Introduction

Women in management:
a Malaysian perspective

Cross-cultural work on attitudes towards

women managers has been scant. However,
studies of sex-role socialization and sexstereotyping have demonstrated the worldwide existence of negative attitudes towards
women in non-traditional roles (Ariffin, 1995;
Guy, 1992). Multinational ethnographic
research has reported the universal existence
of certain roles and behaviours for women
and men. Surveys of women in management
positions in the USA have indicated a notion
of masculine managerial model of organizational man (Dorbrzynski, 1996; Guy, 1992;
Rosener, 1995). Against this standard,
women are perceived to be inadequate as
managers. The existence of a male managerial
model creates negative attitudes for women
seeking positions or advancement in management careers in organizations. Prejudices
about women restrict their recruitment and
promotion to the positions of power in organizations. In male dominated fields, there exists
a doubt if women can ever accomplish the job
as well as a man. Employers also doubt if
women can work successfully with men as
their co-workers. Yousof (1995) and Kelly
(1991) indicate that women themselves
believe that even in the future, female managers in the top management positions will be
scarce. The primary reason offered for such a
situation is the child-bearing and childrearing role of women. According to Kelly
(1991), the public sectors in many countries
have employed women in top administrative
positions mainly in female-dominated
bureaucracies such as social services and
education. Other studies (Ariffin, 1986; Guy,
1992; Kelly, 1991) also indicate that in many
countries, systematic barriers have been
created in specific professions such as financial services industry, medicine, and engineering, which perpetuate occupational sex segregation in the labour force. Even in femaledominated occupations, women remain
clustered in lower ranks (Yousof and Siegel,
1994). The glass-ceiling syndrome is very
much in practice in core areas in many countries including Finland (Hanninen-Salmein,
1991), Germany (Langkau-Herrmann and
Sessar-Karpp, 1991), The Netherlands
(Leyenaar, 1991), India (Swarup and Sinha,
1991), and Malaysia (Ling et al., 1991). In
these countries and many more, women are
either totally absent or poorly represented at

Manjulika Koshal
Ashok K. Gupta and
Rajindar Koshal

The authors
Manjulika Koshal is Professor of Management Systems
and International Business, Ohio University, Athens, USA.
Ashok K. Gupta is OBleness Professor of Marketing,
Ohio University, Athens, USA.
Rajindar Koshal is Professor of Economics, Ohio University, Athens, USA.
Abstract
Surveys of women in management postitions in the USA
and elsewhere have indicated a notion of masculine
managerial model of organizational man. Malaysia
presents an interesting case study on attitudes towards
women managers because it is a society undergoing rapid
changes from its strong traditional religious and cultural
norms to modern values about women. This study focuses
on the perceptions of Malaysian men and women executives about the female managers in corporate Malaysia.
Specifically, the study examines the organizational environment for women managers in Malaysia, how men and
women at different ranks feel about womens advancement in the organization, the differences in the leadership
styles of men and women managers and their effectiveness in achieving organizational goals.

Women in Management Review

Volume 13 Number 1 1998 pp. 1118
MCB University Press ISSN 0964-9425

11

Women in management: a Malaysian perspective

Women in Management Review

Manjulika Koshal, Ashok K. Gupta and Rajindar Koshal

Volume 13 Number 1 1998 1118

the top level administration in core areas. This

fact prevails irrespective of the sectors, i.e.
public or private.
Unfortunately, the prejudices about
womens behaviour and their success as top
executives prevails as strongly in the developed countries as it does in the developing
nations. In a recent study on women executives in the USA, the New York Times of 28
February 1996 reported the results of the two
surveys of 325 men chief executives and 461
top corporate women. These surveys indicate
that corporate women see stereotyping as the
biggest hurdle for their advancement to top
level administrative positions (Dorbrzynski,
1996). According to this study, 52 per cent of
women and 25 per cent of men chief executives believed that at the top of the list of
barriers to womens advancement was male
stereotyping and preconceptions of women.
The second reason for the barrier was exclusion of women from informal networks of
communication. This situation was confirmed by 49 per cent of women and 15 per
cent of men. The survey results also reveal
that the reason why American women have
not got themselves to the top of the corporate
ladder is because they had not been in the
pipeline long enough. One of the interesting
findings of the survey is that it confirms the
existence of the strong belief in the male
managerial model which is taken as the
yardstick for measuring excellence and performance of corporate women. Of the total
women surveyed, 77 per cent indicated that,
developing a style that men are comfortable
with was an important factor for their success in the corporate world.
The above studies indicate that prejudices,
perceptions and attitudes of the top executives
(both male and female) constantly influence
the standards for advancement of women in
the corporate world. These perceptions eventually become part of the organizational
environment and corporate culture.

