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ABSTRACT
Articial cranial modication is one of the most often documented types of intentional intervention on the
human skeleton in the anthropological record. A female cranium exhibiting headshaping recently came to light
at the Early Byzantine site of Maroneia, in Thrace, northern Greece. Headshaping was practiced by several
different population groups during the migration period (1st9th c. AD), but was unknown in Byzantine
customs. Homogeneity in burial customs, evidenced by the skeletons position and orientation and by
cemetery topography, strongly supports the hypothesis that this burial belonged to a Christianised citizen
who had the right to be buried in a common Christian cemetery. Headshaping provides strong evidence for the
cultural adaptability and complexity of Early Byzantine society at Maroneia, an important provincial urban
centre of the Byzantine Empire. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Key words: circular cranial modication; burial customs; migration period; Byzantium; Greece
Introduction
Early Byzantine period (4th8th c. AD) was marked by
frequent geopolitical changes and signicant population movements into and within Europe, including
the Balkans. Historical sources indicate that people
from different religions and ethnicities were not always
in conict with each other during Byzantine times, but
peacefully coexisted within the generally Christian,
Orthodox society. Furthermore, the large territorial
extent of the Byzantine Empire had lead to the creation
of a much diversied population. Different population
groups were distinguished by their origin, language,
religious beliefs and customs (Lefort, 2006). This study
attempts to explore the cultural diversity of the Early
Byzantine society through the rst case of articial
cranial modication that was uncovered at the site of
Maroneia in the northern Greek region of Thrace.
The expansion of cranial modication in the area
of Europe is related to the migration period during
the 1st9th c. AD (Fo`thi, 2000). Several articially
modied skulls from historical times have been
uncovered in Western Europe (Delisle, 1889; Kiszely,
* Correspondence to: Wiener Laboratory, American School of Classical
Studies, 54 Souidias street, Athens GR-106 76, Greece.
e-mail: voula_tritsaroli@hotmail.com
465
Materials
The Byzantine site of Maroneia, situated today in the
areas of Paleochora and Aghios Charalambos, lies approximately 3 km southeast of the modern village of
Maroneia in southern Rodopi (Figure 1). Burial grounds
have been identied both inside and outside the
Byzantine city walls of Maroneia (Triantafyllos, 1973;
Aliprantis, 1994; Karadima, 1994, 1995; Aliprantis,
1996; Doukata, 1996; Doukata-Demertzi, 1997).
Extramural burials presently include graves in the area
of the ancient theatre (Figure 2) and distributed among
contemporary farms located mainly to the north and
east of the fortied city.
Archaeological and historical research reveals that
cemeteries during the Early Byzantine period were only
allowed outside city walls, whereas burials in later
periods could be placed within fortied cities (Marki,
1990; Kourkoutidou-Nikolaidou, 1995; 1997; Doukata-Demertzi, 1997). Burials from the extramural
cemetery at Maroneia consequently belong to the
Early Byzantine period. Furthermore, archaeological
evidence shows that the ancient theatre was abandoned in the 5th c. AD; this date represents a terminus
post quem for the cemetery burials. The individual
466
P. Tritsaroli
Figure 2. Ancient theatre of Maroneia (courtesy of C. Karadima, archives of the IQ EPCA, Komotini) (top) and Early Christian graves at
the ancient theatre (drowning by N. Hatzidakis, archives of the IQ EPCA, Komotini (bottom). This gure is available in colour online at
wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/oa.
467
Methods
Determination of sex was carried out using dimorphic
aspects of the pelvis (Bruzek, 2002), while age-at-death
was estimated from morphological changes of the pubic
symphysis and auricular surface, in accordance with
Buikstra & Uberlaker (1994). Stature calculations focused
on femoral length (Olivier, 1960; Olivier & Tissier,
1975a; Olivier & Tissier, 1975b) to achieve results
comparable with other Greek skeletal series from the
same time period (Tritsaroli, 2006a). Several bone and
dental paleopathological lesions were recorded (following Buikstra & Uberlaker, 1994). Although detailed
results of the general skeletal features of this sample are
provided elsewhere (Tritsaroli, 2006b), including
paleodemography, skeletal markers of occupational
Table 1. Number of cranial and mandibular measurements, means and standard deviations (SD) for the adults and the modied skull
according to sex determination. The left side was included for the pair measurements.
