Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Table of Contents
Executive Summary ....................................................................................................................................... i
Nomenclature ............................................................................................................................................... iii
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 1
2. Existing Products, Prior Art and Applicable Patents ................................................................................ 3
2.1 Externally Charged Pneumatic Hybrid ............................................................................................... 3
2.2 Regenerative Pneumatic Hybrid ......................................................................................................... 5
2.3 Entirely electric powered systems ...................................................................................................... 7
2.4 Regenerative electric hybrid systems ................................................................................................. 7
2.5 Regenerative Flywheel Hybrid ........................................................................................................... 8
3. Customer Requirements and Engineering Design Specifications ........................................................... 10
3.1 Stakeholder Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 10
3.2 Customer Requirements and User Needs ......................................................................................... 12
3.3 Functions .......................................................................................................................................... 13
3.4 Constraints ........................................................................................................................................ 14
3.5 Engineering Specifications ............................................................................................................... 15
4. Market Research ..................................................................................................................................... 19
4.1 Current State of Mumbai Auto Rickshaws ....................................................................................... 19
4.2 Mumbai Auto Rickshaw Demographics ........................................................................................... 20
4.3 Stakeholder Research ....................................................................................................................... 21
4.4 Competition ...................................................................................................................................... 21
5. Design Concept Ideation ......................................................................................................................... 22
6. Preliminary Concept Selection and Justification .................................................................................... 25
7. Industrial Design ..................................................................................................................................... 27
7.1 Integration of Visual Hierarchy and Language................................................................................. 27
7.2 Future Industrial Design Choices ..................................................................................................... 28
8. Engineering Analyses and Experiments ................................................................................................. 29
8.1: Deceleration Effect of Compressor on Vehicle ............................................................................... 30
8.2: Power Required to Operate Compressor ......................................................................................... 33
8.3: Running the Compressor in Reverse to Propel the Rickshaw ......................................................... 36
9. Initial Drawing and Fabrication Package ................................................................................................ 40
9.1 Preliminary CAD .............................................................................................................................. 40
10. Prototype Development ........................................................................................................................ 44
10.1 Prototype Description and Purpose ................................................................................................ 44
10.2 Testing and Results ......................................................................................................................... 47
10.3 Prototype Design ............................................................................................................................ 49
10.2 Bill of Materials .............................................................................................................................. 52
10.5 Prototype Effectiveness .................................................................................................................. 53
11. Codes and Standards ............................................................................................................................ 54
Executive Summary
As the global population continues to climb, the environmental issues faced today will be
exacerbated if no action is taken. One of the major modern issues involves the increase in global greenhouse
emissions. The global average diameter of particulate matter, which contributes to greenhouse emissions is
2.5 micrometers. In contrast, India has one of the highest average PM diameters in the world ranging from
70 130 micrometers, which is drastically higher than the global average. About 50% of these emissions
are due to the transportation sector and 20% of those emissions are due to the ubiquitous auto rickshaw. To
tackle this problem, it is important to first address the sources of the emissions and the associated
technologies that have been researched and implemented in the industry to improve these conditions. After
investigating these technologies, a better understanding is achieved of the transportation sector to develop
a set of customer needs and engineering specifications. These are then used to implement a system to reduce
auto rickshaw emissions. Based on these specifications and desired functions, a proposal of concepts were
made and compared to determine the most effective system.
As the number of total vehicles on the planet has continued to climb, manufacturers and
governments have been pushing for new technologies to address the expected increase in emissions. These
technologies include hybrid and independent powertrain options through pneumatics, battery, and flywheel
systems. Battery and flywheel hybrid technologies have been used in mainstream consumer vehicles, while
pneumatic technology has been proven, but not implemented on a large scale. Comparison of these
developed technologies has revealed the advantages and disadvantages, and has helped determine specific
challenges that may arise when pursuing each type of technology as a solution.
In order to determine which type of technology might be most applicable to the audience, a
stakeholder analysis was conducted. Based on this analysis, the auto rickshaw driver was determined to be
the most influential and important for consideration when deciding and designing a particular emissions
reducing system. Auto rickshaw drivers earn an average of about 1,900 USD in major Indian cities, and are
mainly middle-aged Indian males. As a result, one of the main areas of consideration for potential
technology and system design was that it must have a short payback period. In the past decade, major cities
such as Mumbai have forced owners to convert their vehicles to CNG, which have a payback period of
about one year. This means that the proposed system must have a similar or better payback period. The fact
that most rickshaws have a lifetime of about ten years means that the selected system would have to have
the ability to retrofit into existing dimensional constraints. All of these considerations are focused around
the aspect of low cost, and can be achieved by focusing on improving fuel efficiency and as result will
reduce emissions of the overall vehicle. Improvement in fuel efficiency remains an important consideration
as the daily fuel costs contribute to over 50% of total costs for the driver. Therefore, targeting this aspect
has been the focus of the proposed conceptual designs.
Compiling and analyzing market research, researching existing technologies, and understanding
the main stakeholder for the auto rickshaw led to the development of several conceptual designs for
consideration. These concepts include the following: a Regenerative Pneumatic Hybrid, an Externally
Charged Pneumatic Hybrid, a Regenerative Electric Hybrid, an Entirely Electric Powertrain, and a
Regenerative Flywheel Hybrid. These five concepts were initially evaluated primarily on cost and technical
feasibility. After conducting a comparative analysis of the ideas, the pneumatic solutions were determined
to be the best method of addressing the stated problem. The regenerative pneumatic hybrid, specifically,
ranked highest in the overall comparison primarily due to its low cost and ease of implementation. This
idea of a pneumatic hybrid is not entirely unique as it has been proved by Peugeot, but the application for
an auto rickshaw is completely novel and sensible. This is due to the fact that auto rickshaws spend a
majority of their lives in cities in stop and go traffic where their combustion engines are producing their
most particulate matter upon acceleration. The implementation of a regenerative pneumatic hybrid system
not only captures the otherwise wasted kinetic energy, but can also keep the engine out of inefficient
operating conditions through the supplemental propulsion of the pneumatic system.
The industrial design consideration of the system revolves around the theme of the technology and
the target audience. The team decided to name the system Vaayu, which means air in Hindi, to serve as
the basis for the branding, logos, and concept theme.
To develop the detailed design specifications of the pneumatic and mechanical system, a
thermodynamic model was developed to predict the performance of such a system. The model takes system
specifications such as tank size, compressor size, and vehicle speed, and calculates the time required to stop
the vehicle as well as the pressure profile in the tank. This model can be used to optimize the system design
for both technical feasibility and pneumatic performance.
An idealized CAD model has been made to illustrate the packaging of the pneumatic system with
the existing combustion-powered system in order to develop a perspective of the expected constraints and
roadblocks the team might face during the implementation of the retrofit in the allocated space.
The team built a working prototype of the pneumatic-hybrid powertrain and used it to validate the
theoretical model. The prototype system efficiency was calculated to be approximately 4% which has the
potential to reduce daily fuel usage by 1%, which correlates to 192,000 fewer tons of CO2 released each
year when used across India. The system also increased the initial torque by 150% when compared to the
standard CNG engine. The demonstration showed the feasibility of the technology in terms of emissions
reduction and implementation potential and the idea will be pursued for its intended application in auto
rickshaws in the city of Mumbai.
ii
Nomenclature
CAD
CNG
LPG
PM
iii
1. Introduction
Low air quality and smog in urban areas of India and developing countries have led to an overall
lower quality of life. A solution to address this problem is to target the main source of transportation in
urban areas and provide an alternative propulsion method to lower the amount of emissions for the
respective modes of transportation. The regions experiencing this problem the most are regions with high
population density such as the country of India. Indian cities are expected to grow in population by a quarter
billion people by 2030 with its transportation industry expected to grow proportionally.