have opened their doors to women for entry to

the labour force. Economic liberalization is
causing changes in social values in Malaysia.
A brief historical, cultural, social, religious,
and legal background of women in Malaysia
follows.
From an historical perspective, with the
invention of the power loom in 1785, the
cottage industry was slowly replaced with the
factory system. As more and more men left
homes to work in the factories to assume the
productive roles, women became increasingly
confined to domestic spheres and took care of
the reproductive roles bearing children,
looking after the home, husband, and children
(Hong, 1983). The boys were singled out for
formal education even in areas where Koranic
schools had taught girls as well as boys
(Rogers, 1980). Western gender stereotypes
of womens frailty were used to drive them out
of many of the best-paid and least strenuous
jobs in industry and mining, while hard
manual labour continued in many cases to
be allocated to low-class women (Rogers,
1980). Men were defined as head of the
household with the right of family assets and
property and entitlements to the government
agricultural programmes and subsidies
(Hong, 1983). The concept of GNP when
applied to Malaysia and other developing
countries where women were generally
employed in unpaid housework or other
informal activities with no monetary values
attached, ignored the economic contribution
of women. Malaysia, a nation with multiethnic population, has distinct religious,
social and cultural beliefs, values and norms
about many issues including the role of
women in society. Until the, 1960s, a commonly held belief was that women are ideally
suited as housewives, and when educated,
they should work as teachers, nurses or in
similar feminine occupations.
The Malaysian government since 1975 has
taken steps to recognize womens role and
their contribution to the economic development of nation. For the first time a Women
in Development chapter was included in the
Sixth Malaysia Plan (1991-95). A National
Policy for Women formulated in 1991 is also
in the process of implementation. It is, however, interesting to note that the Government
of Malaysia has not signed, ratified or acceded
to the convention on the elimination of all
forms of discrimination against women.
Furthermore, the supreme law of Malaysia

Women in Malaysia
Malaysia presents an interesting case study on
attitudes towards women managers because it
is a society undergoing rapid changes from its
strong traditional religious and cultural norms
to modern values about women. Malaysia has
emerged as one of the four tigers of the South
East Asia Region. As a result, industrial
complexes have mushroomed. Companies
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Women in management: a Malaysian perspective

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Manjulika Koshal, Ashok K. Gupta and Rajindar Koshal

Volume 13 Number 1 1998 1118

does not prohibit discrimination on the

grounds of gender in all the matters specifically referred to in the Article 8 (2) of the Federal
Constitution which deals with employment,
property rights and establishing or carrying
on a trade, business or profession (Ariffin,
1995).
Women in Malaysia have made significant
progress over the last 25 years. In 1990
approximately 47 per cent (84 per cent for
men) of women were in the labour force as
compared to 36 per cent (83 per cent for
men) in 1970. In fact, the female labour force
which used to be predominantly concentrated
in the agricultural sector in the 1970s (Table I)
has significantly moved to manufacturing and
service industries (Malaysian Plan, 1991).
However, the increased female participation in the workforce has been lopsided when
analysed from the types of jobs they are
employed to do (Yahya, 1993). The majority
of new female occupations were clustered in
the lower and middle income category jobs
such as clerical staff, service and production
workers, equipment operators and labourers.
The data presented in Table II show that there

