TOPIC 1

UNIT 1

1. Explain the importance of water as a solvent in transport, including its dipole nature.
- Water is a triangular polar molecule.
- It is electrically neutral but carries an unequal distribution of electrical charge within it.
- Nucleus of oxygen atom draws electrons (negatively charged) away from hydrogen nuclei (positively
charged).
- There is a net negative charge at oxygen atom and a net positive charge at hydrogen atoms.
- Water is able to dissolve ionic substances and organic molecules with ionised groups.
- Hydrogen bonds are formed between poles of water molecule and charged ions/ ionised groups.
- Water has a high specific heat capacity meaning it does not change temperature easily.
- It is a good solvent in transport as it minimises fluctuations in temperature keeping body temperature
constant (aids homeostasis / thermoregulation)

2. Distinguish between monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides (glycogen and

starch amylose and amylopectin) and relate their structures to their roles in providing and
storing energy (-glucose and cellulose are not required in this topic).
- Monosaccharides are carbohydrates with single small molecules (monomers)
- Disaccharides are carbohydrates made of 2 monosaccharides chemically combined.
- Polysaccharides are made of many monosaccharides chemically combined (polymer).
- Monosaccharides and Disaccharides are soluble in water while polysaccharides are insoluble.
- Starch is made of 2 polysaccharides ( amylose and amylopectin).
- Amylose and amylopectin are polymers of a-glocose.
- Amylose is an unbranched chain while amylopectin is branched.
- Starch is useful in storing energy ( in plants) and providing energy (in animals and plants) as it is
compact and insoluble but is readily hydrolysed to form sugar.
- Iodine in potassium iodide is used to test for starch ( blue- black colour in starch)
- Glycogen is a polymer of a-glucose like amylopectin but is larger and more highly branched.
- Glycogen is used as an energy store in animals.
- Glycogen is soluble in water while amylopectin is insoluble.

3. Describe how monosaccharides join to form disaccharides (sucrose, lactose and maltose) and
polysaccharides (glycogen and amylose) through condensation reactions forming glycosidic
bonds, and how these can be split through hydrolysis reactions.
- Monosaccharides are combined to form disaccharides/ polysaccharides and water by condensation
reactions.
- Monosaccharides are joined by glycosidic linkages (strong covalent bond) after the removal of water.
- Disaccharides and polysaccharides are broken down into monosaccharides in hydrolysis reaction.
- Addition of water molecule causes the splitting of the glycosidic linkages.
Monosaccharide(s) + monosaccharide(s) disaccharide/polysaccharide + water

4. Describe the synthesis of a triglyceride by the formation of ester bonds during condensation
reactions between glycerol and three fatty acids and recognise differences between saturated
and unsaturated lipids.
- Triglycerides are formed by condensation reactions between glycerol and 3 fatty acids.
- Glycerol and a fatty acid react by condensation (forms an ester bond) to form a monoglyceride and

water.
- Monoglyceride undergoes condensation reaction with another fatty acid to form a diglyceride and
water.
- Diglyceride then reacts with another fatty acid by condensation to form a triglyceride and water.
- Removal of water during the condensation reactions form ester bonds between glycrol and each fatty
acid.
- Saturated lipids have saturated fatty acids while unsaturated lipids have unsaturated fatty acids.
- Saturated lipids do not have any double bonds between carbon atoms while unsaturated lipids have
double bond(s) between carbon atoms.
- Unsaturated fatty acids (hence unsaturated lipids) have kinked hydrocarbon tails as a result of double
bond while Saturated fatty acids do not.
- Unsaturated lipids melt at a lower temperature than saturated lipids because kinked hydrocarbon tail
result in atoms further apart.
- Double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids do not allow close packing of atoms.

5. Explain why many animals have a heart and circulation (mass transport to overcome
limitations of diffusion in meeting the requirements of organisms).
- Animals need a heart to pump blood at high pressure to all parts of the body.
- Animals have a small surface area to volume ratio.
- Animals have a high metabolic rate ( high energy demand)
- Animals need a heart and circulatory system to deliver oxygen to all tissues and remove waste.
- Animals need a circulatory system to transport heat and regulate body temperature.
- Body of an animal is too large for gas exchange to happen by diffusion ( diffusion alone is not
sufficient).

