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Dedicated to
Rafael, Rosa, Eloisa and Cristina,
Wherever you are, you will be proud of this.
To a free young spirit,
Christopher.
To Marianne,
Because I am no one without you.
List of Publications
This thesis consists of the summary of the following publications (either

published or under review) that have resulted during the last five years doctoral studies. Consequently, they will be referred in the text by appropriate
roman numerals.
I.
V. Cooray, R. Montao and V Rakov, A model to represent negative

and positive lightning first return stroke with connecting leaders. Journal
of Electrostatics. Volume 60, Issues 2-4, March 2004, p. 97-109.
II.
R. Montao, N. Theethayi, V. Cooray, On the Implementation of

Agrawal et al. Model for Lightning Induced Voltage Calculations Using
ATP-EMTP, Paper in review at the IEEE Transaction on Power Delivery.
III.
R. Montao, N. Theethayi, V. Cooray, Lightning Induce Over voltage:

Comparison of two analytical formulation, Manuscript prepare for submission to IEEE Transaction on Power Delivery.
IV.
R. Montao and V. Cooray Penetration of lightning induced transient

from high voltage to low voltage power system across distribution transformers, Proceeding of the 27th International Conference on Lightning
Protection, Avignon, France, September 2004.
V.
R. Montao, M. Edirisinghe, M. Fernando, V. Cooray, Transient response of DC Converter station subjected to LIOV, Proceeding of the
VIII International Symposium on Lightning Protection. So Paulo, Brasil,
November 2005.
VI.
R. Montao and V. Cooray, Induced over voltage sensitivity analysis

using STIDDA. 26th International Conference on Lightning Protection,
Crocow, Poland, pp.236-241, September 2002.
VII.
N. Theethayi, Y. Liu, R. Thottappillil, T. Gtschl, R. Montano, P. A.

Lindeberg, U. Hellstrm, Measurements of Lightning Transients Entering a Swedish Railway Facility, Proceeding of the 27th International
Conference on Lightning Protection, Avignon, France, September 2004.
VIII.
R. Montao, V. Cooray, M. Becerra, M. Rahman, P. Liyanage, Resistance Of Spark Channels, Paper in review at the IEEE Transaction on
Plasma Physic.
IX.
R. Montao, M. Edirisinghe, V. Cooray and F. Roman, Varistor models- a comparison between theory and practice, Proceeding of the 27th International Conference on Lightning Protection, Avignon, France, September 2004.
X.
R. Montao, M. Edirisinghe, V. Cooray and F. Roman, Response of

Low Voltage Surge Protective Devices to Current Impulses with High
Time Derivatives, Paper in review at the IEEE Transaction on EMC.
vi
The papers below are other collaborated works that have resulted during the
last five years of doctoral studies and they are not included in the thesis
[1.] Theethayi N. Liu Y., Montano R. and Thottappillil R., Importance of
the ground impedance in the study of parameters that influence crosstalk
in multiconductor transmission line. Paper in review at the Journal of
Electric Power System Research.
[2.] M. Rahman, V. Cooray, R. Montao, P. Liyanage, M. Becerra, NOX
porduction in spark discharges Paper in review at the Journal of Electrostatic.
[3.] Theethayi N., Liu Y., Montano R., Thottappillil R., Zitnik M., Cooray V.
and Scuka V., A theoretical study on the consequence of a direct lightning strike to Electrified Railway System in Sweden. Journal of Electric
Power System Research, vol.74, no.2, pp.267-280, 2005.
[4.] P. Liyanage, R. Montao and V. Cooray Optical Signatures of Laboratory Sparks with Currents Comparable to Return Strokes in Lightning
Flashes Proceeding of the 27th International Conference on Lightning
Protection, Avignon, France, 13-16, September, 2004.
[5.] V. Cooray, V Rakov, C. A. Nucci, F. Rachidi and R. Montao On the
constraints imposed by the close electric field signature on the equivalent
corona current in lightning return stroke models Proceeding of the 27th
International Conference on Lightning Protection, Avignon, France, 1316, September, 2004.
[6.] M. Edirisinghe, R. Montao and V. Cooray Response of Surge Protection Devices to Fast Current Impulses, Proceeding of the 27th International Conference on Lightning Protection, Avignon, France, 13-16, September, 2004.
[7.] Liu Y, Theethavi N. Thottappillil R, Gonzalez R. M. and Zitnik M, An
improved ionization around grounding system and its application to stratified soil, Journal of Electrostatics, vol. 60, Issues 2-4, pp. 206-209,
March 2004.
[8.] Theethayi N. Liu Y., Montano R. and Thottappillil R., On the influence
of conductor heights and lossy ground in multiconductor transmission
lines for lightning interaction studies in railway overhead traction systems. Journal of Electric Power Systems Research. vol. 71, 186-193,
2004.
[9.] D. Mnsson, R. Montano, R. Thottappillil Response of Surge Protective
Devices to Very Fast Transient Conducted Pulses, EUROEM 2004 Book
of abstracts , Magdeburg, Germany, July 2004.
vii
[10.] Y. Liu, Theethayi N, Gonzalez R. M and Thottappillil R, The residual

