Biology

The characteristics of life

Growth: A permanent increase in the size and dry mass of an organism by increasing cell number or cell
size or both. Development (making an organism more complex)
Movement: An action by an organism causes a change in position or place
Nutrition: The process in which an organism takes in food and converts it to protoplasm
Excretion: The removal of metabolic wastes and substances in excess of requirement
Respiration: The chemical reactions that break down nutrient molecules to release energy in cells
Sensitivity: The ability to react to changes in the environment
Reproduction: The process that makes more of the same kind of organism
Adaptability: The ability of an organism to change in order to improve its chances of survival
Biological system of classification
Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species
The binomial naming system refers to animals by their Genus Species (eg homo sapiens, panthera tigris).
Main features:
Bacteria: capsule shaped with cell walls, free-floating DNA
Virus: just a protein coat
Fungus: animal and plant characteristics, form hyphae (thread like structures) to absorb food. Fungi
reproduce by releasing spores which travel in the wind.
Invertebrate Phyla: Animals that do not have a backbone
Annelids: worms with soft bodies made up of segments (like earthworms)
Nematodes: no segments - microscopic worms, tubular digestive system
Molluscs: Have soft bodies that are not segmented, have a muscular foot that is used for burrowing or
movement. Some may have a shell for protection from predators or to prevent water loss
Arthropods: This is the largest phylum in the animal kingdom. All arthropods have a segmented body, an
exoskeleton and jointed legs.
The 4 classes within the phylum arthropoda include:
Insects: body divided into head, thorax and abdomen, 3 pairs of legs, antennae, can have wings
Crustaceans: body divided into cephalothorax (head-thorax) and abdomen, have two pairs of antennae
and compound eyes. They breathe using gills.
Arachnids: 2 body segments (cephalothorax and abdomen), 4 pairs of legs
Myriapods: many segments to the body, many pairs of legs. These are the fast-moving, carnivorous
centipedes, and slow-moving herbivorous millipedes

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Vertebrate Phyla: Animals that have a backbone

Mammals: Hair/fur, lactate (produce milk), warm blooded
Fish: Gills, lay eggs, have scales
Reptiles: Scales, lay eggs, cold blooded
Birds: Feathers, lay eggs
Amphibians: Breathe through skin, lay eggs
Flowering plants: Are sorted by whether they have a single or double cotyledon.
- A cotyledon is a leaf of the embryo of a seed. It is the first leaf of a plant. Plants can either have a
monocotyledon (single seed leaf) or a dicotyledon (double seed leaf) and flowering plants are classified as
such.
Monocotyledons
Dicotyledons

Petals/Flower Parts
Multiples of 3
Multiples of 4/5

Veins in Leaves
Parallel
Branched

Roots
Shallow and Fibrous
Branched but taproot based

Cells are the most basic building blocks of living organisms.

Parts of a cell
Cell membrane: Selectively permeable. Controls substances entering or leaving the cell
Cytoplasm: The part of the protoplasm between the cell surface membrane and the nucleus. Most cell
activities occur here
Nucleus: Contains DNA. Controls cell activities and cell division
Cell Wall: Fully permeable. Protects the cell from injury. Prevents plants cells from bursting
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER): Contains ribosomes and transports proteins to the golgi apparatus
Ribosomes: Synthesises protein
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): Does not have ribosomes attached. Synthesizes fats
Golgi Apparatus: Modifies substances made by the ER, and packages them into vesicles for secretion
outside of the cell
Mitochondria: Makes ATP (energy) by cellular respiration
Chloroplasts: Carry out photosynthesis
Vacuole: Stores substances within the cell
Centrioles: Help in nuclear division
Lysosomes: break down harmful substances
Nucleolus: Synthesises ribosomes
Flagellum/cilia: Allow movement/locomotion