6. Describe the cardiac cycle (atrial systole, ventricular systole and diastole) and relate the
structure and operation of the mammalian heart to its function, including the major blood
vessels.
- Atrium contracts entering the state of atrial systole.
- Contraction causes volume of atrium to decrease pushing blood into the ventricles through
bicuspid( left)/ tricuspid ( right) valves.
- Contraction of atrium also blocks off the veins delivering blood to prevent backflow.
- Atrium now relaxes and becomes in the state of atrial diastole.
- Ventricles contract forcefully and are in the state of ventricular systole.
- Contraction causes volume of ventricle to decrease hence increasing blood pressure.
- High pressure closes atrio-ventricular valves( bicuspid/ tricuspid) and opens semilunar valves pushing
blood into the aorta (left)/ pulmonary artery (right).
- Ventricles now relax and are in the state of ventricular diastole
- High blood pressure in aorta/ pulmonary artery causes semilunar valves to shut.

7. Explain how the structures of blood vessels (capillaries, arteries and veins) relate to their
functions.
- Arteries carry blood away from the heart at high pressure (so blood reaches all cells)
- Arteries do not have valves to allow constant flow of blood ( so blood pressure is not decreased).
- Arteries have a small lumen to maintain high blood pressure.
- Veins carry blood back to the heart at low pressure.
- Veins have valves to prevent backflow of blood due to low blood pressure.

- Veins have a large lumen so pressure is lower.

- Collegen fibres provide strength in arteries and veins.
- Elastic fibres make walls of arteries and veins elastic fibres.
- Collegen and elastic fibres help to withstand blood pressure and prevent rupturing of vessels.
- Thick and thin muscle layer in arteries and veins help flow of blood by contracting.
- Capillaries transport blood to individual cells.
- Capillaries have thin walls ( 1 layer of cells) so it has short diffusion distance.
- Capillaries are numerous and highly branched so it has a large surface area for diffusion.
- Capillaries have a narrow lumen and small diameter so short diffusion distance and keeps all cells
nearby.

8. Describe the blood clotting process (thromboplastin release, conversion of prothrombin to

thrombin and fibrinogen to fibrin) and its role in cardiovascular disease (CVD).
- Platelets collect and adhere (stick together) at site forming a platelet plug.
- Platelets release prostaglandins to constrict damaged blood vessel (vasoconstriction).
- Platelets and damaged tissue release thromboplastin.
- Thromboplastin converts prothrombin in plasma into thrombin enzyme.
- Thrombin converts fribrinogen into fibrin fibres.
- Fibrin fibres trap blood cells forming a blood clot.
- Blood clots form when lesions are formed in arteries ( endothelium ruptures).
- Blood clots impede blood flow in arteries

9. Explain the course of events that leads to atherosclerosis (endothelial damage, inflammatory
response, plaque formation, raised blood pressure).
- Fat is built up under endothelium of arteries.
- Fat deposits (atheroma) under endothelium impede blood flow raising blood pressure.
- Fat deposits reduce elasticity of artery walls also increasing blood pressure.
- High blood pressure ruptures endothelium of artery (atherosclerosis) causing plague formation.
- Inflammatory response is triggered and blood clot (thrombus) forms.

10. Describe the factors that increase the risk of CVD (genetic, diet, age, gender, high blood
pressure, smoking and inactivity).
- smoking: - nicotine stimulates adrenaline production
increases heart rate and causes vasoconstriction high blood pressure
- CO combines with haemoglobin irreversibly reduces ability of blood to transport oxygen

11. Describe the benefits and risks of treatments for CVD (antihypertensives, plant statins,
anticoagulants and platelet inhibitory drugs).
Antihypertensives: lowers blood pressure
- Diuretics: Benefits: - reduce blood pressure by decreasing blood volume.
- increasing diuretic activity of kidneys ( increases water eliminated from body)
Risks:
- with enhanced loss of water essential ions in plasma are also reduced.
- ACE inhibitors: Benefits: enhances vasodilation > volume of blood vessels increase so pressure of
blood is lowered.
Risks: Delays inflammatory response longer time for platelets to collect/ aggregate.

