatment plant. Lift stations can
be compact, but sufficient space is needed to install a
wet-well, pumps and control panels and the electric
service.

Fig. 1. The level of wastewater in the gravity sewer and

rising main

The system has several advantages. The most

important it is the opportunity for collecting
wastewater from large urban areas where other
solutions are less feasible. Another advantage reflects
the capacity of the system to retain grit and solids in
sanitary sewage at lift station level (baskets) with less
pressure on the wastewater treatment plant.

Eco-innovative technologies for mitigating gaseous emissions from wastewater collection systems

Instead, it's important function associated with

wastewater collection, which generates some
environmental and health benefits for household and
economic consumers, the system presents some
negative externalities represented by wastewater
seepage and greenhouse gases emissions at the level
of the lift stations and manhole lids. During the
conveyance process, a periodic inspection and
maintenance of sewers must be performed
particularly for aging pipes since the wastewater
collection system components are subject to damage
from aging, excessive traffic, and biochemical
reactions (Fenner, 2000). Periodic flushing of the
sewers is needed. Leaky pipe connections or cracks
of the sewers are a potential source of groundwater
pollution and the stormwater infiltration in the pipes
exerting pressure on the wastewater treatment plant
to treat extra water during the wet weather
conditions. Sewers exist as widespread networks, and
malodorous are identified where the sewer
atmosphere is in contact with the anaerobic
wastewater and sewer gas escapes into the
atmosphere. Conventional wastewater collection is
an open system through its manhole lids and lift
stations that are evident at the surface but not
obtrusive. Odors are associated with access points,
and odor control may be necessary, aspects that will
be approached later.
A review of the recent literature provides
evidence on fugitive greenhouse gas emissions from
the wastewater system. Biochemical reactions that
occur in sewer pipes produce a considerable amount
of hydrogen sulphide gas, methane gas, carbon
dioxide, nitrous oxide and other volatile substances
known as in-sewer gases (Foley et al., 2010a, 2010b;
Lane and Lant, 2012). These toxic gases lead to
contamination of the natural environment, ozone
layer depletion, sewer pipe corrosion, costly
operational expenses and operators safety issues.
During the conveyance of wastewater three
types of in- sewer processes occur: physical,
chemical and biological. Physical processes taking
place are related to the bio-film build-ups and erosion
of sewer walls. Chemical processes occur due to the
gas transfer over the air-water interface within sewers
(emission of hydrogen sulphide) and the chemical
oxidation and precipitation of sulphide. In biological
processes, bacteria degrade organic compounds, to
obtain carbon for cellular growth. Aerobic conditions
produce carbon dioxide, whereas anaerobic
conditions generate volatile substances (Lim et al.,
2013).
3. Emissions from wastewater conveyance
Emissions
can
occur
by
diffusive
mechanisms. Diffusion occurs when organic
concentrations at the surface of wastewater are much
higher than ambient concentrations. Thus, organic
volatilize or diffuse into the air to reach an
equilibrium between aqueous and vapor phases. The
main emissions resulted from the conveyance of

wastewater are methane, nitrous oxide, and hydrogen

sulphide. There are contradictory data concerning the
generation of methane in sewer networks. Even
though the IPCC assumes that the potential for CH4
formation from the sewer is negligible, recent studies
concluded that the generation of CH4 was substantial
in sewer networks. Thus, the CH4 generation was
observed in sewer network (Guisasola et al., 2009).
Worldwide, wastewater was the fifth largest source
of anthropogenic CH4 emissions in 2000 (Gupta and
Singh, 2012). Methane is generated by anaerobic
degradation of organic matter and has a potential of
global warming of 25 eq. CO2 (IPCC, 2007). The
main cause of CH4 generation in sewers is the
microbiological activity in anaerobic conditions.
IPCC formulated a methodology for calculation of
CH4 emissions using the maxim amount of CH4 that
can be produced from a given quantity of organic
matter expressed in BOD or COD and a methane
correction factor (0-0.8) that indicates the degree to
which the capacity to produce CH4 is realized for
each type of system or treatment technology (IPCC,
2007). The methane correction factor it is an
indication of the degree to which the system is
anaerobic. If country-specific data are not available, a
default value, 0.6 kg CH4/kg BOD or 0.25 kg CH4/kg
COD can be used.
In comparison with emission factors
calculated at the level of wastewater treatment plants
(WWTP), few studies were conducted in what
concerns the emission level of CH4 at the sewer level,
including both dissolved methane and gas phase
(Table 1).
Table 1 resumes the main CH4 emission
factors the literature highlights.
The studies done on the CH4 emissions do not
provides insight on the potential and level of CH4
stripped along the entire sewer network.
Another gas with global warming potential is
nitrous oxide, associated with the degradation of
nitrogen components in the wastewater. Nowadays,
the N2O exceeds the CFC-12 and worldwide,
wastewater is the sixth largest contributor to N2O
emissions, accounting for 3% of N2O emissions from
all sources (Denman et al., 2007; Gupta and Singh,
2012; IPCC, 2007; Short et al., 2014). N2O is a
greenhouse gas with tremendous global warming
potential (GWP). When compared to carbon dioxide
(CO2), N2O has 298 times the ability per molecule of
gas to trap heat in the atmosphere.
Nitrous oxide also causes ozone depletion
(USEPA, 2013) due to its capacity to absorb infrared
rays, inertia and long lifespan in the atmosphere. In
what concerns the N2O production into the sewer, the
literature highlights emission factors as they are
presented in the Table 2.
The production of N2O in wastewater sewers
varies according to the type of wastewater, organic
load, aeration regime, pH, relative abundance and
activity of bacteria (Foley et al., 2010b). The IPCC
guide indicates that the closed sewers do not
represent a source of N2O.