resistivity in soil ionization region around grounding system for different
experimental results, IEEE international symposium on EMC, Boston,
paper no. TH-PM-2-4, pp 794-799, Aug. 2003.
[11.] Theethayi N. Liu Y., Montano R. and Thottappillil R., Crosstalk in multiconductor lines in the presence of finitely conducting ground, Conference proceedings of 2003 IEEE International Symposium on EMC, Istanbul Turkey, May 2003.
[12.] F. Roman, R. Montao and V. Cooray, Response of low voltage protective devices under subsequent stroke-like impulse currents. XIIIth Symposium on High Voltage Engineering, Netherlands 2003.
[13.] F. Roman, R. Montao and V. Cooray, Varistor response under subsequent stroke-like impulse current. XIIIth Symposium on High Voltage
Engineering, Netherlands 2003.
[14.] Theethavi N. Thottappillil R., Liu Y. and Montano R., Parameters that
influence the crosstalk in multiconductor transmission line, Conference
Proceedings of the 2003 IEEE Bologna Powertech, Bologna, Italy, paper
no. 68. (IEEE student paper award for high quality paper.)
[15.] Theethayi N., Liu Y., Montano R., Thottappillil R., Zitnik M., Cooray V.
and Scuka V., Modeling Direct Lightning Attachment to Electrified
Railway System in Sweden, Conference Proceedings of the 2003 IEEE
Bologna Powertech, Bologna , Italy, paper no. 72.(IEEE student paper
award for high quality paper).
[16.] Cooray V., Zitnik M., Strandberg G., Rahman M., Montao R., Scuka V
A novel modification of the 'transmission line model' of lightning return
strokes, 26th International Conference on Lightning Protection, Cracow,
Poland, pp.50-55, September, 2002.
[17.] Cooray V., Montao R., Theethayi N., Zitnik M., Manyahi M., Scuka V
A channel base current model to represent both negative and positive
first return stroke with connecting leaders., 26th International Conference
on Lightning Protection, Cracow, Poland, pp.36-41, September, 2002.
[18.] Cooray V., Zitnik M., Manyahi M., Montao R., Rahman M., Liu Y.,
Physical model of surge-current characteristics of buried vertical rods in
the presence of soil ionization 26th International Conference on Lightning Protection, Cracow, Poland, pp.357-362, September, 2002.
[19.] Y. Liu, M. Zitnik, R. M. Gonzalez and R. Thottappillil, Time timedomain model of the grounding system including soil ionization and its
application to stratified soil, 26th International Conference on Lightning
Protection, Cracow, Poland, pp.352-256, September, 2002.
viii
[20.] M. Aristizabal, R. Montao, P. Chowdhuri and M. Martnez Lightning

induced overvoltages: sensitivity analysis on multiconductor overhead
lines with ATP. IEEE Winter Meeting, New York, EEUU, Jan 2002.
Awarded for best student paper.
[21.] Martnez, M; R. Montao; P. Chowdhuri and M. Aristizabal. Used of
ATP/EMTP for lightning Induced overvoltages calculations in overhead
power lines considering the effect of neutral and ground wires.
EMTP/ATP Latin American Users News letter. Buenos Aires, Vol. 3, Argentina, July. 2002.
[22.] Montao, R.; Ackermann, T.; Sder, L.: Impact of the Utgrunden Offshore Wind Farm on Network Losses, Proceeding of 2001 European
Wind Energy Conference, 2-6 July 2001, Copenhagen, Denmark.
ix
Contents
List of Tables .............................................................................................. xiii

List of Figures ..............................................................................................xiv
List of important symbols and abbreviations............................................. xvii
1
Introduction ...........................................................................................1
Return Stroke Electromagnetic Fields ...................................................5

2.1
Cloud to ground lightning flash....................................................5
2.1.1 Cloud to ground lightning return stroke electromagnetic
fields: theory and observations ..............................................................7
2.1.2 Return stroke models ...............................................................9
Lightning Induced Overvoltages On Overhead Power Lines ..............17

3.1
Rusk model.................................................................................18
3.2
Taylor et al. model .....................................................................19
3.3
Chowdhuri and Gross model ......................................................20
3.4
Agrawal et al. model ..................................................................21
3.5
Rachidi model.............................................................................22
3.6
Discussion ..................................................................................23
3.7
An overview of the methods used to evaluate lightning induced
voltages 24
3.8
Monte Carlo simulations: Comparison of two analytical
formulation [III] .......................................................................................28
3.8.1 Results....................................................................................31
3.8.2 Discussion..............................................................................33
3.9
Influence of ground losses on the lightning induced overvoltage
calculations...............................................................................................34
Some Practical Applications Of Lightning Induced Overvoltages......39

4.1
Surge transfer from high voltage to low voltage side of
distribution transformer in the event of nearby lightning strikes [IV] .....39
4.1.1 Case Studies - 1 .....................................................................40
4.1.2 Results and discussions..........................................................41
4.2
Transient response of DC converter station subjected to lightning
induced overvoltages [V] .........................................................................46
xi
4.2.1 Case studies - 2 ......................................................................46