Specialized cells and their functions

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Ciliated cells: In respiratory tract. Remove mucus which has trapped bacteria and dust. Have many
mitochondria for movements
Root hair cells: Absorption. Help to greatly increase the surface area of roots. Have mitochondria for
active transport of ions.
Xylem vessels: Conduction and transport. Missing many organelles to allow easy flow of substances.
Muscles cells: Contraction. Have many mitochondria
Red blood cells: Transport. No nucleus. Biconcave disc shape
Tissues vs organ vs organ system:
Cell: individual cell performing a specific function
Tissue: cells with a similar function working together
Organ: Different types of tissues working together to perform a function
Organ system: Several organs working together for a specialized purpose
Calculating magnification: Image size = Actual size Magnification
Diffusion: The net movement of molecules from a region of their higher concentration to a region of their
lower concentration down a concentration gradient, as a result of their random movement.
Factors affecting rate of diffusion:
Surface area of diffusion Greater surface area = faster diffusion
Steepness of concentration gradient Steep gradient = faster diffusion
Distance Shorter distance = faster diffusion
Size of molecules Smaller molecules diffuse faster
Temperature Higher temperature = more Kinetic energy
Osmosis: Movement of water from an area of high water potential to an area of low water potential,
across a partially permeable membrane.
Water potential: The tendency of water to move by osmosis from one place to another
A dilute solution (eg, distilled water) has lots of available water and therefore a high water potential
A concentrated solution (eg, 1.0M salt solution) has little available water and therefore a low water
potential

What happens to cells when placed in solutions of different water potential?

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High water potential

Low water potential

Animal cell may shrink and die
Animal Cell
Animal cell may burst
(crenation)
Plant cell becomes flaccid or
Plant Cell
Plant cell may become turgid
plasmolysed
Active transport: Using energy to transport a substance against the concentration gradient

Diffusion
Osmosis
Active Transport

Concentration Gradient

Requires Energy

High to Low
High to Low
Low to High

No
No
Yes

Random movement of
molecules
Yes
Yes
No

Nutrition: The taking in of nutrients, which are organic substances and mineral ions, used for energy,
growth or tissue repair.
Carbohydrates are made up of many sugars held together by glycosidic bonds.
Starch: Energy storage in plants.
Glycogen: Energy storage in animals.
Cellulose: Structure support in plants. Found in cell walls.
Fats are made up of two subunits: glycerol and fatty acids
- Used for storage
- Used for the production of cholesterol
- Used for the production of cell membranes (phospholipids= 2 tails instead of 3)
Proteins are made up of amino acids held together by peptide bonds.
Used for structural support and enzymes.
Nutrients tests
Macromolecule
Test
Starch
Iodine
Reducing sugar
Benedicts
Proteins
Biuret
Fats
Ethanol Emulsion
Main dietary sources of nutrients:

Negative
Brown
Blue
Blue
Clear

Carbohydrates - rice, pasta, grains

Fats - meat or animal related products, or plant oils
Proteins - meats or legumes
Vitamin C- citrus fruits (oranges, lemons)

Positive
Blue black
Green, Yellow, Orange, Brick red
Purple
Cloudy

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Vitamin D- Sunlight and Dairy products

Calcium- Milk
Iron - red meat
Fibre (roughage) Bran cereals, cabbage
Deficiency symptoms:
Vitamin C: Scurvy (bleeding gums)
Vitamin D: Rickets Disease (softening of bones)
Calcium: osteoporosis (brittle bones and teeth)
Iron: Anemia (tiredness, lack of energy)
Malnutrition:
Starvation (not getting enough nutrients)
Coronary heart Disease (Not getting appropriate foods may lead to stress/increased blood pressure)
Constipation: Not enough fibre/roughage may make egestion difficult
Obesity: Improper nutrition may lead to obesity
Balanced Diet: Choosing from a wide variety of foods, with appropriate portions of each consumed every
day
Balanced diet requirements depend on age, gender and activity of an individual.
Microorganisms in the food industry:
Yoghurt is made using bacteria that break down lactose in milk anaerobically into lactic acid
Bread making involves yeast which releases CO2 causing the bread to rise
Bacteria are used in production of wine and beer
Food additives:
Food additives can colour, preserve and add flavour to our food.
Advantages include: Food looks more appealing, food lasts longer, food tastes better.
Disadvantages include: Carcinogens, provoke asthma attacks and hyperactivity in children, headaches,
nausea.
Enzymes are biological catalysts
A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction and is not changed by the reaction
Catalysts lower the activation energy needed for a reaction to occur
Enzymes are specific