- Beta blockers: Benefits: reduces heart rate so blood flows through vessels less frequently.
Risks: oxygen defiency in cells
- Calcium- channel blockers: Benefits: widens blood vessels
Risks: Delays inflammatory response
Plant statins: inhibits cholesterol synthesis in liver
Anticoagulants and platelet-inhibitory drugs:
Benefits: prevent formation of blood clots in arteries leading to CVD
Risks: - Increased blood loss when wounded.
- Increased chances of pathogen entry into blood.

12. Analyse and interpret data on the possible significance for health of blood cholesterol levels
and levels of high-density lipoproteins (HDLs) and low-density lipoproteins (LDLs). Describe
the evidence for a causal relationship between blood cholesterol levels (total cholesterol and
LDL cholesterol) and CVD.
- Most cholesterol exist as LDL (low-density lipoproteins)( Bad cholesterol) which are saturated fats.
- Excess LDL are deposited under endothelium of artery walls enhansing plague formation ( hence
increase blood pressure).
- HDL ( high-density lipoprotein)( Good cholesterol) regulates LDL storage ( deposition) by promotting
LDL excretion.
*Benefits of vitamins are its antioxidant properties.
- supply hydrogen to stabilise free radicals.

TOPIC 2

1. Explain how models such as the fluid mosaic model of cell membranes are interpretations of
data used to develop scientific explanations of the structure and properties of cell membranes.
- Fluid mosiac model- fluid: components are able to move past each other
- mosaic: made of diverse elements.
- Cell membranes act as a physical barrier as cell contents flow out when membrane is ruptured.
- Hydrophillic compounds enter cells less readily than hydrophobic compounds, this implies that lipids
are a component of the plasma membrane.
- Lipids obtained from cell membranes are phospholipids, indicating that the plasma membrane is a
bilayer.
- Phospholipids have hydrophilic phosphate heads and hydrophobic fatty acid tails.
- In contact with water, phospholipids are arranged into a bilayer with hydrocarbon tails on the inside.
- Chemical analysis of plasma membranes find that there is not enough lipids present to form the entire
cell surface in a bilayer.
- This indicates that the plasma membrane consists of other components.
- Proteins are also present in the plasma membrane.
Integral proteins are partially or fully embedded in bilayer while peripheral proteins are on the surface of
the bilayer.
- Proteins may be channel proteins, enzymes, receptors or antigens.
- When components of plasma membrane are tagged with a dye, they are observed to be continually on
the move( fluid).
- Cholesterol in plasma membrane increases rigidity so plasma membrane is not too fluid.

- Glycoproteins on the surface of the cell membrane are used for cell to cell recognition or as receptors.
- Non- polar molecules can diffuse in and out.
- Polar molecules diffuse through channel proteins

2. Explain what is meant by osmosis in terms of the movement of free water molecules through
a partially permeable membrane (consideration of water potential is not required).
- Osmosis is the movement of water molecule through a partially permeable membrane.
- Water molecules move from a solution with high concentration of water molecules to a region with
lower concentration of water molecules.

3. Explain what is meant by passive transport (diffusion, facilitated diffusion), active transport
(including the role of ATP), endocytosis and exocytosis and describe the involvement of carrier
and channel proteins in membrane transport.
- Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of low
concentration ( membrane is permeable to molecule).
- Molecules use their KE to diffuse ( No ATP).
- Diffusion is affected by temperature, steepness of concentration gradient, surface area of diffusion.
- Facilitated diffusion is the diffusion of molecules across a membrane through channel proteins.
- Channel proteins are specific for molecule.
- Membrane is not permeable to specific molecules in facilitated diffusion.
- Molecule use KE to diffuse ( no energy from metabolism required).
- Active transport is the movement of molecules against concentration gradient using ATP through
carrier proteins.
- Molecule enters carrier protein and ATP activates carrier protein to change shape.
- Changed shape of carrier protein releases molecule.
- ADP and Pi is released from carrier protein which then reverts to original shape.
- Endocytosis is bulk transport involving the uptake of molecules by the formation of vesicles.
- Exocytosis is bulk transport involving the export of molecules by the formation of vesicles.
- Bulk transport (Exo/endo) requires ATP.