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Ciobotici Terryn et al./Environmental Engineering and Management Journal 15 (2016), 3, 613-625

Table 2 resumes the main N2O emission

factors the literature highlights.
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) has been
investigated in the last years in the gravitational
wastewater collection networks, especially due to the
specific smell of rotten eggs and health risks for the
maintenance staff and increased corrosion of metals
and concrete sewer disintegration, phenomenon
created by the accumulation of H2S in the space
above the wastewater flow in the sewers (Lahav et
al., 2006).
Usually, the gas concentration increases with
temperature and daylight (Cabezas et al., 2005).
Collection systems in warm climates, summer
conditions or the situations that do not ensure the
flow-through velocities (0.7 m/s) to prevent the
stagnation of the wastewater allow for the occurrence
of septic conditions. In these situations, bacteria use
all the available oxygen in the water to decompose
the organic matter. The anaerobic bacteria reduce
sulphur compounds (SO4) to produce sulphides
(SO2). Under anaerobic conditions, sulphides
combine with hydrogen to produce hydrogen
sulphide gas. The damp surface above the water line
is the place of aerobic conditions in partly full
sewers. Here the aerobic bacteria oxidize the H2S to
produce sulphuric acid (H2SO4) agent responsible for
the corrosion and potential collapse of the pipes,
especially at the joints. H2S is present in
concentrations that generally fluctuate from 100 ppm

to more than 1000 ppm, and the concentration

increases with temperature and daylight (Cabezas et
al., 2005).
According to the Romanian regulations
(Romanian Government, 2005), the maximum H2S
value admitted in the sewer network is of 1 mg/L (1
ppm). The normative does not contain admissible
values for CH4 and N2O.
Table 3 resumes the main H2S emission
factors the literature highlights.
4. Odor containment and treatment
Nowadays, a number of technologies have
been developed to avoid and treat odorous air
emissions from wastewater collecting systems. These
include end-of-pipe methods (physical, biological
and chemical methods), but also clean technologies
that radically restructure the classical solution, with
material and energy savings, as is the case of in the
vacuum sewer. The advanced technologies lead to
phasing out the polluting technical systems that
cannot be reconciled with environmental goals. The
emphasis is on preventive measures and not so much
on repairing the damage.
This section discusses the main advantages
and disadvantages of the main technologies and
techniques used for the reduction of in-sewer
emissions.

Table 1. Methane emission factors at the level of wastewater system

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

Author
Daelman et al. (2013)
Czepiel et al. (1993)
Wang and Li (2011)
Lane and Lant (2012)
Guisasola et al. (2009)
Foley et al. (2009)
Liu et al. (2015)
EU (2014)
GWRC (2011)
Liu et al. (2015)
Chaosakul et al. (2014)

Place of emission
WWTP- dissolved methane
WWTP- dissolved methane
WWTP - dissolved methane
WWTP - dissolved methane
WWTP - dissolved methane
WWTP - dissolved methane
sewer sediments- dissolved methane
sewer- dissolved methane
Rising main
Rising main
Gravity sewer
Lift station- gas phase concentration
Sewer - gas phase concentration
Manholes- gas phase concentration
Sewer - gas phase concentration

Liu et al. (2015)

GWRC (2011)
Chaosakul et al. (2014)

Emission factors
8.5-11.0 g CH4/kg COD influent
1.6 CH4/kg COD influent
0.8 g CH4/kg COD influent
5 mg/l; 7 mg/l; 12 mg/l
2025 mg/L wastewater
1.26 g CH4/m2-d
0.13 to 2.09 g CH4/ m2-d
0.24 kg CH4/kg COD
5.3 mg/l
4.8 mg/l
10.1 mg/l
7,000-12,000 ppmv
1,400-2,800 ppmv
50,00 ppmv
1,350-12,000 ppmv

Table 2. N2O emission factors at the level of wastewater system

1
2

Author
Short et al. (2014)
IPCC (2007)

Place of emission
Conventional sewer system
Wastewater treatment plant

Emission factors
0.85 g N2O/person/year to 3.5 g N2O /person/year
3.2 g N2O/person/year