4.3
Lossy ground effects on lightning induced voltages: A sensitivity
analysis on different overhead power line configurations [VI]................49
4.3.1 Case studies - 3 ......................................................................50
4.4
Measurements of lightning transients entering a Swedish railway
facility [VII] .............................................................................................54
4.4.1 Measurement system..............................................................55
4.4.2 Discussion..............................................................................56
4.5
Breakdown mechanism in lightning induced effects: The role of
arc resistance [VIII]..................................................................................57
4.5.1 Experimental setup ................................................................58
4.5.2 Discussion..............................................................................59
5
Response Of Surge Protective Devices To Lightning Type Transients

..61
5.1
Varistor models ..........................................................................61
5.1.1 Simplified varistor model. .....................................................61
5.1.2 Durbaks varistor model ........................................................62
5.2
Experimental setup .....................................................................63
5.2.1 Fast transient impulse current generator ................................63
5.2.2 Standard 8/20 Ps lightning impulse generator .......................65
5.3
Discussion ..................................................................................65
Conclusions and Scopes for Future Works..........................................71

6.1
Concluding remarks ...................................................................71
6.2
Scope for future work.................................................................74
Sammanfattning...................................................................................77
Acknowledgments ...............................................................................79
References ...........................................................................................83
xii
List of Tables
Table 3.1. Mean value of the voltage distribution for the two analytical formulations
at both end of the power line. ..........................................................................31
Table 3.2. Mean value of the probability distribution of the ratio between the peaks
values calculated with the two analytical formulations...................................33
Table 4.1. Lightning flash location for the different study cases. .............................40
Table 4.2. Calculated peak over voltages .................................................................45
Table 4.3. Measured currents and voltages at the technical house at Tierp.............57
xiii
List of Figures
Figure 2.1. Coordinate system associate with the calculation of electromagnetic field
from lightning flashes........................................................................................7
Figure 2.2. Typical electric field intensity and magnetic flux density for first and
subsequent return stroke. Solid line: First return stroke. Dashed line:
Subsequent return stroke. Adapted from Lin et al. [14]. ...................................9
Figure.2.3. The current waveform at different heights along the channel. (1) 0 m, (2)
10 m, (3) 20 m, (4) 30 m, (5) 40 m, (6) 50 m, (7) 100 m, and (8) 200 m. .......12
Figure 2.4. Electric (a) and magnetic (b) fields at (1) 100 km and (2) 50 m from the
return stroke. Observe that the plot shows the magnetic field x c where c is the
speed of light in free space. Curve c shows the electric field on a ten times
faster time scale...............................................................................................12
Figure 2.5. Electric fields at (1) 100 km, (2) 100 m and (3) 50 m as predicted by the
TCS and DU model. Curves a and b show the electric fields predicted by the
TCS and DU models respectively when the channel base current is the same as
that given in figure 2.3. Curves (c) and (d) show the respective waveforms
when the models are modified to take into account the connecting leader......13
Figure 2.6. Current waveform to represent a 60 kA positive first return stroke. The
waveform is also shown in a 10 times faster time scale (curve b)...................14
Figure 2.7. Electric (a) and magnetic (b) fields at (1) 100 km and (2) 100 m from a
positive return stroke. Observe that the plot shows the magnetic field x 5c
where c is the speed of light in free space. Curve c shows the electric field on a
ten times faster time scale. ..............................................................................15
Figure 3.1. Geometry of the problem under consideration.......................................18
Figure 3.2. Transmission line segment representing Rusck coupling model............19
Figure 3.3. Transmission line coupling circuit associated with Taylor, Satterwhite
and Harrison model. ........................................................................................20
Figure 3.4. Transmission line segment representing Chowdhuri - Gross coupling
model...............................................................................................................21
Figure 3.5. Distributed circuit representation of Agrawal et al. model. ...................22
Figure 3.6. Transmission line segment representing Rachidi coupling model. ........23
Figure 3.7. Transmission line segment representation in ATP-EMTP. ....................25
Figure 3.8. Agrawal et al. model simplification. ......................................................26
Figure 3.9. Agrawal et al. equivalent model simplification using shunt current
source across the series line impedance ..........................................................27
Figure 3.10. Input data histograms: (a) Lognormal distribution histogram for the
Peak current, (b) Continuous uniform distribution histogram for the x
coordinate, (c) Continuous uniform distribution histogram for the y
coordinate. .......................................................................................................30
Figure 3.11. Coordinate system of the line conductor and the lightning stoke.........31
xiv
Figure 3.12. Voltage distribution Chowdhuri and Gross model: (a) Near end, (b).