One of the most common ways of getting around in Indian cities is the auto rickshaw. Representing
about 20% of the preferred mode of transportation for the population, these vehicles present an ideal target
for improvement to produce the largest impact for reducing emissions. Most auto rickshaws use a twostroke combustion engine which contributes to a large proportion of the particulate matter (PM) in the air
of Indian cities. In fact, India has one of the highest average PM diameters in the world ranging from 70
130 micrometers while the global average is at 2.5 micrometers (S. Katie, 2016). To tackle this problem, a
system can be implemented into existing auto rickshaws to reduce the total amount of tailpipe emissions.
This system would have to have the ability to inexpensively retrofit into existing vehicles and have the
capability of reducing engine duty cycle time. The proposed designs include systems ranging from hybrid
to full electric systems. The system would supplement or replace the existing propulsion method and be
used on a daily basis by the auto rickshaw drivers. The specific target area for the initial implementation
would be in the city of Mumbai where the environment involves low speed driving and high levels of smog.
The main goal of the system would focus on lowering the overall emissions of the auto rickshaw.
This can be done by reducing the total duty cycle of the existing engine in the auto rickshaw or replacing
the existing powertrain with something that emits less or does not produce any tailpipe emissions. Based
on these desired product functions, it would be desirable to have a system that could have the ability to
propel the vehicle without the use of the existing powertrain in low speed maneuvers. This desired function
would eliminate the high particulate emissions that engines produce upon acceleration. This system would
aim to keep the engine in the most efficient part of the rev range. In addition, the system would have the
ability to capture, store, and release kinetic energy of the vehicle through this supplementary system. An
ideal system would use existing user input controls such as throttle, brake, and steering for the new system
operation to work seamlessly without any change in normal driver input.
The stakeholders for this system would include the auto rickshaw drivers, the urban Indian
population, Indian government, auto rickshaw manufacturers, and the oil and gas companies. The proposed
hybrid system would provide an opportunity for auto rickshaw owners to experience lower fuel costs and
therefore increased daily profits as over 50% of daily revenue is spent on fuel. The urban Indian population
would see an improvement in air quality and therefore improved overall health. The Indian government
could achieve its 2020 goal of conversion to Euro VI emissions standards sooner with the implementation
of a hybrid system. Auto rickshaw manufacturers will be able to easily adhere to future governmental
emissions goals through a manufacturing implementation of the hybrid system. On the other hand, oil and
gas companies would see a decline in fuel consumption resulting in decreased revenue from declining gas
sales in the transportation industry.
After investigating similar current technologies and their applications to automobiles, various
technical issues and challenges were identified. In the case of electric vehicles and electric hybrids, major
technical issues include the high cost of power dense batteries, the inefficiencies in the conversion from
mechanical to chemical energy and back, and the requirement of complex electrical control systems in order
to optimize power generation and consumption. The most relevant challenge here is the high cost of
batteries since the target market will desire the lowest payback period possible. With regard to the
pneumatic and pneumatic hybrid systems, the major technical issue is once again overcoming efficiency
issues in using air as a working fluid and the relatively low efficiency of compressors. Additionally, the
high pressure air storage tanks were a major barrier in commercialized automobiles in passing safety
standards. In fact, several companies halted production of pneumatic cars for this reason. However,
pneumatic hybrid systems have the advantage that they are lower in cost and require little electrical
implementation. The highest efficiency technology found was the flywheel hybrid system because it is
purely mechanical and all interconnecting parts are physically connected by gears or clutches. However,
the technical challenge presented is that a flywheel system may present a safety issue in such an open
vehicle as a rickshaw.
In all regenerative braking technologies, a common challenge lies in the fact that different drivers
may wish to brake at different rates. Some drivers may wish to slowly coast to a stop in which case
regenerative braking is ideal. In other cases, when rapid deceleration is desired, friction brakes are generally
preferred. Finding an ideal balance between friction brakes and regenerative braking that suits all drivers is
a major issue.
To address the issue of emissions from auto rickshaws, the team intends to develop an energy
saving and emissions reducing system able to be retrofitted onto the vehicles. Several designs were
considered for this system utilizing various energy storage and regeneration methods. The regeneration and
storage approach was considered to be the most applicable to the problem and had the largest potential
impact. Electric, pneumatic and flywheel based hybrid systems were considered as methods of energy
storage. After comparing the concepts in a concept evaluation matrix, it was determined that the
regenerative pneumatic hybrid system best addresses the problem.
Over the course of the project, the team intends to construct a working prototype of the modified
rear axle and drivetrain from an auto-rickshaw. This axle will be accelerated and decelerated externally
with an electric motor to demonstrate the braking and accelerating potential of the pneumatic system.
Ideally, this system will be able to brake with similar performance to existing friction based braking
systems, and will reduce the need for an IC engine when accelerating.
The patent outlines a way of using the travel motor as a replacement for the combustion engine.
Compressed air stored in tanks is directed in a controlled manner into the pistons of the travel
motor, causing the tilt plate to rotate, thus rotating the motor shaft. In order to control the speed of
the motor, a flow control valve is used to vary the flow rate of compressed air from storage tanks.
b. Compressed Air Engine and Power Train System (F. Michael, 2014).
This patent presents another means of obtaining locomotion from compressed air through the use
of an ordinary reciprocating IC engine or rotary engine. When the accelerator is engaged the engine
runs on compressed air as a fuel. In addition to being powered by compressed air, a mechanism is
also outlined to regenerate compressed air using a flywheel. The output shaft of the engine is
attached to a flywheel and transmission. When the accelerator is disengaged, the kinetic energy of
the flywheel provides rotational mechanical energy back through the output shaft causing the
engine to compress air. This use of an engine is also relevant to the hybrid pneumatic automobile
since these vehicles require onboard air compression.
Some commercial vehicles have used a fully pneumatic powered system. Examples of vehicles that
have successfully implemented systems driven completely by compressed air include:
latter two levels. Figure 2.2 below displays the variation of regenerative brake torque with master
cylinder pressure, which is indicative of how hard the driver presses the brake.
Examples of commercialized vehicles that utilize compressed air power in conjunction with a
conventional internal combustion engine include:
a. Peugeot/Citroen C3 Hybrid.
The compression of air in this vehicle is accomplished differently from the techniques listed in the
patents above. The car contains a nitrogen gas storage tank and within the tank is a moveable piston
which can control the compression or expansion within the tank. During braking, the wheels
energy drives a hydraulic pump that pushes hydraulic fluid into an accumulator and against the
piston in order to compress the Nitrogen gas. During acceleration, the opposite occurs where the
compressed nitrogen pushes on the piston, forcing the hydraulic fluid to power a hydraulic motor
thus powering the car.
In addition to these commercialized vehicles, hybrid electric systems have also already been
implemented on rickshaws. These hybrid rickshaws can be regarded as competing products for our
hybrid rickshaw proposal. Below, some of these systems are listed.
b. Surya Conversions LLC is a Kickstarter project from students at University of Colorado Boulder
who also share the goal of reducing pollution from rickshaws in urban India while increasing
profitability for rickshaw drivers. Surya Conversions focuses on creating an electric hybrid
conversion kit for auto rickshaws in India. The cost of production of this particular kit is $600 and
the company has established connections with a taxi company, Tele Rickshaw, in India which
operates rickshaws. The company has recently applied for provisional patents on its technology.
There are many related patents to these technologies one of which are listed below.
flywheel is connected back through a system of gears to the drive shaft, which accelerates the
vehicle according to the gear ratio in use. The following is an example of a patent which outlines
the use of a flywheel for energy storage
b. Many Formula One race cars.
Item 200 represents the flywheel and items 600, 700 and 800 are engine accessories such as the
alternator, air conditioning and power steering pump. Clutches 1 and 2 are labeled as 400 and 500.