Table 3. H2S emission factors at the level of wastewater system

1
2

616

Author
Cabezas et al. (2005)
Romanian Government (2005)

Place of emission
Conventional sewer system
Conventional sewer system

Emission factors
100 ppm to 1,000ppm
1 ppm

Eco-innovative technologies for mitigating gaseous emissions from wastewater collection systems

4.1. Biological methods for the reduction of in-sewer

emissions Biofiltration
Biofiltration can be traced to its earliest roots
for odor control at sewage treatment plants in 1923.
Bach, a German scientist, used biological processes
to treat the hydrogen sulphide emissions at sewage
treatment plants in Germany. Later, the first patent
for a soil bed biofilter designed to treat odorous gases
was issued by the United States in 1957 to Richard
Pomeroy (Leson and Winer, 1991). Patents continued
to be issued for methods of cleaning waste-gas
streams using biofiltration technology for the next
several decades. Biofiltration can be considered an
incremental innovation.
Biofiltration is an environmentally friendly
technology for the treatment of odorous and toxic
emissions (Auterska and Keder, 2008; Cabezas et al.,
2005). Biofiltration is capable of degrading a wide
variety of contaminants as aliphatic hydrocarbons
(methane,
propane),
aromatic
hydrocarbons
(benzene, phenol, and toluene), chlorinated
hydrocarbons (carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, and
trichloroethylene), amines, nitrites, alcohols,
aldehydes, esters, inorganic compounds (ammonia,
hydrogen sulphide, and nitrogen oxide), ketones,
sulphur containing compounds, terpenes. The best
biodegradability has aromatic hydrocarbons, amines,
alcohols, aldehydes, esters, inorganic compounds,
ketones (Govind, 2005). Mainly, the biofiltration is
seen as a viable alternative to reduce emissions of
CO2, NOx, SOx and particulate matters (PM).
Biofiltration represents a method for the global
demands of reduced carbon dioxide emissions
(Govind, 2009). The microorganisms break the
organic matter into CO2 and H2O (Eq. 1). This
process is enzymatic catalyzed.
Organic pollutant + OxygenCO2 + H2O + heat +
biomass
(1)
Biofilters can be either classified into simple
(open-bed) or engineered biofilters (closed-bed) and
horizontal or vertical.
4.1.1. Common biofilters
In these stations, the contaminated air
generated in the wastewater is injected into a bed

filled with an appropriate natural porous medium

(peat, turf, mulch, brier, wood chips, pinewood bark)
that serve as a carrier for microorganism where the
pollutants are converted by bacteria into innocuous
gases, water, and organic biomass. Media moisture
control is essential for effective treatment in the
biofilter (Janni et al., 2011). Another important key
factor that influences the biofilter performance is the
residence time, defined as the empty bed filter
volume divided by the airflow rate. Biofilters with
higher moisture contents and longer retention times
were shown to have the best removal of ammonia
and hydrogen sulphide (Sun et al., 2000).
Some of the disadvantages of natural media
include the inability to handle biomass growth,
resulting in clogging of media, inability to provide
nitrogen and phosphorus and other nutrients, inability
to handle small particulate matters in the gas phase,
and transformation of hydrogen sulphide to sulphate
pH decrease and shut down of the bed because of
acidification (Govind, 2009). The conventional
biofiltration is capable of degrading concentrations
that range between <1 ppmv-25 ppmv. The general
scheme of a biofilter is presented in Figs. 2 and 3.
The odorous air from the wastewater facility
(vacuum station/lift station) is introduced by air ducts
into the biofilter where the media breaks the organic
matter into CO2 and H2O.
Fig. 3 exemplifies the structure of a common
biofilter and subsequent processes that degrade the
organic matter to CO2 and H2O.
4.1.2. Multi-phase biofilters
In the last years synthetic media are used in
biofilters (ceramic, plastic, metallic, other composite
material) in order to counteract the problems with
low biodegradability rates of naturally bioactive
media (peat, compost settling) and limited capacity to
neutralize acidic products of degradation and for
enhancing the treatment of air with high
concentration contaminants (>25 ppmv - 5,000 ppmv
/ 0 - 8.3 g/m3).
These synthetic media are known as
biotrickling filters. Synthetic support media can be
in the form of high surface area pellets and some
situations can be coated with activated carbon to
enhance absorption of contaminants.