was a large share of females in professional

and technical category. However, this is
largely due to the way this category is defined.
This category includes teaching and nursing
professionals (where a large number of
women are employed) along with doctors,
engineers and lawyers.
Studies conducted by Yousof (1995) and
Tan (1991) indicate that women are generally
represented in the lower management and
lower paying positions. Yousof (1995) found
that in the financial sector in Malaysia, 38.5
per cent of the Malaysian women are
employed at management level positions;
however, the gender ratio of women in top
positions to women in middle and lower
management levels is very low. Similarly,
Tans analysis (Table III) of female workers in
Category A jobs in the public sector indicate
that in 1990 there were no female employees
in Superscale B and above. On the other hand
in the lowest scale, 55.1 per cent employees
were women and only 44.9 per cent were men
(Tan, 1991).
Even though women have migrated to
manufacturing jobs from agricultural jobs
they have traditionally had, 80 per cent of the
executive positions are held by men (Ying and
Sim, 1991). For example, while women comprise about 71 per cent of all teachers in the
country, less than 8 per cent are school heads.
In the Ministry of Education itself, only 12
per cent of administrators in 1988 were
women (Jani, 1992; Mansor, 1990).
There are few empirical studies on malefemale earnings differential and gender biases
in corporate settings in Asian developing
nations. Equal Pay for Equal Work policy has
been in force in the Malaysian public sector
since 1969. However, in the private sector
there is no such policy and significant wage
discrimination still persists. Lee and Nagaraj
(1995) found that females were paid less for
similar human capital endowments. Their

Table I Female labour force by economic sector: 1970-90

Percentage of female
Economic sector

1970

1990

Agriculture and fishing

Manufacturing
Wholesale, transportation,
storage and communication
Services
Others

67.9
8.1

28.2
24.3

0.5
16.4
7.1

5.4
21.4
20.7

Source: Ariffin, 1995

Table II Distribution of females by job categories: 1970-90

Percentage of female
Type of job
Professional, technical
Administrative, managerial
Clerical and related
Sales and related
Service workers
Production, transport equipment
operator and labourers
Agricultural, animal husbandry,
forestry, etc.

1970

1990

5.3
0.1
4.1
4.9
8.4

9.4
0.6
14.1
11.4
14.1

10.4

22.3

66.8

28.1

Table III Proportion of female employees by salary grade in category A jobs

Source: Yahya, 1993

Salary grade

1983

1990

Superscale B and above

Superscale C-G
Senior timescale (A11-A12)
Timescale (A13-A19)
Timescale (A20-A24)
Timescale (A25-A30)

none
9.8%
14.9%
34.2%
28.9%
50.9%

none
14.0%
23.8%
40.4%
33.6%
55.1%

Source: Tan, 1991

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Women in management: a Malaysian perspective

Women in Management Review

Manjulika Koshal, Ashok K. Gupta and Rajindar Koshal

Volume 13 Number 1 1998 1118

study of 733 men and 701 female candidates

show that a substantial portion (at least 46 per
cent) of the male-female earnings differential
in the Malaysian manufacturing sector may be
attributed to the effects of discrimination. In
the case of promotions, researchers and
women officers have long known that, given a
choice, superiors tend to select a man over a
woman (Jani, 1992). However, there also
seems to be a positive discrimination towards
women. For example, it is easier for a woman
to obtain a job transfer to accommodate her
husband where as the reverse may be difficult.
Despite the progress women have made in
a multi-ethnic nation like Malaysia in the last
25 years, they still lag behind their male counterparts in terms of authority, opportunities,
and equality of pay. There are no studies to
document gender biases in corporate settings.
However, based on what is available in the
published literature cited earlier, it is clear
that gender realities may prevent corporations
from taking full advantage of the true potential of their women employees by stifling their
growth and denying them opportunities to
show their worth.

Mara Institute of Technology at Shahalam,

Malaysia, and public sector executives undergoing a training programme in the Institute of
Public Administration at Kuala Lumpur. The
survey respondents had diverse background
in terms of their functional duties in the
organization. The survey questions mainly
consisted of 5-point strongly agree/strongly
disagree Likert Scale. Besides asking for their
demographic profiles, we asked them about
their organizational environment, reward
systems, opportunity for advancement,
leadership style, and issues related to gender
differences such as recruitment, promotion,
supervision, and salaries. A profile of the
respondents is presented in Table IV.

Results
The results of this study provide interesting
insights and confirm some of the conclusions
of previous studies conducted in other countries as well as in Malaysia. The study also
highlights key challenges that women in
Malaysian businesses are facing and suggests
areas where improvements can be made.
Organizational environment for women
managers
In this study, the organizational environment
for women managers was assessed by examining the perceptions of male and female
managers on three dimensions:
(1) Encouragement to women to assume
leadership positions.
(2) Equity in rewards.
(3) Acceptance of women at supervisory
positions.