When the flywheel is to be charged, both clutches are engaged and once the flywheel reaches a
target speed it is used to power the accessories by disengaging clutch 1 and engaging clutch 2. If
the flywheel is idle, the engine is solely used to power the accessory devices by only engaging
clutch 1.
Urban Indian
population
Indian
government
Auto Rickshaw
manufacturers
Interests
-
Fuel costs
Air quality
Profits
Vehicle
performance
- Air quality
health risk
- Fare prices
- Bharat VI
emissions
standards
- Urban smog
- Profit margins
- Powertrain
efficiency
regulations
- Manufacturing
costs
- Fuel
consumption
Impact/Effect
Importance
Influence
Focus
Index
7.1
4.1
5.0
3.6
2.2
10
The stakeholders were also placed on a stakeholder matrix to illustrate their importance and
influence in the project, shown in Figure 3.1.
From the Focus Index in Table 3.1, it is clear that the stakeholder most affected by this project is
the Auto Rickshaw drivers as they rank highest in importance and in influence, due to their ability to control
which changes they would like to make on their vehicles and how much money theyre willing to spend on
improving their rickshaws. The second most important stakeholder is the Indian Government, due to their
interest in cutting emissions enough to meet their goals of across-the-board emission and pollution cuts,
and the resulting quality of life improvements from the mass implementation of a successful system due to
a reduction in urban smog. Close behind the government are the urban Indian population who use and travel
alongside rickshaws every day. A successful solution would increase the quality of the air they breathe and
could possibly even lead to lower fare-prices from lower costs of operation for rickshaw drivers. The two
stakeholders deemed least important were Auto rickshaw manufacturers and Oil & Gas companies, with
the latter ranked last. These stakeholders may not benefit greatly from a successful solution because of the
profits they may lose from the lowered consumption of gas and the increased longevity of rickshaw
powertrains from reduced use of the compressed natural gas engines in rickshaws, meaning that less
11
maintenance would be needed and fewer rickshaws would need to be bought every year as less rickshaws
are breaking down.
Lower emissions
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Safety of passengers/operator
These requirements encompass all facets of the design and consider all stakeholders, with more attention
being given to the top three stakeholders. In addition to this set of requirements, a more concise list of user
needs was created with the focus entirely placed on the drivers of the auto rickshaws and the Indian
government, as they are ultimately the ones who will decide whether or not the system will be implemented
en masse and they also stand to benefit most significantly from a solution, especially when considering
monetary effects. The two user needs identified are:
-
Reduction in emissions
The increase in fuel efficiency was isolated as it considers both the personal cost to the driver and the
environmental cost to the government and Indian citizens. The driver spends less money on gas every week,
and the government can meet better energy standards because less fuel is being used. The other need,
reduction in emissions, takes into account the rickshaw drivers who have to be on the road in an exposed
cabin for most of the day breathing in highly polluted air and the government who would benefit from being
able to meet higher levels of emissions standards which would boost their reputation on the global stage
and pave the way for further sustainable development. The positive effects on air quality would also affect
12
the urban Indian population by lowering risks of asthma and respiratory disorders, which would lead to a
higher standard of living and lowered costs on healthcare by the government and by the population.
Based on the teams first-hand knowledge of the Indian transportation market and the standard of
living of Auto-rickshaw drivers in India, it is clear that a very important metric in the design of this solution
will be the final price of a solution, and how quickly that price can be offset by the benefits of the solution.
In the past, a government-mandated implementation of CNG powertrains in auto rickshaws were associated
with a payback period of roughly 1 year due to the system costing around $300 and savings on fuel being
around $1 a day (Business Standard, 2005). Should another system be made available to further reduce the
operating costs of an auto rickshaw, the payback period of the system would need to be better than, if not
similar to the CNG system, to best incentivize drivers to buy and implement it. The payback period is
considered as a constraint, and is discussed further on in this section.
3.3 Functions
Using customer requirements and the needs of drivers, the engineering functions were found using
a function tree, shown in Figure 3.2.
Improve Auto
Rickshaw
performance
Improve
environmenta
l impact
Improve Fuel
Economy
Reuse Lost
Energy
Capture
braking
energy
Convert braking
energy into
storable energy
Store
captured
energy
Transmit storable
energy to storage
system
Reduce noise
Reduce
tailpipe
emissions
Interface with
existing
powertrain
Modulate
engine input
to powertrain
Modulate
regeneration
system input
to powertrain
Release
stored energy
Transmit
stored energy
to propulsion
system
Convert stored
energy to
propulsion energy
13
environmental impact of the system and the method of interfacing with the current rickshaw design. The
environmental functions are listed below:
-
Reduce noise
In addition to these, the engineering functions at the end of each branch are:
-
The functions descending from the Reuse lost energy branch are those which will drive the design
process; creating a regenerative system to provide the rickshaw with an extra source of power will be the
bulk of the engineering design and will take the most consideration, and will have the highest need to be
fulfilled. The other two engineering functions descending from the Interface with existing powertrain
branch will dictate the ability of the system to be integrated into a rickshaw with no negative consequences
on ability or safety, and will be carefully considered throughout the design process in order to keep the
regenerative powertrain system feasible and practical. The two environmental functions listed earlier exist
to keep a focus on reducing pollution, which would benefit every stakeholder in the project. They will be
used as a means of keeping the environmental impact of the system positive and not focused only on the
energy benefits from a regenerative drivetrain, but also on having a beneficial impact as a holistic system.
Having ascertained all these functions, it should be possible to define performance metrics for how well
each function should be performed. However, due to the extremely important constraint of cost, the desired
metrics can only feasibly be found once a payback period has been defined and the other relevant constraints
are discussed.
3.4 Constraints
While the functions have defined the goals that the system must meet, the constraints associated
with the costs and usage of the system provide limits to how easily and effectively the system can be
implemented and the performance that can be expected with a system with such constraints. For example,
if the system costs an auto rickshaw driver two years of his salary and 10 years to pay back, they would be
very unwilling to buy the system because they cannot provide that much cash up front and other components
14
in the rickshaw may fail in that time meaning that the driver would have lost more from the system than he
gained. The constraints would also consider the costs of maintenance, using the knowledge that auto
rickshaw drivers perform simple maintenance fixes by themselves or with the help of other drivers without
going to a mechanic because of the relatively high price of hiring someone else to do a simple task, and the
potential loss of a days revenue from fares while waiting for the rickshaw to be fixed. The following list
of constraints take into account how the driver of an auto rickshaw would want the system to behave and
benefit him and the passengers who pay for his service:
-
These constraints will work in tandem with functions to provide feasible specifications to be met by the
final design. Constraints regarding payback period and the low initial cost will provide the most important
and overarching limitations to the design, and will ensure that the project remains useful to its end users
and customers, the auto rickshaw drivers.
15
many specifications lacking quantitative definitions because of the yet undecided best method to solve the
problem. For example, specification 9 in the Energy group specifies the amount of energy which will be
released to the driving axle by the added system, but currently doesnt have a number attached to it because
of the limitations in different types of proposed solutions to the system. Various methods of providing
energy to the axle will realistically have different levels of success in this specification if a goal were to be
set now, but may detract from other specifications such as payback period of less than 1 year shown in
specification 32, because of the increased costs associated with a more powerful powertrain. This means
that once the ideation process has been completed using a rough assessment of the type of power delivery
available to different types of powertrains and a type of solution chosen, the specification can be revisited
and fairly assessed. Another example of specifications which have yet to be made clear are those in the
Production category. Again, the level of complexity and number of parts that can realistically be expected
to be a part of a system depend on the type of system chosen, and is unnecessarily restricting so early in the
design process, so were without numerical goals for the time-being, only to be assessed further on.