Measurements (in mm.)
Males
Females
Unknown sex
Means
SD
Basion-bregma height
Maximum frontal breadth
Foramen magnum length
Porion-bregma height
Biauricular breadth
Maximum cranial breadth
Parietal arch
Occipital arch
Mastoid length
Mandibular length
Bigonial width
Mandibular angle
Minimum ramus breadth
Maximum ramus height
5
5
5
6
6
7
8
11
14
7
7
9
10
5
2
3
1
3
3
3
3
4
3
4
4
4
4
3
3
2
3
3
3
4
5
5
6
2
2
3
3
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
2
5
1
1
2
3
1
139
117
34
128
119
134
130
111
34
73,1
98
27,9
33,6
64,6
5.8
4.8
1.9
6.9
5.1
3.1
9.6
7.5
3.4
5.27
8.35
6.19
2.5
5.59
144
116
30
136
116
126
113
113
37
70
93
27
32
59
P. Tritsaroli
468
skulls and mandibles, with statistical signicance set
at 0.05. Finally, bivariate plots analysis was undertaken
using cranial measurements to compare heights,
breadths and arches; analysis focuses on the four
following sets: porion-bregma height versus basionbregma height; maximum cranial breadth versus
maximum frontal breadth; maximum frontal breadth
versus parietal arch and maximum cranial breadth
versus parietal arch.
Unintentional modication can be caused by
nutritional, hormonal or genetic factors, but also
habitual positioning or commonly preferred postures
during sleep (Dingwall, 1931; Rhode & Arriaza,
2006; Lekovic et al., 2007); the most common
features which are typically associated with intentional headshaping are cranial synostosis and
positional deformations. Cranial synostosis is a
pathological condition that describes the premature
fusion of one or more sutures of the skull (Cohen,
1980). When sutures fuse prematurely, head growth
occurs along the axis of the fused suture (Glass et al.,
2004). The effects of articial cranial modication
and cranial synostosis appear similar, but headshaping is produced by environmental factors, while
many cranial synostoses seem primarily to be
genetically induced (OLoughlin, 1996). For the
individual 01/T05 premature cranial synostosis is
scored as present or absent (White, 1996). Premature
synostosis is identied by a marked differential fusion
between one suture and other major vault sutures
(the suture scored as presenting premature synostosis
must be obliterated both endocranially and ectocranially when other sutures are still open).
Positional deformations, also called deformational
modications of the calvarium, may result from
accidental and prolonged application of pressure on
the posterior portion of the skull through, for example,
sleeping regularly in a supine position on a relatively
hard surface during infancy and childhood (Ortner &
Putschar, 1981; Di Rocco et al., 1998; Bridges et al.,
2002; Tubbs et al., 2006). The most common form of
positional deformation is deformational nonsynostotic
plagiocephaly; it is characterized by signicant
asymmetry that affects the cranial vault, face and skull
base (Littleeld et al., 2005). In order to exclude the
possibility of asymmetries on the skull 01/T05, nakedeye observation is used.
Analyses of intentional cranial modication consider
both skull shape and deforming devices, such as
boards, pads or stones applied to the head of a newborn
when the cranium and calvaria are malleable. The
abnormal concavities and convexities on the modied
skulls ectocranial surface are recorded; additionally,
Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Results
Analysis of the adult sample (Tritsaroli, 2006b) showed
eight males and nine females. Most of the adults (16 of
19 for whom age-at-death could be estimated) were
over 30 years old. Stature was estimated at 169.8 cm
for males (n 6) and 156.2 cm for females (n 4).
Signs of healed trauma were identied on upper limbs,
clavicles, thorax and the vertebral column. Three of the
four individuals showing trauma were females. Low
incidence of caries and periodontal disease coupled
with a high incidence of calculus suggest that mens
diet contained more meat, while women frequently
consumed food rich in carbohydrates (cereals, bread)
and sugar (fruits) (Tritsaroli, 2006b).