Fig. 2. General scheme of a biofilter including biofilter media, the air plenum and air ducts that introduce the odorous air

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Ciobotici Terryn et al./Environmental Engineering and Management Journal 15 (2016), 3, 613-625

Fig. 3. Structure of a biofilter (adapted from http://eponline.com/articles/2010/09/13/good-compost-neighbor-uses-robust-odourcontrol.aspx?admgarea=Features)

Due to a high void fraction in the synthetic

media support (>80%), the biofilter provides more
space for the biofilm to grow without clogging of the
biomass on the support media. The media never has
to be replaced since the mineral nutrients are
supplied from an external source. The contact
between the biofilm and gas contaminants is also
large. The incoming gas is sprayed with water in the
incoming duct to humidify the gas. In a biotrickling
filter water is re-circulated through the biomedia bed,
therefore humidifying the gas stream and providing
water to the organisms attached to the surface of
biomedia. In Fig. 4 the biotrickling filter for H2S
degradation mechanism is represented. Fig. 4
highlights the structure of biotrickling filter and
processes that take place within it, specifically the
introduction of foul air, absorption and degradation
of H2S, and recycling of water and evacuation of
clean air.

accumulate in the recirculating water and re-entrain

into the exit at the top of the bed, reducing the
treatment efficiency (Govind, 2009). In another
approach, the term bioscrubber has been used when
water containing organisms from an activated sludge
water treatment system, is re-circulated through the
biomedia,
providing
active organisms
for
contaminant degradation in the gas phase, making the
system more robust against starvation. The system
present similar disadvantages as biotrickling filter.
Moreover, high inlet gas temperature can result in a
gradual heating of the external water treatment
system (Govind, 2009). Fig. 5 represents the general
structure of a bioscrubber.

Fig. 5. Diagram of a bioscrubber consists in a gas scrubber

and a biological reactor (taken from
http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs-wm/45120.pdf)
Fig. 4. Biotrickling filter (taken from
www.pnas.org/content/100/11/6308/F1.expansion.html)

In comparison with the normal biofilter, in the

biotrickling filter the pH can be controlled by adding
buffers in the nutrient flow. The volume of the
biotrickling filter is smaller than the volume of a
conventional biofilter for the same treatment
efficiency. Since the synthetic media is open, and
high gas velocities can be maintained, the oxygen
transfer is higher and, therefore, anaerobic regions
are not created in the biofilter.
Biotrickling filters also feature a series of
disadvantages as: high media costs, matter in the gas
phase clogs up the bed, biomass clogging can occur;
water soluble compounds in the gas phase

618

Well-designed and managed biofilters can

reduce odors and hydrogen sulphide (H2S) by as
much as 95% and ammonia (NH3) by 80% (Janni et
al., 2011). In some cases, biofilters treat 100% of the
exhausted ventilation air. In many other cases,
biofilters treat a portion of the exhaust ventilation air.
4.1.3. Application of the biofilters in the wastewater
management. Biofilters for wastewater lift stations
emission mitigation
Biofilters can be used in some locations for
the treatment of odors emitted from wastewater lift
stations. Lift stations are usually the last collection
unit prior to the treatment system, accepting
wastewater from one or several sewer lines

Eco-innovative technologies for mitigating gaseous emissions from wastewater collection systems

(Buchanan et al., 2010b). The main function of the

lift station is to provide sufficient head pressure to
transport the collected wastewater to the wastewater
treatment plant. One or more pumps are used to
provide the head pressure and are generally designed
to operate or cut off based on preset high and low
wastewater levels.
The removal efficiency of the H2S proved to
be higher than 85% after three months of operation in
a case study in Bronsville, Texas, at wastewater lift
station 64 where both a simple and an engineered
biofilters were installed (Cabezas et al., 2005). It was
expected the efficiency of the biofiltration to increase
with the growth of microorganisms. Another
conclusion of the study mentioned above was that the
generation of H2S in the wet well is affected by the
water pumping frequency. The H2S concentration
decreased when one pump was on. The concentration
of H2S decreases at night due to lower temperature
and lower water consumption. High acidity affects
the microorganisms growth in the biofilter; that is
why the injection of clean water into the recycling
system is needed. Magnesium hydroxide helps to
control stripping of water acidity.
Another case study approaches the use of a
synthetic rock wool fiber material compact biofilter
at a lift station at the entrance of University of the
town of Lulea, northern Sweden (Andersson and
Hanus, 2006). The pilot biofilter composed of three
filter units was set-up inside the lift station. The filter
media was made of rockwool fiber with low density
(30 kg/m3), high porosity (65%) and a fiber diameter
of 4 m. A mixed bacterial culture from the
wastewater treatment plant was used as inoculums,
and nutrient pellets were added to the filter media.
The biofilter was endowed with an irrigation system
with spray nozzles at the inlet and the top of the
biofilter. Drainage was collected at the bottom of the
filter. The low concentration of pollutants rendered
the analytical evaluation of the biofilter performance
difficult. The screening of VOCs and reduced
sulphur compounds in the waste gas showed no
VOCs above the blank/threshold, but just dimethyl
sulphide, hydrogen sulphide, methyl mercaptan and
carbon sulphide, present at levels above the threshold
values. It was considered that the short empty bed
residence time (5-6 seconds), low-pressure drop
(350-500 Pa/m), low moisture content of the
rockwool (6%12%) and steady temperature
(102C) at the inlet of biofilter would negatively
affect the microbiological activity.
4.2. Physical methods for the reduction of in-sewer
emissions
Physical
methods
include
augmented
ventilation by injection of oxygen or air into the
sewer net to reduce anaerobic conditions, application
that incurs significant costs for chemical usage
(Gutierrez et al., 2008). Adsorbent systems represent
another physical method for removing odors,
consisting in static beds of granular material such as