16
D/W
Requirements
Issued: 02/10/2016
Responsible
Source
Customer
Requirement
Venkatesh
Chinnakonda
Testimonials
Kinematics
2
Colin Kelsall
Colin Kelsall
Preliminary
Calculations
Preliminary
Calculations
Forces
4
Colin Kelsall
Colin Kelsall
Colin Kelsall
Bajaj RE
Technical Spec.
Preliminary
Calculations
Energy
7
Venkatesh
Chinnakonda
Venkatesh
Chinnakonda
Venkatesh
Chinnakonda
Preliminary
Calculations
Preliminary
Calculations
Material
10
Colin Kelsall
Bajaj RE
Technical Spec.
Signals
11
12
Gregory
Tuayev-Deane
Gregory
Tuayev-Deane
Safety
13
14
Quiet (<90dB)
15
Not poisonous
16
Gregory
Tuayev-Deane
Gregory
Tuayev-Deane
Aditya
Balamurali
Aditya
Balamurali
CPCB India
CPCB India
17
No.
D/W
Requirements
Responsible
Source
Aditya
Balamurali
Aditya
Balamurali
Customer
Requirement
Customer
Requirement
Ergonomics
17
18
19
Few parts
Colin Kelsall
20
Colin Kelsall
21
Colin Kelsall
Customer
Requirement
Customer
Requirement
Customer
Requirement
Quality Control
22
Aditya
Balamurali
Assembly
23
24
Venkatesh
Chinnakonda
Venkatesh
Chinnakonda
Customer
Requirement
Customer
Requirement
Transport
25
Gregory
Tuayev-Deane
Operation
26
27
Aditya
Balamurali
Aditya
Balamurali
Maintenance
28
Venkatesh
Chinnakonda
Recycling
29
Colin Kelsall
30
Colin Kelsall
31
Colin Kelsall
Costs
32
Venkatesh
Chinnakonda
Hybrid Car
payback period
Venkatesh
Chinnakonda
Course
requirement
Schedules
33
Certain specifications have already been given numerical values, such as the kinematics of the
system in which the rickshaw should be able to accelerate and decelerate at a rate greater than 1 m/s2, which
stems from the current performance of rickshaws having to be unchanged. The values of current rates of
acceleration and deceleration werent available online, so using personal experience and judgement, a
simple kinematic calculation was made to suggest a reasonable goal for the system. Again, this goal may
18
be adjusted in future iterations of the specification sheet but can provide a point from which to ideate and
think of solutions. Other specifications came directly from the customer requirements and seem obvious,
such as the need for the system to be able to be assembled by an Auto-rickshaw driver shown in
specification number 25. A metric for this specification could be based on the longest time it could take to
install the system, but this would again be a specification that is difficult to determine until further steps
have been taken in ideation and choosing a solution.
4. Market Research
In order to gain a complete understanding of the problem and develop a comprehensive solution
for rising emissions in urban areas of India, it is necessary to investigate the current state of the
transportation industry. This can be done by examining the modes of transportation, regulations that control
the industry, and audience the industry chooses to serve. The alarming rate of increase in vehicular
emissions and population have led to multiple studies and investigations published online by multiple
organizations.
Market research on the modes of transportation in India and specifically its cities has provided an
in-depth understanding of the various factors to consider when deciding on a design for a system to reduce
the emission of vehicles. It is estimated that the population of Indias cities will grow from 340 million to
590 million from 2008 to 2030. The growth of over 250 million people means that there will be a quarter
billion more people on the city streets leading to more privately owned vehicles as well as a proportional
increase in auto rickshaws. With a population increase of more than 70% and proportional increases in
transportation demand, it is important to target the potential effects of vehicles with the same emissions
standards. Currently, emissions from vehicles in major cities in India have had an adverse effect on the
health of the population leading to an increase in morbidity and premature mortality. Adhering to existing
technologies and standards will only significantly worsen the overall quality of life in these cities.
Therefore, it is imperative to take the necessary steps to address the health and emissions concerns for the
densely populated cities in India.
19
wide range of transportation methods for its population which includes the railway, bus, private vehicles,
taxis, and auto rickshaws. Of these modes of transportation, auto rickshaws represent about 11% of the total
vehicles on the road while representing 20% of overall modes of transportation, which results to over
150,000 auto rickshaws in the city of Mumbai alone.
Currently, Mumbai has made it mandatory for all auto rickshaws to run on CNG only which has
helped reduce overall emission in the auto rickshaws utilizing 4-stroke engines. However, the population
of rickshaws that use 4-stroke engines represents about 23% of the population. Since the conversion of
CNG only has a noticeable impact on 4-stroke engines, the majority of the 2-stroke engine rickshaws have
not seen any notable improvement in emission reduction. This is due to the inherent nature of the twostroke engine and its incapability of combusting the intake fuel which is then released out of the exhaust.
As a result, higher levels of hydrocarbons (HC) are released into the atmosphere than traditional four-stroke
engines. A study led by McKinsey & Company in 2010 revealed that the most effective approach to
reducing tailpipe emissions involved a combination of government regulation and conversion from twostroke to four-stroke engines for auto rickshaws (M. Akshay, 2012). However, the problem arises when
most rickshaws are privately owned and converting existing engines to four-stroke can be extremely labor
intensive and expensive.
20
pay translates to a yearly average about $1,900 (M. Akshay, 2012). However, in cities with less traffic and
population, this number can drop significantly, which makes it extremely difficult for drivers to support
their family. About 50% of their daily costs go to fuel, and targeting this category can be the best way for
drivers to earn more while also lowering the fare for its passengers.
4.4 Competition
The market research conducted on the current state of auto rickshaws has led to many impacts on
the overall design decisions made for the proposed hybrid system. In addition, competing products such as
the hybrid electric powertrain made by Surya Conversions reveals a proven technology using electric
motors and batteries to supplement the gas engine in auto rickshaws (Surya Conversions, 2016). Their
21
proposed system and price of $600 for the conversion have provided the team with a benchmark to design
a hybrid system using pneumatics that will aim to drastically undercut the competing kits. Based on the
competition and market research, it is important for the pneumatic system to be simple in nature, easily
serviceable, and also have the ability to adapt to existing infrastructure. One aspect that the competitor has
failed to address is the possibility of a plug-in hybrid that could charge in any electrical outlet. However,
one of the main issues experienced in India is the number of power outages. Therefore, it would be ideal
for the pneumatic system to have the capability of filling up its tank with an air pump from a traditional
motorized tire pump found at most gas stations. The pneumatic system would also have to be engineered
to capture kinetic energy upon off-throttle situations and provide the propulsion in low speed scenarios of
acceleration and deceleration. Targeting for independent pneumatic propulsion in low speed is the best
approach in order to reduce overall vehicle emissions. This is due to the fact that the engines produce the
most amount of emissions upon acceleration and higher rpms. A goal for the pneumatic system would be
not only to reduce overall engine duty cycle, but also to optimize the hybrid system to run the engine at its
most efficient speed.
22
The resulting low-level functions were examined and a series of solutions were developed to
address each one. These solutions are displayed in a morph chart in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Morphological chart to address functions
Functions
Convert braking energy
into potential energy
Solutions
Transmit potential
energy to storage
system
Convert potential
energy to kinetic energy
Modulate regeneration
system input to
powertrain
Reduce noise
Reduce tailpipe
emissions
*
*
*
*
*
*
*These functions were not directly addressed with system features and are a result of the other functions
23
From the morph chart, five complete system designs concepts were developed:
1. Regenerative Pneumatic Hybrid
This design utilizes a tank to store air which is compressed using the energy normally lost while
braking. The high-pressure air can then be released in reverse through the compressor to accelerate
the vehicle. This system will be in a parallel hybrid arrangement where the pneumatic system can
power the vehicle independently or at the same time as the gas engine. Appendix A, Figures A1A3.