The skeleton 01/T05 with the shaped head belongs
to a female 4450 years old, very well preserved. Her
Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 21: 464478 (2011)
469
No differences were found for the mandibular
dimensions of the modied skull (Figure 4); however,
the minimum ramus breadth and maximum ramus
height approached lower limits of statistical signicance.
Comparison using bivariate plots analysis shows
that: (1) porion-bregma height versus basion bregma
height of the modied skull is grouped with males
(Figure 5), (2) maximum frontal breadth of the
modied skull is placed among females (Figure 6,
Figure 7) and (3) parietal arch versus maximun cranial
breadth of the modied skull are evidently smaller from
both males and females (Figure 8). Measurements taken
on four individuals, two females, one male and one of
unknown sex, although not appropriate for statistical
analysis, showed notable differences between these
unmodied skulls and the modied skull 01/T05
(Table 2). These measurements pertain mostly to the
face: frontal arch, nasal, upper facial and orbital
heights. All of them were found to be higher for the
modied skull. The metric features taken together
show that the skull 01/T05 is narrower and higher than
unmodied skulls, resulting from intentional modication.
The skull presents no depressions or grooves at the
level of the sutures that could indicate premature
closure. Furthermore, all cranial sutures show similar
degree of fusion and thus premature cranial synostosis
is scored as absent. In superior view, the skull is
Figure 3. Means and standard deviation values for the cranial measurements for the modied and the unmodied adult skulls. Black
square, modied skull. Standard deviation values are reported in Table 1.
470
P. Tritsaroli
Figure 4. Means and standard deviation values for the mandibular measurements for the modied and the unmodied adult skulls.
Black square, modied skull. Standard deviation values are reported in Table 1.
in the middle of the frontal bone associated with a postcoronal transverse groove and a concavity at the
squamous portion of the occipital were also observed
(Figure 10). The bone is strongly convex and elevated
at the bregma. The bunning of the skulls nuchal area is,
in fact, suggestive of articial modication, while the
shape of the frontal bone is a type of distortion that can
only be achieved by manipulation with pressure, which
causes the frontal bone to recede posteriorly at an
Figure 5. Bivariate plots of porion-bregma height vs. basion-bregma height. Analysis made on six individuals. Open circles, female
unmodied skulls; open triangles, male unmodied skulls; black square, modied female skull.
471
Figure 6. Bivariate plots of maximum cranial breadth vs. maximum frontal breadth. Analysis made on six individuals. Open circles,
female unmodied skulls; open triangles, male unmodied skulls; black square, modied female skull.
increased rate (Schendel et al., 1980). The superiormost portions of the occipital and parietal bones
extend posterosuperiorly resulting in a long loaf-like
appearance in superior view (Dingwall, 1931; Anto`n,
1989). The aforementioned distortions are also
conrmed by evidence from the sagittal section of
the skull by CT scan (Figure 11a) and x-ray
(Figure 11b): the diploe of the cranial vault is
underdeveloped in the frontal, postbregmatic and
Figure 7. Bivariate plots of parietal arch vs. maximum frontal breadth. Analysis made on six individuals. Open circles, female unmodied
skulls; open triangles, male unmodied skulls; black square, modied female skull.
P. Tritsaroli
472
Figure 8. Bivariate plots of parietal arch vs. maximum cranial breadth. Analysis made on eight individuals. Open circles, female
unmodied skulls; open triangles, male unmodied skulls; black square, modied female skull.
Discussion
Articial cranial modication (headshaping) is among
the most common manifestations of culturally induced
modications of head shape during infancy (Ortner &
Putschar, 1981; Aufderheide & Rodriguez-Martin,
Table 2. Row measurements for the frontal arch, interorbital breadth, nasal height, upper facial height and orbital height (left) on four
adult skulls and the modied skull.
Measurements (in mm.)
Frontal arch
Interorbital breadth
Nasal height
Upper facial height
Orbital height (left)
1st (female)
2nd (female)
3rd (male)
115
24
50
63
38
110
22
49
61
34
114
24
50
59
32
18
50
61
33
124
27
55
70
36
473
Neolithic samples indicates that headshaping was used
as a marker of social differences (Lorentz, 2003, 2004,
2005, 2009). Finally, evidence of headshaping dated to
the Roman period is reported from the Athenian Agora
(Lorentz, 2009).