activated carbon. The adsorbent system involves

higher costs for replacing and disposing of adsorbent.
The system is only feasible for soluble components
and not efficient in removing multiple odorous
compounds.
4.3. Chemical methods for the reduction of in-sewer
emissions
Chemical
methods
include
chemical
scrubbers,
chemical
precipitation,
chemical
oxidation, masking agents. A variety of chemicals are
used to prevent anaerobic conditions: ozone, chlorine
dioxide,
sodium
hypochlorite,
potassium
permanganate, hydrogen peroxide, ferric and calcium
nitrates, ferric chloride (Andersson and Hanus,
2006). Using chemicals has disadvantages as the
additional cost and formation of residual products.
5. Vacuum sewer system as a green technology for
wastewater collection and solution for odor
problems
Even though the gravity sewer system is one
of the most widely used conventional wastewater
collection systems, a great attention has been paid in
the last 30 years to the vacuum sewer system, a
radical innovation that brings both environmental
improvements and economic savings during the
construction and functioning phases (Airvac Inc.,
2013; Buchanan et al., 2010b; Roediger, 2013).
Vacuum sewer system a technology-push
innovation comes from radical changes in technology
without any change in the meaning of product (Dosi,
1982).
According to the information collected from
the European Standard (2013), and vacuum
technology providers as Roediger Vacuum GmbH
(Roediger, 2013) and AIRVAC Inc. (2013) vacuum
wastewater collection systems are based on the
principle of using differential pressure in vacuum
pipelines to collect the wastewater and transport it to
a vacuum station, then gradually to a centralized
wastewater treatment plant (Buchanan et al., 2010b).
The general conditions conducting to the use of the
vacuum system include special terrain conditions as
unstable soil, flat terrain, rolling land with small
elevations, high water table, sensitive eco-systems,
and developed rural areas. If the vacuum system is
more economic in flat terrain, it has a limited
capacity to pull water uphill that is why in conditions
with high elevations or hilly areas the gravity system
is more feasible to be implemented or a combination
of the two systems. The general structure of the
vacuum sewer system it is presented in Fig. 6.
Vacuum sewer systems rely on gravity to
move wastewater from homes to a vacuum chamber.
Then the system uses differential air pressure as the
motive force to transport sewage. The main pipes are
under a vacuum of -0.5 to -0.7 bar, created by the
vacuum pumps located at the vacuum station. The
collecting chambers serve as an interface between the

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Ciobotici Terryn et al./Environmental Engineering and Management Journal 15 (2016), 3, 613-625

gravitational line from consumers and vacuum line.

The wastewater is collected in a collecting reservoir
until the pressure sensor tube connected to the
controller that activates the opening of the vacuum
valve. The vacuum valve that is placed in a separate
chamber above the collecting reservoir is
pneumatically controlled and does not need energy
for functioning. When the valve is opened, the entire
system is maintained under vacuum. When the valve
opens, the wastewater is sucked from the collecting
chamber in the vacuum line and then in the vacuum
tank.
Vacuum mains are slightly sloped towards the
vacuum station (min 0.2%) excepting the lifts in the
saw tooth profile that help in keeping the sewer lines
shallow. The vacuum sewers are connected to a
vacuum station equipped with hydraulic, electrical,
ventilation and control unit installations. The vacuum
station is the heart of the system. The vacuum station
is a concrete building that shelters the vacuum
pumps, discharge pumps, and vacuum tank. The
vacuum stations maintain the vacuum in the system
though the vacuum pumps; collect the wastewater in
one or more vacuum tanks and pump the wastewater
towards a lift station, wastewater treatment plant or a
nearby sewer system.
The vacuum pumps maintain a negative
pressure between -0.4 and -0.6 bar in the collection
tank. The vacuum tank is made of steel dimensioned
according to the hourly flow rate and vacuum suction
capacity of the vacuum pumps. When the tank
pressure falls under a preset limit, the vacuum pumps
start working to restore the pressure. As such,
vacuum pumps run only for 2-3 hours a day. A
monitoring system is designed to indicate the status
of the vacuum valves and collection chambers. A
particular problem with the functioning of vacuum
sewers is the noise and odor created by the central
vacuum station. As air is drawn through the system,
sewer gases are extracted (Buchanan et al., 2010a).
The exhaust air leaving the vacuum reservoir is
treated in a biofilter, which can absorb most of the
gases and reduce odors. The biofilter uses a concrete
structure and a 1.3-1.5 deep media bed heaped on an
air piping system embedded in 30-60 cm gravels.
Odorous gases dissolve in a biofilm and
microbes in the biofilm absorb and metabolize the
odorous compounds, converting them into dissolved
mineral products of decomposition. Ground wood is
usually used and advantageous as a packing material