24
and speed up the flywheel. To drive the wheels, a clutch engages the flywheel and kinetic energy
is transferred from the flywheel through the gearbox and to the wheels. Appendix A, Figures A6A8.
25
Regenerative
Pneumatic
Hybrid
Externally
Charged
Pneumatic Hybrid
Regenerative
Electric
Hybrid
Entirely
Electric
Powertrain
Regenerative
Flywheel
Hybrid
Customer
Reqs.
Importance
Raw
Weighted
Raw
Wt.d
Raw
Wt.d
Raw
Wt.d
Raw
Wt.d
Low
Cost/Payback
Period
10
40
30
20
10
20
Improved fuel
economy
27
18
27
36
18
Reduced
emissions
27
18
27
36
18
Safety of
passengers
and operator
10
30
30
30
30
40
Unchanged
handling
performance
21
28
21
14
21
Retrofittable
into existing
vehicles
32
32
16
24
Serviceability
28
28
14
14
Low Risk of
Theft
18
18
12
18
Total
223
202
167
163
157
Percentage
of Total
24%
22%
18%
18%
17%
From the comparative analysis of the ideas, the pneumatic solutions are the best methods
of addressing the stated problem. The regenerative pneumatic hybrid, specifically, ranks highest
in the overall comparison primarily due to its low cost and ease of implementation. The technology
we seek to implement is not a completely novel idea, but rather a novel application. Consumer
motor vehicles using this technology have been developed by several car companies including
Peugeot Citron (PSA, 2016). This development indicates that this technology is both technically
and economically feasible on a large scale. Additionally, a preliminary feasibility calculation was
done to determine whether such a system could be developed for a go kart application.
Assuming a weight of 660 kg for the rickshaw, driver, and three passengers, and using a
traditional braking system, slowing from 25 mph down to 0 mph results in 41.2 kJ of kinetic energy
normally lost as frictional heat. Assuming just 50% of this energy is able to be stored as pressurized
air in the tank, this would provide enough energy to accelerate back up to 18 mph. In addition, this
26
corresponds to a maximum pressure in a standard 10 liter tank of only 122 psig, within the capacity
of standard piston air compressors used in consumer applications.
7. Industrial Design
The Industrial Design considerations during the design process were primarily focused on
safety and serviceability. The entire system will be contained within the existing rickshaw engine
compartment and will rarely be accessed directly, so the visual appeal of the product is
unimportant. It is important, however, that the system is both safe and easy to maintain. The system
will be designed to allow for simple maintenance performed by rickshaw drivers. It will also be
designed not to clutter the engine compartment or prevent access to existing rickshaw components.
The system will also be designed to not have any risk of explosion, cutting, or burning hazards for
either the passengers or rickshaw drivers.
rickshaw. Safety critical devices will be colored appropriately to visually distinguish between high
energy and dormant components. Communication for safety can visually illustrated using standard
safety symbols etched into components which shouldnt be touched.
28
Concepts
The concepts shown in presentations will be focused on demonstrating engineering
concepts, as the system wouldnt physically alter how the auto-rickshaw looks to the average
commuter. Concepts will most likely be represented using renders from CAD software, but the
presentation of these concepts on posters and in PowerPoint presentations will be influenced by
the house style that is chosen in the next few weeks. This will be mostly obviously shown in the
colors of lines and annotations in labeled renderings.
29
30
Assumptions
In order to perform these calculations at such a preliminary stage in design, several assumptions
must be made. Additionally, other assumptions must also be made in order to facilitate simpler calculations.
These assumptions are listed below:
a. The chain or belt (as shown in Figure 8.1) does not slip over either gear sprocket during braking
and cornering/turning maneuvers. This is a reasonable assumption since it has been found that the
transmission of force from a gear to another gear is approximately 98% efficient when using a belt
or 100% efficient when using a chain since it is a purely mechanical system (D. Panchal, 2015).
b. This calculation requires the initial driveshaft rotational speed, before braking, as an input which
will be dependent on the velocity of the rickshaw. Therefore, an initial velocity for the rickshaw
must be assumed in order to carry out consequent computations. Spreadsheet software will facilitate
automatic updating of calculated parameters if different inputs are assumed.
c. It will be assumed that there is a fixed gear ratio of roughly 4:1 between the driveshaft and the
compressor sprockets.
d. Rickshaw wheels are assumed to be perfect circles. The compression of the wheel due to the weight
of the rickshaw is neglected and so the wheels are assumed to have a uniform radius all around.
e. Since the system is a time varying system, various parameters will be calculated at discrete points
in time in order to create plots. It will be approximated that all system parameters will vary linearly
between these discrete calculation points. This is a reasonable approximation so long as the time
increment between points is small.
Methodology
As mentioned earlier, the ultimate goal of this calculation is to obtain a value for the deceleration
of the rickshaw while the driveshaft is being used to power the compressor during braking. The first
parameter that will be calculated is the initial torque required to power the compressor to pump air from the
atmosphere into the accumulator, which will contain air at an initial pressure. Since the system utilizes an
accumulator, this initial pressure will be a parameter that can be varied in the model. A higher tank pressure
will require a higher compressor power in order to pump air into it. A method of calculating the required
initial compressor power is provided in section 8.2 of this calculation.
Once the initial compressor power is known, the compressor torque can be calculated using the
velocity of the rickshaw and gear ratios between the rickshaw wheels and compressor. This torque opposes
the rotation of the driveshaft and provides the braking force to slow the rickshaw.
Equation 8.1 is used to calculate the torque required to provide a power, PC, when the compressor
shaft is rotating at rad/s. PC is calculated based on the pressure difference between atmospheric pressure
31
and the pressure of air in the accumulator into which the compressor must pump air. This power will be
calculated in section 8.2.
(8.1)
This torque, , is the torque required by the compressor and will oppose the rotation of the rickshaw
driveshaft to which it is connected.
The free body diagram below of the various components displays the forces and torques involved.
Figure 8.3: Free Body Diagrams of Forces and Torques on Wheel, Driveshaft and Compressor
==
(8.2)
In Equation 8.2 above, the subscripts r, c, d and w refer to the rickshaw, compressor, driveshaft and wheel
respectively. r refers to the radius of each corresponding gear sprocket. This equation follows from the
assumption (a) above that the force is fully transmitted from the compressor to the driveshaft based on the
assumption that the chain/belt between the driveshaft and compressor does not slip.
Since the wheel/tire radius (from point of contact with the ground to the center), driveshaft sprocket
radius, and compressor sprocket radius are either known or directly measurable, then the resultant force on
the rickshaw can be calculated. Using Equation 8.2, the torque on the driveshaft can be calculated and this
torque is identical to the torque on the wheel.
Rearranging Equation 8.2, the deceleration of the rickshaw can be calculated according to Equation
8.3 below,
=
= =
(8.3)
where a is the deceleration of the rickshaw and mr is the mass of the rickshaw. Knowing the deceleration
allows the velocity at any moment in time during the deceleration process to be calculated according to
Equation 8.4,
() = 0
(8.4)
32
where v0 is the initial velocity of the rickshaw and dt is the time increment between calculation points. The
time increment between the calculation points will be chosen so as to provide enough data points to
accurately construct plots of the velocity and tank-pressure profiles during deceleration.
The new compressor shaft rotational speed after the time increment, dt, can then be recalculated
using Equation 8.5,
=
()
(8.5)
where vr, dw, rd and rc are the velocity of the rickshaw, diameter of the wheel/tyre, radius of the driveshaft
sprocket and radius of the compressor sprocket respectively. The quotient
gear ratio between the driveshaft and compressor sprockets. This new compressor shaft speed can be used
to update the value of the torque required to power the compressor, after time increment dt, using Equation
1 and it can also be used as an input into the calculations of section 8.2.
33
Methodology
To begin, the volumetric displacement of one cycle of the compressor is calculated using known
compressor values using the following equation.