Far end.............................................................................................................32
Figure 3.13. Voltage distribution Agrawal et al. model: (a) Near end, (b) Far end..32
Figure 3.14. Voltage peak ratio distribution: (a) Near end, (b) Far end. ..................33
Figure 3.15. Probability distribution for the ratio between the peak values
calculated with the two analytical formulations: (a) Near end, (b) Far end.....33
Figure 3.16. Overvoltage probability function values calculated with the two
analytical formulations and using the two transmission lines formulations. :
(a) Near end, (b) Far end. ................................................................................34
Figure 3.17. Calculated voltages on a 1 km matched overhead power line induced by
a typical subsequent return stroke (Vg=0.001 S/m, Hr=10). Dashed line (Ideal
line): induced voltage calculated taken into account the ground finite
conductivity only when calculating the exciting fields, neglecting the ground
impedance. Dotted line (Ideal field): result obtained when the finite ground
conductivity is taken into account on the surge propagation along the line.
Peak current 12 kA. Striking point: 50 m from the line center. Adapted from
[53]. .................................................................................................................37
line): induced voltage calculated taken into account the ground finite
conductivity only when calculating the exciting fields, neglecting the ground
impedance. Dotted line (Ideal field): result obtained when the finite ground
conductivity is taken into account on the surge propagation along the line.
Peak current 12 kA. Striking point: 50 m from the line center. Adapted from
[53]. .................................................................................................................37
Figure 4.1. Coordinate system for the study cases. ..................................................41
Figure 4.2. Induced overvoltage at the high voltage side of the transformer, TM-1
[69]. Red: 0m. Green: 250m. Blue: 600m. Pink: 700m...................................42
[70]. Red: 0m. Green: 250m. Blue: 600m. Pink: 700m...................................42
Figure 4.4. Rise time comparison of the calculated induced overvoltage at the high
voltage side of the transformer. Red: 0 m model 1. Green: 0 m model 2........42
Figure 4.5. Calculated induced voltages at the low voltage side of the transformer.
TM-1. Red: 0m. Green: 250m. Blue: 600m. Pink: 700m. ...............................43
TM-2. Red: 0m. Green: 250m. Blue: 600m. Pink: 700m. ...............................43
Figure 4.7. Calculated induced voltages at the load terminal termination. TM-1.
Red: 0m. Green: 250m. Blue: 600m. Pink: 700m ...........................................44
Red: 0m. Green: 250m. Blue: 600m. Pink: 700m. ..........................................44
Figure 4.9. Considered power electronic circuit with harmonic filters. ...................46
Figure 4.10. Lightning strike location for the HVDC study cases............................47
Figure 4.11. Zoom of the transient voltage on the DC side of the conversion station.
(a) Positive terminal. (b) Negative terminal. ...................................................47
Figure 4.12. Zoom of the transient voltage on the AC side of the conversion station.
(a) Phase A. (b) Phase B and C. ......................................................................48
Figure 4.13. Overhead lines configurations (all the distances are in meters). ..........50
Figure 4.14. Geometry used for the induced overvoltage calculations.....................51
xv
Figure 4.15. Average Protective Ratio for the maximum positive peak achieved. Up:
Horizontal configuration. Down: Vertical configuration. ...............................53
Figure 4.16. Average Protective Ratio for the minimum negative peak achieved. Up:
Horizontal configuration. Down: Vertical configuration. ...............................54
Figure 4.17. Entrance of auxiliary power cable into the technical house. ................55
Figure 4.18. Normalized measured voltage across a 12.8 cm gap. Doted line: Raw
voltage measurement. Solid line: Voltage corrected as in [99]. ......................59
Figure 5.1. Simplified Varistor model......................................................................62
Figure 5.2. Durbaks Varistor model........................................................................62
Figure 5.3. Calculated V-I characteristic used for Durbaks varistor model according
to [103]. Continuous line A0, Dashed line: A1. ................................................63
Figure 5.4. (a) Fast current impulse produced by Roman Generator (b) Normalized
frequency spectrum .........................................................................................64
Figure 5.5. (a) Continuous line: input voltage impulse, Dash line: voltage
measurement setup response. (b) Initial portion of the impulse response.
Continuous line: input voltage impulse. Dashed line: voltage measurement
setup response. ................................................................................................64
Figure 5.6. Observed impulse duration for both tested varistors and GDTs.
Triangles: Results associate with sample 1. Square: Results associate with
sample 2. .........................................................................................................66
Figure 5.7. Comparison of the clamping vs. the maximum voltage achieved for a
fast current impulse. ........................................................................................66
Figure 5.8. (a) Maximum clamping voltage vs. different varistor sizes from fast
transient generator. (b) Maximum clamping voltage vs. different varistor sizes
from Schaffner generator. Triangles: Results corresponding to sample 1.
Square: Results corresponding to sample 2.....................................................67
Figure 5.9. Resistance value of varistor S20K150 obtained when the voltage
waveform is divided by the current waveform. An approximate resistance
value for the varistor bulk resistance of 1 Ohm is obtained. ...........................69
xvi
List of important symbols and abbreviations
c
x
y
z
r
h
R1
R2
D
Ii
Ez
Er
HM
Uo
uM(x,t)
u(x,t)
l
R
L
C
hl
Aiz
d
Eiz
Eix
Biy
us
Imax
Speed of light in free space
x coordinate of the electromagnetic field evaluation point.