4. Describe how membrane structure can be investigated practically, e.g. by the effect of
alcohol concentration or temperature on membrane permeability.
- High temperature denatures proteins (breaks H-bondsin proteins) in plasma membrane.
- Phospholipids are soluble in alcohol so cell membrane looses integrity/ structure.

5. Describe the properties of gas exchange surfaces in living organisms (large surface area to
volume ratio, thickness of surface, difference in concentration) and explain how the structure of
the mammalian lung is adapted for rapid gaseous exchange.
- Lungs contain many alveoli.
- Alveoli are tiny and sack-like in a folded shape resulting in a large surface area for diffusion.
- Alveoli have thin surfaces ( 1 layer of epithelium cells) so diffusion distance is small.
- Alveoli are wrapped in a network of capillaries so surface area for diffusion is large.
- Alveoli are wrapped in a capillary network so diffusion distance is small.
- Blood flow in capillaries mean concentration gradient is maintained so gas exchange is continuous.

6. Describe the basic structure of an amino acid (structures of specific amino acids are not
required) and the formation of polypeptides and proteins (as amino acid monomers linked by
peptide bonds in condensation reactions) and explain the significance of a proteins primary
structure in determining its three-dimensional structure and properties (globular and fibrous
proteins and types of bonds involved in three-dimensional structure).
- Amino acids contain an amino group, a carboxyl group, a side chain and a hydrogen atom.
Protein synthesis
- RNA polymerase initiates transcription and binds to the DNA.
- RNA polymerase also unwinds the double helix.
- Transcription occurs at antisense strand which acts as a template.
- Free nucleotides align by complementary base pairing to template strand and are held by H-bonds.
- RNA polymerase removes 2 phosphates from each nucleotide which are then held together by
phosphodiester bonds.
- mRNA leaves the nucleus and is transported to the cytoplasm.
- Translation of mRNA occurs at ribosomal RNA.
- ribosomal RNA 'reads' codons of mRNA.
- tRNA-amino acid complex with anticodons align with mRNA and are temporarily held with hydrogen
bonds.
- peptide linkages from between amino acids ( as a result of condensation) forming a polypeptide chain.
- The primary structure of a protein is the sequence of amino acids in its molecule.
- Bonds formed between amino acids form its secondary structure hence determining its shape.
- Fibrous proteins are long and much- coiled (and are insoluble).
- Globular proteins are spherical shaped ( and are soluble).

7. Explain the mechanism of action and specificity of enzymes in terms of their threedimensional structure and explain that enzymes are biological catalysts that reduce activation
energy, catalysing a wide range of intracellular and extracellular reactions.
- Enzymes are biological catalysts made of protein.
- Enzymes are specific to their substrates therefore their active sites are unique in shape.
- Enzymes lower the activation energy of a reaction.
- Enzymes increases rate of reaction.

8. Describe how enzyme concentrations can affect the rates of reactions and how this can be
investigated practically by measuring the initial rate of reaction.
- As enzyme concentration increases rate of reaction increases.
- More substrates are occupied with an enzyme
- Initial rate of reaction is measured before substrate/ product concentration has time to change.

9. Describe the basic structure of mononucleotides (as a deoxyribose or ribose linked to a

phosphate and a base, i.e. thymine, uracil, cytosine, adenine or guanine) and the structures of
DNA and RNA (as polynucleotides composed of mononucleotides linked through
condensation reactions) and describe how complementary base pairing and the hydrogen
bonding between two complementary strands are involved in the formation of the DNA double
helix.
- Mononucleotides are a deoxyribose or ribose molecule linkes to a phosphate and a base.