The skull of the skeleton 01/T05 from the extra
mural cemetery of Maroneia shows evidence of
headshaping, a practice that so far is undocumented
in Early Byzantine cemetery samples from Greece. This
case is compared with two main types of headshaping
that are commonly adopted for classication, in
accordance with the methods used to achieve the
particular cranial shape (Anto`n, 1989; Kohn et al.,
1993):
(1)
Figure 10. Left lateral view of the modied skull 01/T05 without
the mandible.
P. Tritsaroli
474
Figure 11. Left lateral scan section (a) and left lateral x-ray (b) of the modied skull 01/T05.
475
attributed to Goths, who were present in the city
during the 4th and 5th c. AD (Pazaras, 1978). Another
example of ethnic differentiation comes from the Early
Byzantine cemetery at Akraiphnio (Tritsaroli, 2008),
where the position and orientation of one of the
skeletons suggested an association with Muslim
traditions.
At Maroneia, the generally homogeneous burial
customs and scarcity of offerings and accompanying
objects within burials seem to indicate no differences in
ethnic, cultural or religious afliation among the
deceased. The single primary burial of the woman with
the shaped head in question, therefore, appears to
resemble the rest of the burials in the cemetery, as well
as other funerary samples from the same time period
studied elsewhere in Greece (Tritsaroli, 2006a).
Conclusions
During the turbulent Early Byzantine period, the city of
Maroneia experienced continuous occupation and
development that chiey resulted from its strategic
location at a crossroad between the Balkans and
the East. Maroneias survival through these trials can
be attributed in large part to the ability of the local
people to adapt to changes imposed upon them. The
practice of annular cranial modication now detected
at Maroneia seems to indicate the presence of an
individual possessing a different culture, (Buchet, 1988;
Pilet et al., 1994; Buchet, 1997) who made an effort to
demonstrate group cohesion (Torres-Rouff, 2002)
while also maintaining the physical identity of a
larger, contemporary or recently eclipsed population
group. The specimen examined in the present study
exemplies the biocultural complexity of Early
Byzantine Maroneia. Absence of differential burial
treatment, accompanying objects and artifacts, however, suggests this Maroneian woman with the shaped
head, while maintaining different traditions, was an
integrated member of the local Early Byzantine society.
Based on skeletal, archaeological and historical
evidence, we can conclude that this so-far unique burial
at Maroneia belonged to a Christianised citizen who
bore a distinctive mark of her cultural heritage, but who
still had the right to be buried in a common Christian
cemetery in accordance with the customs of the citys
other inhabitants. The assimilation of an individual
with articial skull modication into Early Byzantine
Maroneian society provides strong evidence of cultural
variability and reects the cosmopolitan character of
the city. Future biogeochemical analysis, along with
greater understanding of the geochemical and environInt. J. Osteoarchaeol. 21: 464478 (2011)
476
mental settings of Northern Greece and the Balkans,
will allow for inferences to be made regarding the
origins of the female with the shaped head and other
individuals buried in the Maroneia cemetery. Such
additional study will also begin to elucidate migration
patterns in Maroneia during the Early Byzantine
period.
Acknowledgements
The analysis of human skeletal remains from Maroneia
was part of a project funded by the 20052006 J.
Lawrence Angel Fellowship in Human Skeletal Studies
(Wiener Laboratory, ASCSA). My thanks go to the
archaeologist and excavator of the site Chryssa Karadima of the IQ EPCA at Komotini for giving me
permission to study this sample. I am grateful to Sherry
Fox, director of the Wiener Laboratory, for x-ray
analysis, but mostly for her advice during this project.
I also extend my gratitude to Dimitrios Chondros,
Director of the Radiological Unit of Evangelismos
General Hospital in Athens, tutor Dimitrios Exarchos
and technician Dora Sidiropoulou for completion of
the CT. Finally, I would like to thank Anastasia
Papathanasiou (EPASPE at Athens), Sophia Doukata
(12th EBA at Kavala), Florent Detroit (MNHN in
Paris), Nathan K. Harper (University of Nevada)
and Eleanna Prevedorou (ASU) for their comments
and suggestions.
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