y coordinate of the electromagnetic field evaluation point.
z coordinate of the electromagnetic field evaluation point.
Radial distance from the coordinate system origin and the
evaluation point in the x-y plane. r
x2 y2 .
Dipole height.
Distance from the lower (image) dipole and the electromagnetic field evaluation point.
Distance from the upper dipole and the electromagnetic field
evaluation point.
Angle between the x axis and the radial distance (r).
Incident scalar potential.
Vertical component of electric field.
Horizontal component of electric field.
Horizontal component magnetic field.
The charge density per unit length.
Voltage induced in the line.
Total line voltage.
Conductor length.
Resistance per unit length.
Inductance per unit length.
Capacitance per unit length.
Conductor height.
Vertical component of the incident vector potential.
Minimum distance from the stroke location to the power
line.
Vertical component of the incident electric field.
Horizontal component of the incident electric field.
Horizontal/Transverse component of the incident magnetic
field.
Scattered line voltage.
Return stroke peak current.
xvii
xs
ys
I0
Zc
Jg
Po
Ho
Hg
Vg
E
SPDs
TCU
DU
xviii
x coordinate of the lightning striking point

y coordinate of the lightning striking point
See Imax.
Critical frequency (Carsons formulation).
Ground propagation constant.
Air permeability.
Air permittivity.
Relative permittivity of the ground.
Conductivity of the ground.
Ratio between the return stroke velocity and the speed of
light in free space.
Surge Protective Devices.
Traveling Current Source.
DiendorferUman model.
1 Introduction
Modern society, in this age of information technology, takes it for granted

that the complex chain of electrical and electronic systems should have one
hundred percent integrity. A failure (that disturbs the system integrity) is
considered unacceptable from a customers (final user) perspective, and any
implications/consequences due to failures have become very significant in
all most all the aspects of modern life. Hence, in various engineering applications that involve large distributed/scattered systems, e.g., telecommunications, cable-TV and computer LAN or WAN networks, etc, the industries
today are committed to seek and develop advanced technologies and practices, which guarantee a better performance and efficiency for normal operation of various interconnected electrical and electronic networks/systems.
One of the major systems that feeds the above mentioned end user equipments is the power distribution network, which leads to a much more complex interconnected system. Transient phenomena in interconnected systems
is common, which could be due to faults [1], switching [2-3] and lightning
(direct or indirect) [2-3]. Depending on the magnitudes and frequencies of
the various transients (over voltages/currents) the damage to the power distribution network is inherent, but due to the interconnection, even the various
low voltage electrical and electronic systems (sensitive systems) as mentioned earlier are prone to those transients. Thus, there is increased demand
to understand the characteristics and consequences of various transients occurring in different systems. With this objective in mind, this thesis has attempted to study the transients due to lightning, an unavoidable natural phenomenon.
Some examples on the consequences of the transient disturbances are presented here. In 1987, a study [4] conducted in the United States, concluded
that on an average nine out of ten enterprises were shut down because their
computer systems failed to work for two weeks. The common reason of failure was attributed to the fact that the computers electronic systems were
exposed to transient electromagnetic interference that disturbed the data flow
and data handling, which lead the system to crash [4].
Another example that strongly supports the need for transient studies is the
series of blackouts experienced in the recent past in the power transmission
systems. In the year 2003 [5], United States, Europe and Canada suffered a
1
series of blackouts leaving more than 60 million people without electricity.

In some cases the reasons for blackouts in power systems are unclear and it
is believed that a lightning strike could be one of the causes for this anomalous situation.
Among the possible electromagnetic threats, lightning discharges are important as they, to a great extent, determine the protective measures that must be
taken in the framework of lightning protection and Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) [4]. It has been observed that the lightning induced voltages/currents have shorter rise times [6] than the standard impulses that are
used for testing Surge Protective Devices (SPDs) in the laboratory. Given
this, it is therefore of at most importance to evaluate the commercial SPDs
under those impulse conditions that might not be included in the international standard test procedures. The non-standard voltage/current impulses
may result in peak voltages in the electrical networks leading to severe
power supply outages even though the SPDs on those networks have been
selected based on the recommended practices stated in the international
standards. This situation is undesirable as the risk of losing a sensitive system is high and must be avoided.
As mentioned earlier, a transient coming into the sensitive equipments will
have many coupling paths, and the power supply is one of them. It has been
a traditional practice in distribution systems to have power lines without the
overhead ground wire. Although, the main purpose to have an overhead
ground wire is to protect the phase wires from direct strikes, it is of interest
to evaluate its effects on the voltages induced in the line due to nearby lightning strikes.
For any given system to achieve an efficient and reliable lightning protection
design, one has to resort to accurate mathematical models that are capable of
reproducing the various aspects of lightning electromagnetic effects, namely,
lighting discharge mechanisms, coupling mechanisms between lightning
stroke and the system to be protected, propagation of lightning transients
within the system and finally the behavior of various devices to incident
lightning transients. The present thesis has to a certain extent focused on all
the major topics listed above so as to advance our knowledge in subject of
lightning protection and lightning electromagnetic interference.
This thesis has been organized in the following way.
In Chapter 2 the return stroke phase of lightning flash have been investigated. A new return stroke model is also proposed, that can predict the remote electromagnetic fields accurately when compared to experimental observations.
2
In Chapter 3 explains the phenomena of field to wire coupling mechanisms