Research focus
The present study intends to add to the literature on gender bias in Malaysia in general and
corporate Malaysia in particular. We focus on
the perceptions of Malaysian men and women
executives about the female managers in
corporate Malaysia. The study explores issues
of concern to women managers in Malaysia
from three dimensions:
(1) Organizational environment for women
managers in Malaysia from the perspectives of both male and female managers.
(2) How men and women at different ranks
in the organizational hierarchy feel about
womens advancement in the organization.
(3) Differences in the leadership styles of men
and women managers and their effectiveness in achieving organizational goals.

(1) Encouragement to women to assume

leadership positions
The survey results revealed that both male
and female managers are evenly divided on
how organizations encourage women for
leadership positions (Table V). About half of
male and female managers agree or strongly

Table IV Respondent profile

Gender:
Age:

Methodology
The findings of this research are based on a
survey of 75 business executives (27 per cent
female) from public and private Malaysian
organizations. The subjects were executives/
administrators from private and public sector
companies working on their MBA degree at

Job position:
Experience:
Organization type:
Number of employees
14

27 per cent female

87 per cent respondents between
27 and 44 years
25 per cent executives
median 4 years
23 per cent private and 77 per cent
public
median 250

Women in management: a Malaysian perspective

Women in Management Review

Manjulika Koshal, Ashok K. Gupta and Rajindar Koshal

Volume 13 Number 1 1998 1118

Table V Organizational encouragement to women

Table VI Equity in rewards

Percentage who agree/

strongly agreea
Organization encourages women
There are few barriers for women
to advance in this organization
Organization seeks to increase
women in high positions
Women are still scarce at the top

Men

Women

52

56

51

50

32
63

27
67

Percentage who agree/

strongly agreea
Women must work harder than men
Employment is based on merit,
not gender
Advancement is based on merit,
not gender
Compensation and rewards are
equal for men and women
Women are under-represented at
senior levels
Women are under-represented at
middle levels
Women are under-represented at
lower levels

Note: a Those who selected 4 or 5 on a 5-point strongly agree/

disagree scale
agree (with a rating of 4 or 5 on a 5-point
Likert scale) that organizations are encouraging women to assume leadership positions
and that there are few barriers to womens
advancement to high managerial or executive
positions. However, more male (32 per cent)
than female managers (27 per cent) feel that
organizations are actively seeking ways to
increase the ratio of women in high ranking
positions. In fact, almost two-thirds of the
surveyed male and female managers
agree/strongly agree that women are still
scarce at the top. The scarcity of women in
high ranking positions in the corporate sector
of Malaysia is similar to the findings of studies
in public sector and government ministries
(Jani, 1992; Mansor, 1990; Tan, 1991).

Men

Women

34

37

77

75

86

69

85

73

57

75

17

33

23

Note: a Those who selected 4 or 5 on a 5-point strongly agree/

disagree scale
ranks. More female (75 per cent) than male
managers (57 per cent) agree that women are
under-represented at senior level positions.
The reverse is true for lower level positions. It
appears that in Malaysian organizations, like in
many others in the world, jobs where the
majority of the workers are female are mainly
concentrated at lower ranks of organizational
hierarchy.
On the issue of the equity in rewards, a
smaller percentage of females (73 per cent)
than males (85 per cent) agree or strongly agree
that compensation and rewards are equal for
men and women in their organizations. Interestingly, almost one-third of both male and
female managers feel that women must work
harder than men to attain recognition and
promotion in their organizations. In general, it
appears that female managers perceive equal
opportunity for employment but a greater sense
of inequity in rewards after recruitment. This
finding is similar to the results of the study on
American women executives (Dorbrzynski,
1996). In the Malaysian context, Jani (1992)
noted that in the case of promotions,
researchers and women officers have long
known that, given a choice, superiors tend to
select the man over the woman. In terms of
wage differential, in the industrial sector
women workers in general are in the low-paying
jobs while men workers occupy higher positions
with higher pay. Unfortunately, equal pay for
equal work policy has little legal protection in
the private sector in Malaysia. Therefore, even

(2) Equity in rewards

Results of our study indicate that 75 per cent of
both male and female managers believe
(agree/strongly agree) that in their organizations employment is based on merit and not on
gender (Table VI). However, when it comes to
the issue of advancement or promotions, it is a
different story. Fewer female (69 per cent)
than male managers (86 per cent) perceive that
advancements or promotions in organizations
are merit based rather than gender based. On
the other hand, female managers feel that
discrimination is not an issue at the recruitment level. However, for promotion to higher
ranks, women perceive that they are being
discriminated against in spite of their continued high performance. This is perceived as
cause for dissatisfaction and frustration among
female managers and perhaps a reason for the
lopsided representation of women at senior
level positions. The survey indicates that a
significantly greater percentage of female as
compared to male executives, feel that women
are under-represented at all management
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Women in management: a Malaysian perspective