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Enzymes are very specific to which molecule (substrate) they bind to.
Specificity is demonstrated by the lock and key model
Only a specific substrate (key) will fit into the active site of the enzyme (lock). When a perfect fit is
made an enzyme substrate complex is formed and the products are formed.
Enzymes are not only specific to the substrate involved, but also to the environment that they function in
Ex. Important enzymes to know (Trypsin, Amylase and Pepsin)
Mouth: Amylase, Stomach: Pepsin, Small intestine: Amylase and Trypsin
The effect of temperature and pH on enzyme activity
At low temperatures enzymes display little activity
As temperature increases enzyme activity increases as the enzyme has more kinetic energy (faster
collisions).
At high temperatures the enzyme completely denatured. The bonds that hold its specific shape together
break and the enzyme will never function again
At too low or too high pH levels, the enzyme will completely denature
Enzymes have an optimal temperature and pH that they work best at.
Enzymes in the stomach work best at acidic pH. Enzymes in the body generally work best at 37C (body
temperature)

Roles of enzymes in industry include:

Fermentation processes
Biological washing powders
Medicine (eg. Penicillin)
Enzyme production in a fermenter:
Bacteria are placed in a fermenter and supplied with glucose, amino acids, oxygen and optimal
temperature and pH.
Bacteria multiply and produce many enzymes.
Enzymes are extracted by filtration.

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Use of enzymes in biological washing powders:

The enzymes extracted from the fermenter can be used to break down insoluble substances into soluble
substances.
Proteases: Protein -> amino acids
Lipases: Fats -> glycerol and fatty acids
Maltase: Starch -> glucose
Soluble products wash away easily
Important terms:
Ingestion: Taking of food and drink into the body through the mouth
Egestion: Passing food that has not been digested as faeces
Digestion: Break down of large, insoluble food molecules into small, water-soluble food molecules so
that they can be absorbed into the blood stream.
Absorption: The movement of digested food through the wall of the small intestine into the blood
Assimilation: Movement of digested food molecules into cells
Important enzyme reactions:
- Protein is made of amino acids
Proteases (eg. Pepsin) break down protein into amino acids
- Starch is made up of glucose
Carbohydrases (eg. Amylase) break down starch into glucose
- Fats are made of glycerol and fatty acids
Lipases break down fat into glycerol and fatty acids
The alimentary canal includes the mouth, pharynx, oesophogus, stomach, the small intestine (duodenum,
jejunum and ileum), the large intestine (colon and rectum), and the anus.
The organs associated with the gut include the liver, pancreas and gall bladder.

Physical Digestion involves the mechanical break-up of food into small particles. This increases the
surface area for enzymes to act
Chemical Digestion is the breaking down of large insoluble molecules in food into small soluble
molecules that can be absorbed. This involves hydrolytic reactions catalysed by enzymes

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Role of the Mouth:

Chewing breaks the food into smaller pieces increasing the surface area
Saliva softens the food and salivary amylase digests starch to maltose
The tongue pushes food (now called bolus) into the pharynx
Role of the Pharynx:
Food travels from the mouth to the oesophagus through the pharynx
Food is prevented from entering the lungs by a flap on the larynx called the epiglottis.
Role of the oesophagus:
Bolus moves from the pharynx to the stomach by the oesophagus by peristalsis
The wall of the oesophagus constrict (circular muscles contract, longitudinal muscles relax) behind the
food and relax (circular muscles relax, longitudinal muscles contract) in front of the bolus
Role of the stomach:
The stomach secretes gastric juice and holds food for 3-4 hours.
Peristalsis churns food and mixes it with gastric juice
Gastric juice contains dilute HCl which denatures amylase and activates the enzyme pepsin
Pepsin breaks down proteins into amino acids
The pyloric sphincter opens to allow food (now called chyme) to pass to the small intestine.
Role of the small intestine:
The small intestine produces the enzymes maltase, peptidases and lipase
Protein, starch and fat are digested in the small intestine
Water and digested food are absorbed in the small intestine by microvilli
Microvilli contain a thin epithelium, blood capillaries and a lymphatic vessel called the lacteal
The small intestine transports nutrients directly to the liver via the hepatic portal vein
Role of the large intestine:
No digestion occurs in the large intestine
The main role is to absorb water and mineral salts from the undigested food materials
Role of the liver (largely involved in assimilation):
Convert glucose to glycogen
Produce bile to be sent to the gall bladder for storage
Convert amino acids to proteins and excess amino acids to urea (deamination)

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Breakdown hormones, alcohol and toxins

Converts fatty acids and glycerol into fat
Produces cholesterol from fats
Role of the pancreas:
The pancreas produces pancreatic juice containing amylase, trypsin and lipase
Pancreatic juice enters the duodenum via the pancreatic duct
The pancreas secretes the hormones insulin and glucagon to regulate blood glucose levels
Role of the gall bladder:
Storage of bile that has come from the liver
Releases bile into the duodenum through the bile duct to emulsify fats
Teeth:
Purpose: To break large food particles into smaller food particles (small enough to be swallowed)
Incisors chisel shaped for biting and cutting
Canines pointed for piercing and tearing
Premolars uneven cusps for grinding and chewing
Molars like premolars for chewing the food
Divided into the crown and the root
Crown (above the gums)
-Contains enamel, dentine and pulp cavity
Root (in the gums)
- Contains cement, nerves and blood vessels
Decay and Repair:
Tooth decay is caused by bacteria in your mouth that mix with saliva to form plaque.
Bacteria in plaque respire anaerobically to produce acid which attacks the enamel of the tooth
Brushing with fluoride strengthens the enamel of the teeth.
Photosynthesis is the fundamental process in which plants manufacture carbohydrates. Water and carbon
dioxide react in chlorophyll in the presence of sunlight to form oxygen and glucose.
6H2O + 6CO2 C6H12O6 + 6O2

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Limiting factor is the substance whose concentration is preventing more chemical reactions to occur
Limiting factors of photosynthesis include light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, temperature,
water availability, ion concentration
Designing experiments:
Make sure all factors are kept constant (like the control), all experimental setups have one factor that is
changed (ex. Temperature, pH, light intensity)
Greenhouses/Glass houses
Can control environment to create optimal growing conditions
Can grow food all year round
Can be costly/ have a negative impact on the environment
Leaf structure:
Leaves have a large surface area to absorb light rays, a thin shape for efficient gas exchange, many
chloroplasts to maximize photosynthesis, veins to support the leaf surface and transport sucrose, water
and ions.
From top to bottom a leaf consists of the cuticle, upper epidermis, palisade mesophyll, spongy mesophyll,
vascular tissue (xylem and phloem), and lower epidermis. The lower epidermis contains many guard cells
which can open and close the stomata to allow gas exchange.