relevant to lightning electromagnetic field illumination to power lines. In this
Chapter a comparison of various coupling models are also discussed. More
importantly the influence of finitely conducting ground on lightning field to
wire coupling mechanisms and the propagation of induced voltages over the
power lines is also explained. A new methodology is proposed for the efficient implementation of a field to wire coupling model in ATP-EMTP like
programs.
In Chapter 4 various case studies namely, effects of overhead ground wire on
the lightning induced voltages in distribution systems, lightning induced
voltages on a typical High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) systems, lightning surge transfer through distribution transformer and measurements of
lightning transients in a typical railway technical house. As an additional
investigation a discussion is also made on the role of arc resistance in lightning protection studies. Some thoughts on arc characteristics and its relation
to available arc models are also presented based on extensive experimental
investigations.
In Chapter 5 the response of commercial SPDs -Varistors and Gas Discharge
Tubes (GDTs) - when subjected to high derivative current impulses are discussed based on experimental observations. The responses of the SPDs with
fast current impulses were compared with a standard 8/20 Ps lightning impulses. These experimental results are compared with two available models
for Varistor in the literature.
In Chapter 6, some important conclusions based on the various studies carried out in this thesis are outlined. A brief discussion the possible scope for
future work is presented.
2 Return Stroke Electromagnetic Fields
Lightning is one of the natural phenomena that have amazed mankind since
the beginning of civilization. Historically, in almost all the societies, there
are records depicting lightning as a punishment from a God. In the ancient
times, certain important personalities tried to protect themselves from lightning using techniques based on myths. For example, Julius Caesar used to
wear a laurel crown and the Roman emperors used to wear a skin stripped
from a cow under their robes during thunderstorms. But with time, people
started questioning these techniques and also wondered whether this phenomenon arising from the sky was an act of god or a natural phenomenon?
It was in 1847, that Benjamin Franklin proposed his famous kite experiment
to show that a lightning flash is an electrical phenomenon, i.e., caused due to
the movement of electrical charges from cloud to ground. Since then, various
researchers and engineers strived to understand the different physical
mechanisms and the consequences associated with lightning flashes. Various
physical processes associated with a lightning flash have been clearly identified, extensively studied and reported in the literature. This chapter therefore
is not intended to provide a thorough review of all those inherent events of a
lightning flash. Instead, a brief description of the basics behind a cloud to
ground lightning flash is provided for completeness. Special attention will be
given to mathematical models developed to represent the remote return
stroke electromagnetic fields and their comparison with experimentally observed return stroke electromagnetic fields [I].
2.1 Cloud to ground lightning flash

To understand the mechanisms associated with a lightning flash, first one
has to examine the source that produces this natural phenomenon, i.e., the
charge structure of a thunder cloud. The first charge structure of a thunder
cloud proposed in the literature is dates back to 1910s [7]. The model was a
result of ground based measurements of the electrostatic field environment
in the presence of a thunder cloud and the field changes associated with the
effective neutralization of portions of those cloud charges due to lightning
return strokes. In that model, only two charge centers were proposed, one
positive located in the upper region of the cloud and the other negative that
5
exists in the lower regions of the cloud [7]. It was not until 1937, that Simpson and Scrase with an instrumented balloon confirmed the existence of
these charges and more importantly, they identified the existence of a third
charge center located at the cloud base [7-8]. Various theories explaining the
mechanisms associated with the charging process of the cloud have been
reported in the literature. Substantial observations seem to favor the fact that
charging mechanisms are closely related to the presence of ice within the
clouds [9]. In general, researchers consider (believe) a particular theory to
explain the electrification process of the cloud [10]. Recent observations
indicate that a thundercloud has a more complex charge structure than the
theory presented by Simpson and Scrase. It appears that the charges are not
located in well-defined regions but change from one polarity to another in a
quasi-continuous mode [10].
Generally, a Cloud to Ground (CG) flash takes place either from the negative
or the positive charge center to ground. The former leads to a negative
ground flash while the later leads to a positive ground flash. Observations
made from the electromagnetic field signatures of lightning flashes indicate
that a CG is initiated by a set of electrical discharges taking place within the
cloud [9-11]. This process, called preliminary break down, will result in the
creation of a column of charges named stepped leader, which will progressively propagate in a stepped manner from the cloud towards the ground. In
many cases both processes, the initial electrical break down and the stepped
leader are termed as preliminary breakdown. In this Chapter, the initial electrical discharge that takes place inside the cloud will be termed preliminary
breakdown and the stepping process (propagating towards the ground) will
be referred to as the stepped leader. For negative stepped leaders (which is
true in most of the cases), the length of each step is around 50 m with an
average leader speed of 106 m/s [9-11].
When the stepped leader is traveling towards the ground, the magnitude of
the induce charges of opposite polarity at the surface of the ground increases.
As the stepped leader approaches the ground, the field at the ground and
grounded objects increase. There will be field intensification at the tip of the
ground structures due to the structure geometry that will lead to the initiation
of upward electrical discharges from the structures tip. Such discharges are
called upward connecting leaders. Several of these upward connecting leaders will be launched from different objects, but only one will succeed in intercepting the stepped leader. After the connection between the stepped
leader and the ground/ground-object is made, a wave of zero potential will
propagate along the stepped leader channel to neutralize the charges deposited along it [9, 11]. This will result in a luminous event that propagates from
the ground to cloud with a speed close to the speed of light. This is called a
Return Stroke. Once the channel is established between the cloud and ground
6
several such strokes can take place along the same conductive channel.
Typically, a negative ground flash may last for about 0.5 s with a mean
number of strokes between four and five.
There is only limited information available on the mechanism of the positive
flashes. However, available experimental results indicate that its mechanism
is similar to the negative with some differences. For instance, observations
reported in the literature show that the positive stepped leader propagates
more or less continuously towards the ground [9]. Moreover, positive flashes
may contain a single return stroke, while the negatives may contain several
[12].
As it can be seen, all the processes associated with either positive or negative
ground flashes involve the movement of electrical charges (leader phase)
and currents (return strokes) between cloud to ground. As a result, this phenomenon emanates electromagnetic fields which propagate in air. With regard to this thesis, knowledge of those fields generated by lightning flashes
are of prime importance as they interact with various electrical systems that
are exposed to those fields; especially, the low voltage power networks as
applicable to this thesis.
2.1.1 Cloud to ground lightning return stroke electromagnetic