=
(8.6)
where both the rated volumetric flowrate (Vrated) and rated rotational velocity (rated) are taken from
manufacturers specifications. The value calculated with this equation is the effective compressor
displacement and is used in the following equations. To calculate work required to operate the compressor
under the specific conditions experienced by this system, two forms of work are required. To calculate the
work required to compress the air, the following equation is used
(8.7)
Where
PA
is
the
atmospheric
pressure
or
inlet
and
the
fractional values are exact formulations of the k value. Wi represents the work required for one cycle of the
compressor at a specified tank pressure. The calculated value is then used in the following equation to
determine instantaneous power required by the compressor.
=
(8.8)
Here, c represents the compressor revolutions per second calculated using the methodology described in
Part I. This value is used as an input into the equations in Part I to ultimately determine the new rickshaw
velocity after a time dt.
In addition to calculating the power requirement of the compressor, it is also necessary to determine
the pressure increase in the tank over the specified time increment. The following equation is used for this
purpose (K. T. McDonald, 2008)
(8.9)
where V represents the tank volume. This pressure increase is also accounted for while incrementing over
the specified time intervals. The updated rickshaw velocity and tank pressure are then used to calculate the
required compressor power for the specified interval.
34
Results
The model obtained through the previously described methodology is able to provide a prediction
of both vehicle speed and tank pressure as a function of time during braking. An example system is modeled
in Figure 8.2 with parameters specified in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1: Variables used in velocity model
Environmental Conditions
Value
Unit
Atmospheric pressure (PA)
101
kPa
Temperature (T0)
30
C
Working Fluid Specs (Air)
Rspecific
k
cv
286.9
1.4
0.718
J/kg-K
1
kJ/kg-K
Compressor Specifications
Rated volumetric flow rate
Rated RPM
Volumetric flow per rotation
Isentropic Efficiency
10.6
1250
0.000240
95%
CFM
RPM
m3/rev
1
Tank
Volume
Initial pressure/precharge
5
10
L
PSIg
660
15
0.416
6.5
0.0762
0.3302
kg
km/hr
m
1
m
m
35
160.00
14.0000
140.00
12.0000
120.00
10.0000
100.00
8.0000
80.00
6.0000
60.00
4.0000
40.00
2.0000
20.00
0.0000
Pressure (PSI)
Velocity (km/hr)
16.0000
0.00
0
Time (s)
(8.10)
where and are the coefficient of friction and the normal force between wheel and road, respectively.
Once the rickshaw starts moving, the kinematic coefficient of friction will have to be used instead of the
static coefficient which is usually higher. Once the force, , is determined and a desired acceleration is
selected, the required driveshaft torque can be calculated using Equation 8.3. Thereafter, the required
compressor torque can be found using the gear ratio between the driveshaft and the compressor sprockets
as shown in Equation 8.2. With a known crank offset, the force required by each individual piston in the
compressor can be found. The crank offset distance is demonstrated in Figure 8.5 below.
36
(8.11)
where Pcyl, Fpiston, and Apiston are the required air pressure in a compressor cylinder, force on a piston face
and area of a piston face respectively.
The amount work that can be done by a volume of compressed gas, if allowed to expand down to
atmospheric pressure adiabatically can be calculated using Equation 8.12 below
1
= [1
()
2
144
2 2
] 33000(1)
(8.12)
where We, Pa, 2 , 2 and n are the work of expansion in horsepower, atmospheric pressure, tank pressure,
volume of gas at elevated pressure and ratio of specific heats, respectively. If the intention is to find the
work of expansion of one cycle of compressor, the volume of gas at elevated pressure (2 ) refers to the
volume of gas that is used to fill the cylinders of the compressor which is essentially the displacement of
the compressor. It must be noted that this work of expansion assumes an adiabatic process and that there
are no parasitic loads in moving the compressor pistons, such as friction.
A value for this work of expansion is therefore easy to calculate. However, after manually spinning
the reciprocating compressor from rest by hand, it was clear that the static friction of the compressor
components is much greater than its kinematic friction. Therefore, calculating any theoretical value for the
work of expansion without friction would not provide useful information and may be misleading. Physical
measurements of the initial torque in order to overcome this friction need to be made in order to accurately
model the reversal of the compressor.
37
It should be noted that the compressor friction did not play such a large role in the braking process
because kinematic friction dominates while the compressor is already spinning. Additionally, compressor
friction assists in the braking process to some extent although it lowers the maximum attainable pressure in
the storage tank.
Results
A model of the potential acceleration of the rickshaw was made through MATLAB using the ideal
gas and pressure-volume equations applied in normal internal combustion applications. The results of the
model are displayed in Figure 8.6.
The model helps illustrate the differences in output of the compressor when run in reverse at a
modeled pressure of 100 psi. The factor value illustrates the volume percentage at which the intake valve
closes to let in compressed air into the engine. The lower the factor, the sooner the intake valve closes which
means less volume of air is used. This allowed the pressure of the compressed air to do the work necessary
to push the piston and run the compressor in reverse to spin the shaft. Based on these results, it was seen
that when the intake valve was closed too soon, it did provide a high number of motor cycles which makes
sense as less volume is used per cycle, but less torque is generated by the motor. Meanwhile, at high intake
38
valve close times, the motor had the potential to produce power output levels of over 24 ft-lbs of torque at
the shaft, which is over 250% of the existing auto rickshaw motor.
Upon further investigation to find the optimal balance of motor cycles and torque produced, it was
determined that a factor of about 42% of the expansion volume should be when the intake valve closes. The
modeled results are displayed in Figure 8.7.
This model provides the most balanced output of the motor in terms of motor cycling and power output
overall and would be the operating condition upon acceleration for the potential design of the prototype.
The model illustrated in Figure 8.6 represents the potential of the system that can be implemented into the
actual rickshaw to mimic the variable valve timing experienced in conventional internal combustion
engines.
39
40
Engine Bay
41
CNG Tank
Compressor
Existing Differential
Existing CNG
Engine
Power Coupler
Figure 9.2: View of recreated engine bay shell with components visible
42
Figure 9.3: View of recreated engine bay shell with components visible
Figure 9.4: Dimensioned view of Autorickshaw CAD mockup from grabcad online CAD
library. Dimensions given in millimeters
43
Valvetrain
Figure 10.1: Top corner view of prototype. Electronic valve train and switching system visible.
44
Compressor
Pulley
Hand Crank
Steel A-Frame
Flywheel
Pulley
Figure 10.2: Front view showing pulleys and side view of the valve train
45
Compressor
Pressure
Gauge
Accumulator
Flywheel
Figure 10.3: Side view of the prototype showing electronic components and storage accumulator
46
T = T T ln T
10.1
This equation assumes completely adiabatic compression where PT is the pressure in the tank, VT is the
volume of the tank, and Pa is the atmospheric pressure.
120
Modeled
Measured
100
80
60
40
20
0
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
Figure 10.4: Comparison of modeled energy storage capacity versus measured energy storage based
on initial flywheel speed.
From this data and Eqn. 10.2, an average compression storage efficiency of around 30% was obtained.
flywheel
10.2
47
Acceleration
The prototype was utilized to run multiple tests at varying tank pressure levels to determine the
amount of strokes the motor would achieve. These results were compared to the model to determine the
validity of the MATLAB code. The comparison of the two results are illustrated in Figure 10.5.
10
9
8
Strokes
7
6
5
4
3
Model
Experimental
1
20
30
40
50
60
70
Initial Pressure (PSI)
80
90
100
48
Figure 10.7).
49
2 inlet
2 exhaust
Inlet
Compressor
Outlet
1 exhaust
1 inlet
Tank
Figure 10.6: Piping network actuated for compression. Green valves indicate open valves, grey
indicate closed.