Mineral requirements:
Magnesium to make chlorophyll. Magnesium deficient plants have yellow leaves (chlorosis)
Nitrates to make protein. Nitrate deficient plants show poor growth.
Phosphates for making DNA. Phosphate deficiencies lead to poor root growth and younger leaves turning
purple rather than green.
Xylem: Transport water and mineral salts
Has no protoplasm, organelles or end-walls to reduce resistance, has lignin for structural support
Phloem: Transport sugars (sucrose), amino acids and hormones

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Companion cells have many mitochondria for active transport of sugars, sieve plates have holes for rapid
flow of manufactured substances
Stem

Roots

Path of water through plants:

Transpiration: The movement of water due to the diffusion of water vapour through the stomata
Root Hair cell Root Cortex Cell Xylem Mesophyll Cell Stomata
Root hair cells provide a large surface area for absorption
Mechanism of water movement:
Transpiration causes tension (pull), pulling the water molecules upwards (cohesion)- unidirectional
The attraction of the water molecules to the sides of the xylem also contributes (adhesion)
Factors affecting rate of transpiration:
Wind velocity (High wind velocity increases transpiration)
Humidity (High humidity decreases transpiration)
Temperature (High temperature increases transpiration)
Light intensity (High light intensity increases transpiration)
A potometer is the apparatus used to measure the rate of transpiration
Wilting:
When more water is lost from transpiration than can be taken up by the roots.
Lose turgor pressure.
Plant adaptation to different environments
Desert plants (Xerophytes):

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Leaves reduced to spines for small surface area

Leaves have a thick, waxy cuticle
Stems swollen to store water
Roots shallow and spreading
Stomata are closed during the day
Pond/Aquatic plants (Hydrophytes):
Produce little or no xylem
No root hair cells
No waxy cuticle
Have extensive system of air spaces in their stem for gas exchange
Translocation:
The movement of substances through the phloem (multidirectional)
Goes form sources to sinks
Source region of production or storage (eg. Leaves)
Sink region of use (eg. Fruit, seeds, roots)
Important for the transport of pesticides
Double circulatory system:
Heart Lungs (carries blood to get oxygen) Heart Body (carries oxygen to cells) Heart
Blood passes through the heart twice in one complete circulation
The heart beat
1) Atrial systole (contraction) - Both atria contract to fill ventricles with blood. Bicuspid and tricuspid
valves are pushed open.
2) Ventricular systole both ventricles contract pushing blood into the aorta and pulmonary artery.
Bicuspid and tricuspid close, while semilunar valves open.
3) Ventricle diastole (relax) ventricles relax and the heart refills with blood. The cycle begins again.

Components of blood:
Erythrocytes (Red blood cell) - transport oxygen, no nucleus, contain haemoglobin
Phagocytes and lymphocytes (white blood cell) - immune system, phagocytosis and production of
antibodies.

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Plasma - mostly water, transport of ions and soluble nutrients

Platelets - helps cause clotting - fibrinogen + thrombin (enzyme) = insoluble fibrin threads. Fibrin threads
form a mesh to trap red blood cells and form a plug to seal the cut.
Blood vessels:
The arteries carry blood at high pressure away from the heart.
Thick outer wall, thick inner layer of muscle and elastic fibres, narrow lumen
The veins carry blood at low pressure back into the heart.
Thin outer wall, thin inner layer of muscle and elastic fibres, wide lumen. Veins have one-way valves.
The capillaries carry blood to and from the bodys cells.
Very thin wall made of a single layer of cells, narrow lumen (diameter of one red blood cell).
Main blood vessels:
Kidneys: Renal Artery and Vein
Intestine: Artery to gut, Hepatic portal vein (directly to liver)
Liver: Hepatic Artery and Vein
Lungs: Pulmonary Artery and Vein
Heart: Aorta and Vena cava
Coronary heart disease:
Blockage of the arteries of the heart
Caused by deposits of fatty tissues (cholesterol): atherosclerosis
Can cause heart attacks
Causes: Stress, unhealthy diet, inactivity, genetics
Prevention: eat healthy, exercise, stress control
Tissue fluid and Lymph
- Plasma and white blood cells exit capillaries and fill the spaces around tissues as tissue fluid
- Helps supply these tissues with nutrients
- Leaves capillaries on artery side due to high pressure (can re-enter on venial side)
Respiration is the chemical reactions that break down nutrients to release energy.
Uses for energy: protein synthesis, muscle contraction, cell division, active transport, growth, the passage
of nerve impulses and maintenance of the bodys internal temperature

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Aerobic respiration: Release of large amounts of energy in the presence of oxygen.