fields: theory and observations
Conventionally, the electromagnetic field generated form a lightning flash is
expressed considering each current element Idh along the lightning channel
as a dipole antenna, wherein the lightning channel as such is assumed to be
perpendicular to a perfectly conducting plane (figure 2.1).
Z
Source
dh
R2
Y
r
D
h
R1
X
Image
Figure 2.1. Coordinate system associate with the calculation of electromagnetic field
from lightning flashes.
Based on figure 2.1 and in cylindrical coordinates, the vertical component of

electric field (Ez), horizontal component of electric field (Er) and horizontal
component magnetic field (HM) at observation point (r, z, M) above the
ground level from a dipole antenna in the time domain are given by [13]:
E z (t )
dh
4 S Ho
2 (h z ) 2 r 2 t
R1
r 2 2 (h z ) 2
R

i W 1
W
i
dt
4
c
c
R15
c
R
1
0
Er (t )
r2
di
R1 2 (h z ) 2 r 2
R
i W 2 dt

W

2
3
5
c
c
c R1 dt
R2
0
r 2 2 (h z ) 2
R
r2
di
R
i W 2 2 3 W 2
4
c c R2 dt
c
c R2
dh
4 S Ho
3 (h z ) r t
R
R
3 (h z ) r
i W 1
i W 1 dt
5
4
c
c
R1
c R1
HM (t )
(2.1)
R 3 (h z ) r
R
(h z ) r di
W 1
i W 2 dt
2
3
5
dt
c
c
c R1
R1
R (h z ) r di
R
3 (h z ) r
i W 2 2 3 W 2
4
c
c
c R2
c R2 dt
r
R
r
di
R
3 i W 1
W 1
2
c c R1 dt
c
R1
r
R
r
di
R
3 i W 2
W 2
2
c c R2 dt
c
R2
dh
4 S Ho
(2.2)
(2.3)
The geometrical parameters h, z, R1 and R2 are defined in figure 2.1, while c

is the speed of light in free space. Observe that the electric field -equations
(2.1) and (2.2) - can be divided in three field components namely static (proportional to the current integral), induction (proportional to current) and
radiation (proportional to current derivative). Similarly, for the magnetic
field -equation (2.3)- only the induction and radiation component exists. This
formulation was introduced to understand some features of the electromagnetic field data reported in the literature. Moreover, those set of equations
are of important owing to the fact that the interaction of the electromagnetic
fields from nearby lightning flashes with low voltage power network are
highly sensitive to the shape and magnitude of illuminating fields.
The main features of the electromagnetic field signature from first and subsequent return strokes are presented in figure 2.2 [9, 14]. It has been reported
in the literature that at close distances (<2km), after some tens of microseconds the electric field does not fall to zero even though the current flow has
ceased [9, 11, 14]. This clearly indicates that close to the lightning channel,
8
the electrostatic field component become dominant. The influence of the

induction component on the electromagnetic field signature increases as the
distance from the lightning channel increase. In this regards, observe that the
magnetic field presents a hump corresponding to the induction component
of the field. When the distance is larger than 40 km, the measured electric
and magnetic field signatures have an identical wave shape which is due to
the dominance of the radiation field component.
Figure 2.2. Typical electric field intensity and magnetic flux density for first and
subsequent return stroke. Solid line: First return stroke. Dashed line: Subsequent
return stroke. Adapted from Lin et al. [14].
Having seen the features of experimentally observed remote electromagnetic

fields from lightning returns strokes, the next section is devoted to understanding different return stroke models available in the literature and a new
return stroke model. These models are utilized to reproduce the electromagnetic fields similar to those generated by lightning flashes. No detailed
mathematics will be presented. The author requests the readers to refer to
paper [I] for more details.
2.1.2 Return stroke models