- DNA and RNA are polynucleotides, made of many momonucleotides linked by phosphodiester bonds
after condensation reaction.
- DNA strands are antiparallel with complementary bases joined by hydrogen bonds to form double
helix.

10. Describe DNA replication (including the role of DNA polymerase), and explain how
Meselson and Stahls classic experiment provided new data that supported the accepted theory
of replication of DNA and refuted competing theories.
- Helicase enzyme binds to DNA and unwinds the helix.
- Free nucleotides align by complementary base pairing and are held in place by hydrogen bonds.
- DNA polymerase bound to the DNA strand catalyses the condensation reaction between nucleotides.
- Nucleotides join together by phosphodiester bonds.
- 2 new DNA double helix are formed by semi- conservative replication.

11. Describe a gene as being a sequence of bases on a DNA molecule coding for a sequence of
amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
12. Outline the process of protein synthesis, including the role of transcription, translation,
messenger RNA, transfer RNA and the template (antisense) DNA strand (details of the
mechanism of protein synthesis on ribosomes are not required at IAS).
- Transcription producess mRNA from DNA.
- RNA polymerase unwinds the double helix.
- Transcription occurs at antisense strand which acts as a template.
- Free nucleotides align by complementary base pairing to template strand and are held by H-bonds.
- RNA polymerase removes 2 phosphates from each nucleotide (condensation reaction) which are then
held together by phosphodiester bonds.
- mRNA leaves the nucleus and is transported to the cytoplasm.
- Translation of mRNA into polypeptide chain occurs at ribosomal RNA.
- ribosomal RNA 'reads' codons of mRNA.
- tRNA-amino acid complex with anticodons align with mRNA and are temporarily held with hydrogen
bonds.
- peptide linkages from between amino acids forming a polypeptide chain.

13. Explain how errors in DNA replication can give rise to mutations and explain how cystic
fibrosis results from one of a number of possible gene mutations.
- Changes in the sequence of bases during DNA replication means mRNA produced during transcription
has the wrong sequence of bases to code for amino acids in translation.
- Different amino acid sequence is coded for during translation.
- A mutated/ faulty protein is made.
- Cystic fibrosis is a result of no/ faulty CFTR protein synthesised.
- Cystic fibrosis can be a result of gene mutation by deletion of 3 nucleotides.
- An amino acid is missing/ not coded for during translation.

14. Explain the terms gene, allele, genotype, phenotype, recessive, dominant, homozygote and

heterozygote, and explain monohybrid inheritance, including the interpretation of genetic

pedigree diagrams, in the context of traits such as cystic fibrosis, albinism, thalassaemia,
garden pea height and seed morphology.
- A gene is a sequence of bases on a DNA molecule coding for a sequence of amino acids in a
polypeptide chain.
- An allele is an alternative form of the same gene, occupying a specific position (locus) on a
chromosome.
- Genotype is the alleles carried by an organism.
- Phenotype is the characteristic displayed by an organism as a result of the genotype ( the way the
genotype is expressed).
- A recessive allele is an allele that only affects phenotype when dominant allele is absent ( when in a
homozygous state)
- A dominant allele affects the phenotype whether in the homozygous or heterozygous conditions.
- A homozygote is a diploid organism which inherited the same allele from both parents.
- A heterozygote is a diploid organism which inherited different alleles from each parent.

15. Describe the principles of gene therapy and distinguish between somatic and germ line
therapy.
- Gene therapy is the use of recombinant DNA technology( transfer of genes between organisms) to
overcome genetic diseases.
- Healthy gene is cut from DNA using restriction enzyme.
- Gene is added to a plasmid using a ligase enzyme.
- Plasmid forms a complex with a liposome which is administered to patient.
- Somatic cell tharapy targets somatic (diploid) cells.
- Germ line therapy targets germ cells (gametes)

16. Explain the uses of genetic screening: identification of carriers, preimplantation genetic
diagnosis and prenatal testing (amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling) and discuss the
implications of prenatal genetic screening.
- Genetic screening are used to identify carriers of a genetic disorder.
- Also used for prenatal testing of fetus ( amniocentesis( amniotic fluid) and chorionic villi sampling)