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Manjulika Koshal, Ashok K. Gupta and Rajindar Koshal

Volume 13 Number 1 1998 1118

when men and women are employed to do the

same work, men are paid more. Ariffin (1995)
provides some revealing examples of wage
discrimination between male and female workers for the same jobs (Table VII). Unfortunately, wage differential data in managerial/ administrative positions in corporate Malaysia is not
available.

position. In our research, we have analysed

the issue of womens advancement from
the perspectives of both male and female
executives. We have also examined if the
degree of resistance to womens advancement
is a function of the hierarchical position.
Mens acceptance of womens advancement in
organization
We asked male as well as female managers to
share with us their perceptions of how men
feel about womens advancement in organization. The results of our study suggest that a
relatively smaller percentage of female managers in corporate Malaysia perceive that men
welcome their advancement in the organization (Table IX). That is, women executives
believe that all male executives, regardless of
their rank, resist womens advancements. On
the contrary, a significantly larger percentage
of men responded positively to womens
advancement. However, the male-female
perception gap is largest at the senior level (81
per cent versus 39 per cent). According to our
survey senior male executives indicate that
they welcome womens advancements more
than women actually think. There may be a
misconception about this feeling on the part
of women executives or male executives are
overstating the facts. Our results also indicate
that men at the subordinate levels are least
likely to welcome womens advancement (68
per cent compared to 81 per cent and 83 per
cent at other ranks).

(3) Acceptance of women as supervisors

While both male (71 per cent) and female (73
per cent) managers felt equally comfortable
taking instructions from women, fewer men
(66 per cent) than women (88 per cent) felt
comfortable with the idea of having a woman
as their boss (Table VIII). These findings
imply that a masculine managerial model is
still widely prevalent in Malaysia and that
norms of executive performance are based
and are unconsciously influenced by this
model. Given the cultural and religious norms
in Malaysian society, it is not surprising that
men feel uncomfortable having a woman as
their boss.
How male and female managers feel
about the advancement of women
Most of the literature about womens
advancement in the public or private sector in
Malaysia indicates that there is a great deal of
resistance to promote women to positions of
higher responsibility even though qualified
women exist to meet the challenges of the
Table VII Wage discrimination between male and female workers in
Malaysia in 1988

Womens acceptance of womens advancement in

organization
We asked male as well as female managers to
share with us their perceptions of how women

Average daily rate for

Type of job
Tappers in rubber estates
Weeders in rubber estates
Unskilled workers in tin dredges
Bus conductors

Male

Female

MR 13.08
11.00
16.26
11.60

MR 8.04
6.39
11.48
11.30

Table IX Mens acceptance of womens advancement

Perceptions of male
and female managers
percentage who
agree/strongly agreea

Table VIII Acceptance of women at supervisory positions

Percentage who agree/

strongly agreea
Comfortable taking instructions
from women
Comfortable with women as my
supervisor

Men

Women

71

73

66

81

A woman who seeks achievement

within this organization is welcomed
and accepted by men:
at her own level
at subordinate level
at higher level

Note: a Those who selected 4 or 5 on a 5-point strongly agree/

disagree scale

Male
managers

Female
managers

83
68
81

62
50
39

Note: a Those who selected 4 or 5 on a 5-point strongly agree/

disagree scale
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Women in management: a Malaysian perspective

Women in Management Review

Manjulika Koshal, Ashok K. Gupta and Rajindar Koshal

Volume 13 Number 1 1998 1118

feel about womens advancement in organization. Results of our study indicate that, women
do not welcome fellow womens advancement
in the organization to the extent men think
they would do (Table X). We found that a
smaller percentage of female managers feel
that women welcome or accept their advancement while a significantly large percentage of
men believe that women would welcome the
advancement of women. Women seem to
accept women at all levels, especially at higher
levels, more readily than men (78 per cent in
Table X versus 39 per cent in Table IX). However, women at subordinate levels seem to
somewhat resist womens advancement (72
per cent versus 78 per cent at other levels).