2 inlet
2 exhaust
Inlet
Compressor
1 inlet
Outlet
1 exhaust
Tank
Figure 10.7: Piping network actuated for acceleration. Orange valves are intermittently actuated by
the electronic timing system.
Electrical
In order to allow a standard reciprocating compressor to operate as both a compressor and as an
engine, external valves had to be used in addition to the built in one way valves. After comparing various
valve types it was determined that electronically controlled solenoid valves would be the most suitable and
simple type for this application. Therefore, four solenoid valves, each connected to an inlet or exhaust of
each of the two compressor cylinders were implemented.
While operating the compressor as a compressor (to mimic braking), all electric valves were held
open and the built-in one way valves were used to control air flow. This was accomplished using four
separate switches with each one independently controlling a solenoid valve. In order to run the compressor
50
in braking mode, all switches were closed. A simplified diagram of the circuit used to control the solenoid
valves is shown below in Figure 10.9.
On the other hand, operating the compressor as an air engine required more complex circuitry. With
two cylinders in the compressor, the top dead center (TDC) position of one piston corresponded to the
bottom dead center (BDC) position of the other. For simplicity, valve timing was chosen so as to open an
inlet valve and close an exhaust valve to a cylinder when the piston was at TDC. The opposite was done at
BDC. On the output compressor shaft, the angular positions of TDC and BDC of one of the pistons was
marked on the output compressor shaft. A switch was implemented at each of these positions so that one
pair of solenoid valves would open when its corresponding switch closed. Each switch was wired to an
input pin of an Arduino and the operating code was made to open the corresponding set of valves, while
closing the other pair of valves. The simplified circuit used to mimic acceleration of the rickshaw is shown
in Figure 10.9. Since each valve required approximately 3 amps, an external power supply was used for
each valve and controlled using a MOSFET. For simplicity, wiring of the MOSFETs is not shown in Figure
10.9.
51
Quantity
1
1
4
2
4
1
1
1
2
Item Name
Aluminum 3HP Air
Compressor
Jabsco Accumulator
HSH FloSolenoid
Valve 12 V DC
Pillow Block Bearings
N-Channel MOSFETs
3 ft Steel Rod
20 ft Steel Tubing
6061 Aluminum Block
1.5 x 4 x 1
6061 Aluminum Rod 1
Length, 4 Diameter
Part No.
TL31117
Jabsco 305730000
Item Price
(Total)
$79.99
Source
Ebay
$83.15
Amazon
$95.96
Amazon
UCP204-12 P204
FQP30N06L
8927K13
$19.86
$10.78
$40.39
Ebay
Ebay
McMaster
Carr
8975K257
56.04
1610T37
23.82
McMaster
Carr
McMaster
Carr
52
1
2
2
1
2
4
4
4
1
47865K24
40.08
McMaster
Carr
4066K41
43.98
McMaster
Carr
5346K25
$14.25
McMaster
Carr
5238K758
$13.40
9151K89
$22.15
5388K17
$12.90
McMaster
Carr
McMaster
Carr
McMaster
Carr
8612K16
$21.95
McMaster
Carr
47515
$5.09
UP362A5
12.54
Advance Auto
Parts
Home Depot
R52-01451-02W
$2.76
Home Depot
B118A
$1.08
Home Depot
R52-88001-00W
$1.12
Home Depot
ATMega 328
$24.95
Amazon
53
Fittings which deal with pressurized air running through the system need to be selected according
to the correct standards set for the situations they operate in, in order to prevent failure and to allow the
system to run efficiently with minimal leaks and safety risks. Fittings such as valves, joints and regulators
will need to be chosen to minimize losses while serving their functions well in the system and to also be
easily fixed or replaced.
Valves
Selection
Common valve types relevant to the hybrid system include gate valves, plug valves, ball valves,
butterfly valves, check valves, pressure relief valves and control valves. A gate valve is a simple on/off
device that works by sliding a vertical disc or gate downwards to block the flow. Both plug and ball valves
are quarter-turn valves meaning that a 90 degree rotation can continuously vary the flow through a hole in
a cylinder. Butterfly valves, commonly used in throttling applications, use a circular disc or vane with its
pivot axis perpendicular to the flow. Check valves and pressure relief valves are self-actuated valves that
open when the pressure difference across them reaches a predetermined value and remain closed when the
pressure difference is below that value. Control valves are designed to allow proportioning of flow and vary
the rate of flow based on electrical signals it receives. These electrical signals are based on the outputs of
pressure or flow sensors. Technically, any valve can be turned into a control valve by implementing a motor
(servo or stepper motor) in conjunction with one of the manually controlled valves above. When precise
control is desired, needle valves are typically implemented with some automated control mechanism.
Correct implementation of relief valves is very important since relief valves serve as a safety
measure. They are typically positioned between the regulator and the first shutoff valve at the first point
that could be subject to full cylinder pressure, should the regulator fail. No valve should be located between
the relief valve and the regulator. The relief valve release point should be set to 50% more than the operating
pressure. It is also good practice to install relief valves near other possible points of failure in the system
such as where measurement instruments are installed.
54
Tubing/Piping
Selection
The most important factor in selecting piping is its pressure rating. The pressure rating for a given
material pipe is a function of the pipe thickness and diameter and can be calculated using equations given
in ASME B31.3: Process Piping Design. The pressure rating should be selected to withstand the highest
anticipated system pressure. According to the American Society of Plumbing Engineers (ASPE), systems
with pressures between 100 and 200 psia should consider using 304 or 316 stainless steel and/or copper
tubing with pressure fit joining.
A major concern when selecting piping components such as reducers, elbows and valves is the
pressure loss across those components. This pressure loss is mainly dictated by the friction factor of that
component which is usually provided in tables by the manufacturer. Standardized pressure losses in various
components can also be found in handbooks provided by the ASPE or ASME. ASPE provides a standard
procedure for determining the layout, piping geometry and size of a compressed air system in the November
2013 Continuing Education from the ASPE monthly release.
Since compressor performance depends highly on inlet conditions, special consideration must be given to
the compressor inlet piping. Air supply to the compressor should be as clean, cool and dry as possible which
may require use of a filter. Filter classification information is also provided by ASPE (Nov, 2013). The
velocity of the inlet air into the compressor should be limited to 1000 ft/s and should be positioned so as to
avoid contamination. In industrial practice, if the length of piping is more than 20 feet, the next largest
piping diameter should be used to account for the additional friction losses.
Thermocouples and pressure sensors will be used in tandem in order to measure temperature and
pressure respectively at various points in the air carrying network, including the storage tank, compressor
and tubing. Having accurate and precise values for these measurements is vital in determining the state of
the working fluid (air) in the air carrying network and will be particularly important to act as indicators of
impending failure or requirement of service to the user. Standards are presented below for selection,
calibration and placement of thermocouples and pressure sensors.
55
Thermocouples
Selection:
Thermocouples are classified by the Instrument Society of America and the American National
Standards Institute. The extension wire metal type is specified and ordered by ANSI letter designations.
They can be classified by junction size and junction type. Junction size selection is a tradeoff between
length of service and response times. Smaller wire gauges provide faster response but their performance
and accuracy are not maintained over a long period of time in adverse conditions. The use of thermowells
and sheaths is usually recommended for the extension of thermocouple life. Table 11.1 demonstrates
various thermocouple types, operating temperature ranges and tolerances.
From Table 11.1, it can be seen that thermocouple types J, K and R are common, and are therefore
less costly to purchase. However, R-type thermocouples are usually intended for high temperature
applications since their sensitivity is much higher in that range. Initial calculations have shown that the
maximum expected air temperature after compression from atmospheric pressure to the operating pressure
of the selected compressor (115 PSI), assuming isentropic efficiency of 75 percent, will be approximately
370 Celsius. This range corresponds well with the type-J thermocouple. However, the iron wire in type J
thermocouples is known to oxidize in air and so for the given application of measuring compressed air
temperature, a type-K thermocouple may be more suitable.