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
Anaerobic respiration: Release of small amounts of energy in the absence of oxygen.
In muscles in humans:
C6H12O6 2C3H6O3 + Energy
In yeast:
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + Energy
Air from the environment travels through:
1 trachea
2 bronchi
Many bronchioles
Millions of alveoli
Inhalation (breathing in):
Diaphragm contracts and makes your chest cavity larger
Internal intercostal muscles relax while external intercostal muscles contract
Ribs move up and outwards further increasing thoracic cavity (chest) volume
Increase in volume of chest cavity decreases pressure. Air from atmosphere enters the lungs.
Opposite for exhaling (breathing out)
Comparing inhaled and exhaled air:
Inhaled Air: Oxygen = 21%, Carbon Dioxide = 0.03%
Exhaled Air: Oxygen = 16%, Carbon Dioxide = 4%
Gas exchange is possible due to difference in concentrations
Water vapour concentration and temperature is also affected

How are lungs adapted for gas exchange?

Numerous alveoli for large surface area of gas exchange
Alveolar walls are one cell thick for short distance of diffusion
Alveoli are richly supplied with blood capillaries to maintain steep O 2 and CO2 concentration gradients

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Air is warmed and moistened when entering the nasal cavity, speeding up rate of diffusion
Alveoli have a thin film of moisture to dissolve gases for exchange
Factors influencing breathing rate:
Fitness, Size, Lifestyle (like smoking and eating habits), Gender, Age, Exercise (pH and carbon dioxide
concentration)
Testing for presence of carbon dioxide:
Limewater test (cloudy in presence of carbon dioxide)
Hydrogen carbonate indicator (yellow = acidic, red=neutral, purple = alkaline)
Mucus: To help trap dust particles
Cilia; move the mucus upward towards the oesophagus, so the mucus can be swallowed and all dirt
particles and pathogens can be destroyed
Excretion: the removal of toxic materials, waste products of metabolic processes, or substances in excess
of requirement, from the body.
Functions of Kidney
-Urine formation
-Regulation of blood pressure
-Secretion of hormones
Urine formation:
1) Ultrafiltration (Glomerulus and Bowmans capsule)
Small molecules in the blood leave the blood plasma through holes in the basement membrane of the
glomerulus. This fluid is called the filtrate.
- The basement membrane is partially permeable
- The efferent and afferent arterioles have different thicknesses to create high pressure.

2) Selective reabsortption (proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, collecting
duct)
Useful substances such as all glucose, all amino acids, some water and some mineral salts are taking back
into the blood

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- Most urea and other waste products remain in the nephron to be passed to the urinary bladder.
Kidney Ureter Urinary bladder Urethra
Osmoregulation:
Occurs in the collecting duct:
-Low water potential in the blood causes the hypothalamus in the brain to cause the pituitary gland to
release ADH
-ADH makes the walls of the collecting duct more permeable to water
-More water is taken from the filtrate and back into the blood
-Less urine, and more concentrated urine is produced
Opposite for high water potential in the blood
Excess salts will result in a very low water potential in the blood plasma. More ADH will be released and
a larger volume of water will be reabsorbed into the blood plasma. This will cause high blood pressure
Eating lots of proteins will mean the liver deaminates more amino acids to form urea. Greater urea
production means the urine will contain a large amount of urea and be very concentrated.
Dialysis
Maintaining blood glucose and protein levels, as a dialysis machine removes urea from the blood stream
The dialysis fluid is special controlled (example equal glucose concentration to a healthy person)
The dialysis tube has a semi-permeable wall
The dialysis fluid and blood flow in opposite directions
Kidney transport vs dialysis:
Factors to think about:
Cost
Tissue rejection
Availability of kidneys
Permanent vs temporary solution
Risks of surgery
Time consuming/affects a persons life