because it has high porosity and its organic content is

readily colonized by micro-organisms.
The filter media absorbs odors and volatile
compounds from the air stream by oxidation to
carbon, inorganic salts and water with the support of
micro-organisms.
According
to
Roediger
respondents, for most biofilters used for sewer gas
treatment, the residence time ranges from 30 seconds
to 1 minute. Longer residence times produce higher
efficiency. However, a design must minimize
residence time to allow the biofilter to accommodate
larger flow rates.
In comparison with the control technology as
is the case of the gravity or pressure wastewater
collection systems, the emissions at the level of
vacuum sewer system are reduced in the biological
filter mainly to carbon dioxide and water. By sucking
out the sewage out of the pipes, the vacuum pumps
generate unrefined gas that is eliminated 95-100% by
the biological filter (Roediger, 2013). According to
vacuum sewer system providers, bio-filters achieve a
reduction of sulphuric acid greater than 95%
(Roediger, 2013).
The vacuum sewer system is an ecoinnovative solution in wastewater management due
to the reduction of the environmental impact,
considering the high security of the system in what
concerns the spillage and odours, energy savings,
therefore internalizing the externalities (Buchanan et
al., 2010b).
Figs 7-9 exemplify the structure of a biofilter
designed for treating the vacuum station air stream
leaving the vacuum tank: concrete shaft, gravel layer,
PVC air ducts for air distribution and filter mass
represented by pinewood bark, chip woods and see
grass). The contaminated air is injected into the
bottom of the filter.
It moves up by advection through the porous
media where the pollutants are converted into
innocuous gases and water. The biofilter does not
need adding a supplementary source of water for
media humidification due to the water vapors
presented in the air stream.
The water resulted from the decomposition of
the organic matter in the biofilter it is drained and
introduced back a collecting chamber by pipes for
dewatering. Biofilter at the vacuum station in Prundu,
Giurgiu County, Romania is exemplified bellow.
The biofilter is designed according to the
vacuum pumps capacity as is exemplified in Table 4.

Fig. 6. Vacuum sewer system (taken from Airvac http://www.airvac.com/downloads_literature.htm)

620

Eco-innovative technologies for mitigating gaseous emissions from wastewater collection systems

Table 4. Relation between the vacuum pump capacity, area of biofilter and diameter of air ducts. Dimensioning of the biofilter is
related to the capacity of the vacuum pumps that also determine the diameter of the main air ducts and distribution air ducts
Absorption capacity of vacuum pumps
220 Nm/h
from 220 to 440 Nm/h
from 440 to 660 Nm/h
from 660 to 880 Nm/h
from 880 to 1100 Nm/h

Minimum area of biofilter

2.5 m
5.0 m
7.0 m
9.0 m
12.0 m

Fig. 7. Air ducts in the biofilter (Valrom Industrie, 2014)

Fig. 8. Gravel layer in the biofilter (Valrom Industrie,

2014)

Fig. 9. Packing material in the biofilter (Valrom Industrie,

2014)

The vacuum sewer system brings about

reductions of the construction costs, emissions cut
and reduced energy consumption in the operational
phase (Roediger, 2013).
The vacuum system uses smaller diameters
pipes, with a slight slope and reduced volume of
excavations. The vacuum sewer system proved to be
with 23.91% cheaper than the gravity sewer system,
while the pressure sewer system is only with 1.7%
cheaper than the gravity system (Panfil et al., 2013).
Because vacuum sewer lines can be buried in
shallower trenches, installation costs can be 25% less