56
Since the air pressures and temperatures are expected to vary with braking and acceleration of the
rickshaw, a thermocouple with a short response time is desired. Therefore, a small junction size is more
suitable.
Pressure Sensors
Selection:
Pressure measurement devices can be classified as either mechanical or electrical. Mechanical
pressure measurement devices measure pressure by balancing the force exerted per unit area against the
deflection of an elastic element and the three main types of elastic elements are Bourdon, bellows and
diaphragm devices. Devices that function based on electrical energy (pressure transducers) typically rely
on one of the mechanical elastic elements above, but output the pressure reading in the form of a resistance,
voltage or current. Common electrical pressure sensing devices include strain gauges, linear variable
differential transformers, capacitance transducers, potentiometric, variable reluctance, piezoelectric and
piezoresistive transducers.
For the purposes of the compressed air hybrid drivetrain prototype, the system would be required
to automatically log pressure data at various points in the system with time. For this reason, it is preferred
that an electrical pressure sensor be used since it can be combined with a microcontroller unit as well as
data logging software.
Electrical sensors are typically classified according to their output level, accuracy, pressure range,
temperature range, vibration sensitivity and calibration shift with use. Since the compressed air system will
have cyclically varying pressures, vibration sensitivity will be an important factor to consider. Additionally,
in order to avoid complex signal amplification circuitry, it will be preferred if the initial output from the
sensor is high. If the signal is too low, then the use of a low-pass filter may have to be implemented in
conjunction with the amplification circuit in order to reduce noise amplification. Therefore, the three types
of sensors under consideration are capacitance, variable reluctance and piezoelectric. Table 11.2 shows a
comparison of various pressure sensor types.
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In the case that electrical pressure sensors are not viable for the design of the pneumatic hybrid
system, analog gauges must be installed and placed in an ergonomic layout for the driver to see while
operating the vehicle. Maximum cutoff pressures should be set in order to relieve excess pressure. In
addition pressure accuracy readings of analog devices must be within 7% error (L. Wang, May 2014). A
warning signal must be available other than a pressure gauge that provides a continuous warning to a person
in the normal driving position when the ignition is in the on (run) position and the air pressure in the
service reservoir system is below 60 psi. The signal shall be either visible within the driver's forward field
of view, or both audible and visible. Each service reservoir system shall be protected against loss of air
pressure due to failure or leakage in the system between the service reservoir and the source of air pressure,
by check valves or equivalent devices whose proper functioning can be checked without disconnecting any
air line or fitting.
There is a multitude of techniques for measuring rotational speed. Single/dual electrostatic sensors
utilize the fact that when a solid object is in rotation, its surface becomes electrostatically charged due to
the relative motion between the objects surface and the air. Optical techniques utilize a digital stroboscope
which varies the frequency of a flashing light until it matches that of the rotating shaft. A cheap technique
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is a contactless capacitive angular speed sensor which is based on a passive rotating electrode placed
between two mechanically static and electrically active electrodes. The system measures the number of
electrical peaks obtained per second and is insensitive to vibrations. Perhaps the most commonly used
system involves using encoders which can be of either the optical or magnetic type. Encoders can output
either a displacement or a rotational velocity directly. Two optical or magnetic strips are placed on the
rotating body and a stationary sensor is fixed near to the rotating shaft/body. As the body rotates, square
waves are generated with phase difference. With the known phase difference and the known angular
distance between the two strips the rotational velocity can be calculated. The direction of rotation is
determined according to which strip encountered the sensor first.
In testing and in real world applications, the compressed air tanks used in the hybrid system will
be pressurized to high levels that may be dangerous if a leak forms or if a pressurized component fails. In
order to find the correct method of dealing with the movement, handling and filling of tanks, standards were
searched for, resulting in a standard for the correct method of dealing with and handling small paintball
cylinders which share many characteristics with the type of tank the hybrid system would use, such as a
pressure of around 125 psi, and a size of less than 10 gallons. The standard considers different facets of
dealing with compressed air, and gives directives for correct operation. It provides instructions for how to
inspect the tank, recommended standards for filling stations for the tank and fill procedures (ASTM, 2013).
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the storage area and its seals are properly fitting to prevent any debris or moisture from entering the
enclosure.
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Description of rating
Frequent (A)
Probable (B)
Occasional (C)
During/following repair
Remote (D)
Improbable (E)
Extremely unlikely
Severity
Description of rating
Catastrophic (1)
Critical (2)
Marginal (3)
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Catastrophic (1)
Critical (2)
Marginal (3)
Negligible
(4)
Frequent (A)
A1
A2
A3
A4
Probable (B)
B1
B2
B3
B4
Occasional
(C)
C1
C2
C3
C4
Remote (D)
D1
D2
D3
D4
Improbable
(E)
E1
E2
E3
E4
High (Unacceptable-Must
Mitigate)
Medium
(Undesirable)
Acceptable
Hazard
Frequency Severity
Initial Risk
Level
Mitigation
Final Risk
Level
Explosion
1
Low
Low
Compressor failure
Medium
Regular maintenance of
compressor
Low
Valve failure
Medium
Low
Fitting failure
Medium
Regular maintenance of
fittings
Low
Collision
5
Medium
Acceptable
Excessive braking
torque
Low
Acceptable
Insufficient braking
torque
High
Acceptable
Excessive
acceleration/loss of
traction
Low
Acceptable
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Burning
9
Heat from
compressor
Medium
Low
Fire
10
Electrical short
Medium
Low
11
Medium
Low
Projectiles
12
Medium
13
Medium
Acceptable
14
Belt/Chain failure
Acceptable
Acceptable
15
Flywheel Failure
Medium
Acceptable
High
Low
Cutting injury
16
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Commercialization
The idea behind the invention can be applied widely to the automotive industry among others, for
example, in light vehicles such as three-wheeler rickshaws the concept can be marketed to large
manufacturers of rickshaws such as Tata, Bajaj, Piaggio and TVS. An estimated cost of the system after
mass production would be provided to the company which would give an idea of the price increase of the
commercialized rickshaw including the compressed air hybrid feature. Since rickshaw drivers are the final
buyers of the rickshaw, rickshaw drivers could be surveyed to determine a suitable pay-back period and
initial cost. Also, payment plans could be restructured to more easily facilitate the use of the compressor
hybrid system.
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attributed to the frictional aspects of the compressor that could not be adequately modeled through
MATLAB.
Based on the results of the prototype, auto rickshaw drivers and the potential surrounding
population would experience many benefits. Although the auto rickshaw driver may potentially experience
an increase in horsepower by only 1%, they will see an increase in torque output of at least 150% due to
the compressor. The results from the prototype were further scaled up to the vehicle size and number of
auto rickshaws in the country to determine that this hybrid system has the potential to decrease CO 2
emissions by over 192,000 tons per year if implemented in every auto rickshaw. Based on the results and
observed operation of the compressor, it can be concluded that implementation of the design would provide
decreased engine cycle time, reduced greenhouse gas production, lower fuel consumption, and a resulting
improvement in air quality in urban environments.
Impact aspects of the project such as air quality, payoff period, and vehicle fuel consumption were
not quantifiable due to time constraint and availability of resources. Future plans involve quantifying the
impact of the system implementation for both the auto rickshaw driver and the environment. The team also
plans to continue pursuing the patent application for the valve system of the compressor. Upon successful
completion of these aspects, the team would also like to procure an auto rickshaw to test and refine the
proposed design. By pursuing these goals, the team will be able to better position and market the hybrid
powertrain for implementation into auto rickshaws to impact not only India, but also countries that use
similar vehicles like the tuk-tuk.
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Appendix A: Concepts
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73
74
75
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