Table XI Leadership style of women

Percentage who agree/

strongly agreea
Men and women think differently
Men and women display similar
leadership traits
Men and women lead differently
Women managers exhibit interactive
style
Interactive style is more effective
in a dynamic business environment

90
75
83

78
72
78

62

55
72

69
75

40

62

72

59

managers exhibit interactive style of leadership but they do not know that this style is
effective in dynamic environment. Thus
womens potential contribution in providing
effective leadership for dynamic environments
is being wasted both by men and women.

Conclusions
In Malaysia, business organizations appear to
provide equal opportunity for employment to
women. However, women do not perceive
equal opportunities for advancement after
recruitment. The data clearly indicate that
women perceive that they are underrepresented at all management levels, that
equity in compensation is still an issue, and
they need to work harder than men for recognition and rewards.
Female managers perceive resistance from
both men and women for their advancement.
The resistance seems to be more at the subordinate levels. More women feel that men do
not welcome or accept their advancement
while men think they do. This difference in
perception is greatest at higher levels of organizational hierarchy.
We found that, a significantly large number
of male managers in corporate Malaysia perceive that women do not exhibit interactive
leadership style while women are not aware that
interactive leadership style is more effective in
dynamic environments. Thus, it appears that
women are not demanding the type of jobs they
are most suitable for. On the other hand, male
managers are unaware that they are underutilizing the unique leadership traits of women.
People are an organizations most important and valuable asset. To fully utilize this

Perceptions of male
and female managers
percentage who
agree/strongly agreea

A woman who seeks achievement

within this organization is welcomed
and accepted by women:
at her own level
at subordinate level
at higher level

57

disagree scale

Table X Womens acceptance of womens advancement

Female
managers

Women

Note: a Those who selected 4 or 5 on a 5-point strongly agree/

Leadership style of women

More women than men in corporate Malaysia
believe that female and male managers think
and lead differently and also they possess
different leadership traits (Table XI). However, neither group is aware of the strengths of
the other. For example, when asked if women
managers exhibit interactive leadership style,
62 per cent of the female managers and only
40 per cent of male managers agreed or
strongly agreed on this issue. When asked, Is
interactive style of leadership more effective in
a dynamic environment?, 72 per cent male
mangers agreed or strongly agreed as compared to only 59 per cent female managers.
The data indicate that, more men believe that
interactive style of leadership is effective in
dynamic environment but are not aware that
female managers possess this trait. On the
other hand, our study shows that, women

Male
managers

Men

Note: a Those who selected 4 or 5 on a 5-point strongly agree/

disagree scale
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Women in management: a Malaysian perspective

Women in Management Review

Manjulika Koshal, Ashok K. Gupta and Rajindar Koshal

Volume 13 Number 1 1998 1118

resource, it is vital that the strengths of both

male and female employees be optimized by
creating an environment of equality and trust
in the organization. The issues highlighted in
this study need to be addressed if an organization intends to become truly global and competitive. These issues would be the key determinants for nurturing the future policies of
human resource management at the global
level. Corporations need to realize that
women represent a special talent pool; it is not
only a matter of morality to treat women equal
to men, it also makes good business sense to
use this talented resource effectively. Some of
the current business practices or areas of
concern highlighted in this paper may help
organizations in developing corporate policies
for treating women fairly and equitably.

Langkau-Herrmann and Sessar-Karpp, E. (1991), Women

in public administration in the Federal Republic of
Germany, Women and Politics, Vol. 11 No. 4.
Lee, K-H. and Nagaraj, S. (1995), Male-female earnings
differentials in Malaysia, Journal of Development
Studies, Vol. 31 No. 3, February, pp. 467-80.
Leyenaar, M. (1991), Women in public administration in
The Netherlands, Women and Politics, Vol. 11 No. 4.
Ling, S.L.M., Nooi, P.S., Ying, L.C. and Mansor, N. (1991),
Women Managers of Malaysia, Faculty of Economics
and Administration, University of Malaya, Kuala
Lumpur.
Malaysia (1991), Sixth Malaysian Plan: 1991-95, Government Printers, Kuala Lumpur.
Mansor, N. (1990), The development process and
womens participation in the public sector, Paper
presented at the Colloquium on Women and
Development: Implications for Planning and Population Dynamics, University of Malaya, Kuala
Lumpur, Population Studies Unit.
Rogers, B. (1980), The Domestication of Women, Kogan
Page, London.

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