Air duct/exhaust pipe

DN 125
DN 125
DN 150
DN 200
DN 200

Distribution air duct in biofilter

DN 80
DN 80
DN 100
DN 100
DN 100

than a comparable gravity or low-pressure sewer

system.
Electricity is used for the vacuum generators
to evacuate the pipelines and for the discharge pumps
to discharge wastewater out of the vacuum system in
an existing sewage system or a wastewater treatment
plant. Unlike the pressure system where the power is
provided at every entry point in the system using lift
stations, in vacuum sewerage, a vacuum is generated
at a single point in the sewerage system, thus
requiring only one point of energy consumption,
simplifying
power
sourcing
and
reducing
construction and ongoing operational costs. It is
reported that monthly power costs range from $1.66
to $3.34 per month per connection. Larger stations
typically have lower power consumption per
connection (Buchanan et al., 2010a). A comparative
study proved that the energy costs for the classical
solution exceed with 0.016 euro/m3 the vacuum
sewage solution (Terryn et al., 2014). Moreover,
based on the damage costs, the vacuum sewer system
is more efficient when analyzing the environmental
externalities. Based on a projection of the possibility
of the seepage occurrence, it was demonstrated that
the level of penalties for the classical system is 17
times higher in what concerns the biologic oxygen
demand (BOD5) and 14 times for suspended solids
(SS) (Terryn et al., 2014).
In what concerns the maintenance, the system
promises savings in costs, but also a reduction of the
environmental impact through the high security of
the system in what concerns the spillage and odors.
Even though the vacuum sewer system is feasible to
be implemented in flat terrain, with reduction of
construction costs, the appropriateness of the system
increases once with the number of connections. A
number of minimum 50-75 connections or more is
necessary, thus the entire investment including the
vacuum station, connection chambers, monitoring
system justifies the investment, and the investment
costs are recovered.
The vacuum system is economically efficient
and environmentally effective on long term,
integrating the environmental concerns into its design
(Buchanan et al., 2010b).
6. Potential of application of biofiltration for
mitigating sewer gases from wastewater lift
stations in Bacau City
According to the General Urban Plan for
Bacau municipality, Bacau County, Romania, the
entire sewer network measures 212.64 km. The
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Ciobotici Terryn et al./Environmental Engineering and Management Journal 15 (2016), 3, 613-625

wastewater collecting system, built in the 1970s, is a

combined one, constructed of concrete and PVC
pipes with diameters ranging from 250 to 2200 mm.
For the new districts, the wastewater system is a
separated for two categories of flows.
For the lower areas seven wastewater lift
stations are used to move wastewater from gravity
pipelines to higher elevations. Sewage is fed into a
wet well. The well is equipped with electrical sensors
to detect the level of sewage. When the sewage level
rises to a predetermined point, one or more pumps
start to lift the sewage upward through a pressurized
pipe system called rising main from where the
sewage is discharged into a gravity manhole. The lift
stations were designed and constructed based on peak
hourly flow. The basins drain both the dry weather
and wet weather flows. For the lift stations, the
design is made on the basis of 4 x DWF (Dry weather
flow), running full.
Because of emissions of sewer gases and
malodorous that can occur in the wet well, especially
in the warm, dry season, the present chapter proposes
an estimation of the main sewer gases at the level of
each lift station and a basic technology to mitigate
the emissions. Wet-well maximum detention time in
constant speed pumps is typically 20 to 30 minutes.
When the volume of the wastewater in the wet well
increases, the sewer gases are pushed out. When the
volume of wastewater decreases, the surrounding
ambient air is dragged into the well to fill the water
column with the air. Therefore, the concentrations in
the air volume of the wet well changes depending
upon the water level in the well, according to water
consumption.
Odor and emission control is frequently
required for lift stations in many European Countries.
A simple and widely used odor control alternative is
minimizing wet-well turbulence. More effective
options include collection of odors generated at the
lift station and treating them in biofilters. The method
for estimation of main sewer gases is based on
emission factors. The Annual European Union
greenhouse gas inventory 1990-2012 and inventory
report 1014 (EU, 2014), estimated for wastewater
handling in Romania for the year 2012, an emission
factor (EF) of 0.24 kg CH4/kg degradable organic
component. The same document estimated an
emission factor of 0.01 kg N20-N/kg N in
wastewater, considering a protein consumption of
37.78 kg proteins/person/year and a N fraction of
0.16 kg N/kg proteins. For the H2S, the estimation
was made according to Romanian regulations.
Considering the emission factors, the dry
weather flow and the organic load in raw wastewater
expressed in biological oxygen demand (BOD), the
total yearly emission of CH4, N2O and H2S were
calculated as presented in Table 5.
In Bacau city, there are no technologies in
place to reduce sewer gas emissions at the level of
the sewer system. In this respect, this study proposes
the filtration of the air from the wet wells of lift
stations in biofilters. The method includes the

622

collection of sewer gases generated at the lift station

and treating them in biofilters. For the selected case
study, the biofiltration involves retrofitting the
existing lift stations, including some technical
modifications as installing a fan, a duct air to exhaust
the sewer air into a biofilter. The volume flow of gas
treated by one square meter of biofilter surface
(specific load of biofilter), is typically expressed as
m3 /m2 of filter surface/hour. This design parameter
may vary over a range of 100 to 400 Nm3/m2/hour
(IPCC, 2007).
In order to treat the air from wet wells, the
sewer air is expelled on the filter with an axial plate
mounted fans (the air flow Q=280 m3/h, maxim
pressure 26 mmCA, power absorbed - 120 kW),
resisting the corrosive nature of these compounds.
The entire ventilation flow from lift stations is lead
through the biofilters, resulting in a load 280 m3
air/m2/h. The proposed height of filter material is 1
m. Typically, the optimum temperature in a biofilter
is considered to be within the range of 30 to 38C.
Moisture balance is very critical. Gas moisture of
about 95% is required (IPCC, 2007). If the velocity
of wastewater does not assure the minimum
moisture, the filter material needs to be moisturized
with the help of a gas scrubber. A norm of 5 liters of
water at 1000 m3 of gas is considered as optimum.
In order to get a maximum odor reduction
from a biofilter, the air passing through the filter
must contact the filter media for a given amount of
time. This amount of time is known as the residence
time or empty bed contact time (EBCT). The selected
residence time is 30 seconds. According to IPCC
(2003), the performance rates of biofilters range from
75-95% for hydrocarbons and odors. Table 2 present
the maximum remaining sewer gases after
biofiltration, thus explaining the potential benefits of
applying bio-filtration for wastewater lift stations.
7. Conclusions
This section discusses the main findings and
implications obtained from the analysis, with respect
to the dimensions of GHG and other odorous
emissions from wastewater conveyance and
emissions abatement technologies that have the
capacity to contribute to the overall impact on
climate change and health impact.
The paucity of research in technologies to
control and remove the odorous compounds from a
wastewater stream gas can have a significant impact
on the implementation of innovative technologies for
wastewater collection. The research was subject to
several limitations. One of the main limitations of
this study is that the research focused only on main
hazardous gases (CH4, H2S, N2O) and hence, the
results over the sewer system gaseous emissions
cannot be considered representative for entire variety
of contaminants in the wastewater, especially when
consider the variety of chemical substances that are
evacuated in the sewer systems (detergents,
petroleum hydrocarbons etc.).

Eco-innovative technologies for mitigating gaseous emissions from wastewater collection systems

Table 5. Estimation of sewer gases at station level in Bacau city

Lift station

Capacity of
pumps (m3/h)

Dry
weather
flow
(m3/h)

Organic
load
BOD
(mg/L)

EF- CH4
(kg
CH4/kg
BOD)

EF- N2O
(kg N2O/
kg BOD)

EFH2S
(mg/L)

CH4
(to/year)

N2O
(t/year)

H2S
(t/year)

LS1-Serbanesti
District
(combined)

3 pumps
Q=3x 270

135

300

0.24

0.01

85.15

3.55

1.18

LS2-Arcade
Septilici Street
(combined)

2 pumps
Q=2 x 25
(domestic)
3 pumps
Q=3 x 110
(rain water)
2 separate
collection
basins

25

300

0.24

0.01

15.77

0.66

0.22

2 pumps
Q=2 x 80

20

300

0.24

0.01

12.61

0.53

0.18

2 pumps
Q=2 x 50

50

300

0.24

0.01

31.54

1.31

0.44

2 pumps
Q=2 x 65

65

300

0.24

0.01

41.00

1.71

0.57

4 pumps
Q=9-72 mc/h

120

300

0.24

0.01

75.69

3.15

1.05

5 pumps
Q=5 x 36

144

300

0.24

0.01

90.82

3.78

1.26

352.57
88.14
17.63

14.69
3.67
0.73

4.90
1.22
0.24

LS3- Triumfului
Street
(combined)
LS4- Gheraesti
district
(domestic
wastewater)
LS5- Muncii
street (domestic
wastewater)
LS6- Rozelor
street (domestic
wastewater)
LS7- Ciprian
Porumbescu
street (domestic
wastewater)

Total emissions
Minimum efficiency removal- 75% (emissions released into the atmosphere after biofiltration)
Maximum efficiency removal- 95% (emissions released into the atmosphere after biofiltration)

The article illustrates that the eco-innovative

technologies as it is the case of the vacuum sewer
system and biofiltration have an important potential
to mitigate the environmental impact of wastewater
collection in what concerns the emission of harmful
gases (hydrogen sulphide) and greenhouse gas
emissions at the level of lift stations or vacuum
stations. Regarding costs and benefits, vacuum sewer
system is more efficient than classical sewer system.
The solution of biofilters installation for the
treatment of sewer gases in the classical sewer
system is opportune; anyhow, the efficiency of the
system in removing sewer gases is lower than within
the vacuum sewer due to fugitive emissions at the
level of manhole lids. When radical innovations
cannot be introduced, as can be drawn from the case
study for Bacau City, small interventions as installing
biofilters at the level of lift stations can contribute to
the removal of main sewer gases from conventional
wastewater systems. The physical and chemical
methods are less used and costly as they involve
higher costs for replacing and disposing of
adsorbents or risk of formation of residual products.
To cope with the global warming threat,
wastewater system planning needs more robust

greenhouse
gas
emissions
analysis
when
implementing projects for wastewater collection. In
this respect, GHG mitigation represents the single
largest opportunity for avoiding further depletion of
the ozone layer (N2O).
The introduction of performance standards
and design for technological abatement catch-up for
GHG emissions and other hazardous gases in what
concerns emission level for the new wastewater
collection system might represent a window of
opportunity for greening the wastewater systems and
surpassing the environmental crises.
This study evaluated the available techniques
and technologies for removing odorous and GHG
emissions at the level of wastewater collection
system, providing a different perspective on the
control and pro-active measures and technologies for
avoiding, treating and reducing the air emissions
from wastewater collecting systems.
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