The electromagnetic field signatures associated with the return stroke current
have been extensively reported in the literature [14-24]. Further, various
theories and mathematical models have been developed seeking for explanations of the observed features in the measured electromagnetic fields [1424]. Return stroke models can be broadly classified as:
a. Gas dynamic or physical models, which are primarily concerned

with the radial evolution of a short segment of the lightning channel
and its associated shock wave.
b. Electromagnetic models that are usually based on a lossy, thin-wire
antenna approximation to the lightning channel. These models involve a numerical solution of Maxwells equations to find the current distribution along the channel from which the remote electric
and magnetic fields can be computed.
c. Distributed-circuit models, that can be viewed as an approximation
to the electromagnetic models and they represent the lightning discharge as a transient process on a vertical transmission line characterized by per unit length resistance (R), inductance (L), and capacitance (C).
d. Engineering models in which the spatial and temporal distribution
of the channel current (or the channel-charge density) is specified
based on observed lightning return-stroke characteristics, namely,
current at the channel base, the speed of the upward-propagating
front, and the channel luminosity profile.
Models which belong to category (a) are primarily used to reproduce physical parameters of the return stoke. Models in (b), (c) and (d) categories are
mainly used to reproduce the electromagnetic fields from a return stroke;
they further can be divided into two major types [18-19]:
x
Current propagation (CP) models (also termed transmission line

type models), where the return stroke channel acts as a guiding
structure for the current wave propagation, with the source located
at the ground is feeding the line.
Current generation (CG) models (also referred to as traveling current source type models), where the release of the leader charge by
the upward propagating return stroke front gives rise to the return
stroke current.
Let us consider some details pertinent to the model presented in paper [I].
2.1.2.1
A model to represent negative and positive lightning first

strokes with connecting leaders [I]
Traditionally, most of the models in the CP and CG categories use the current at the base of the channel as an input parameter. These models are generally called models with specified channel base current or simply channel
base current models. In the development of a mathematical model to describe first return strokes it is necessary to take into account the attachment
process that involves connecting leaders. Various models have been reported
10
in the literature that considers the upward connecting leader process [25-28].
Gorin [26] presented a distributed circuit model to represent first-stroke,
wherein the return stroke velocity initially increases to its maximum and
thereafter decreases. The initial velocity increase is associated with the final
jump thought to be responsible for the formation of the initial rising portion
of the return stroke current pulse. A new CG model in which the connecting
leader is an integral part of the model is presented in [I]. This model allows
one to overcome some limitations of previous CG models.
The following assumptions were made in the development of the model:
x
x
x
x
The channel base current is known.

The charge density per unit length, Uo, deposited by the return stroke
along the channel is assumed to be independent of the height (the
model can accommodate any other charge profile too without difficulty).
The slow front of the current waveform is assumed to be produced
by the connecting leader as it moves through the streamer region of
the stepped leader. On the basis of observations of laboratory sparks,
it is assumed that the connecting leader moves upwards with an exponentially increasing speed and that it merges into the return stroke
proper when it encounters the hot region of the stepped leader channel.
The velocity profile of the return stroke proper is known. In the present simulations, it was assumed to decrease exponentially with
height.
The corona current injected into the channel at a given point decays
exponentially with time.
The source of current is the radial corona surrounding the descending leader core above the contact point and the streamer zone between the leader tip and the ground below the contact point
The injected current propagates downward at the speed of light, and
the current reflection at the ground level is equal to zero
2.1.2.1.1 First negative return stroke

Since length of the connecting leader is a measure of the striking distance,
the value of 70 m estimated for this parameter is not far from the striking
distance estimated for a 30 kA peak current [29]. Figure 2.3 shows how the
signature of the current waveform varies as a function of height. As apparent
from this figure, the model predicts that the peak return stroke current decreases while its rise time increases with height. This prediction is in agreement with the inferences made from optical observations.
11
Current, Arbitrary units
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
8
12
Time, Ps
16
20
Figure.2.3. The current waveform at different heights along the channel. (1) 0 m, (2)
10 m, (3) 20 m, (4) 30 m, (5) 40 m, (6) 50 m, (7) 100 m, and (8) 200 m.
Figure 2.4 shows the electric and magnetic fields at two distances from the
channel obtained with the model. These signatures compare well with the
available experimental data [14]. The peak derivative of the electric field at
100 km generated by the model is 34 V/m/Ps. This agrees with the typical
values obtained from measurements [9, 11]. If a channel base current with a
derivative of 24 kA/Ps were used, the peak radiation derivative would have
decreased to about 23 V/m/Ps, somewhat smaller than the typical values
obtained from measurements [30], thereby explaining our choice of derivative of the current waveform, 37 kA/Ps, which is slightly higher than the
recommended value for negative first strokes but provide better agreement
for distances around 100 km.
0
2x10
4x100
1x10
6x10
2x10
0x10
c
V/m
V/m
a
b
8x10 4
4x10 4
b
-2x100
0x10
0
20
40
60
Time, Ps
80
100
20
40
60
Time, Ps
80
100
Figure 2.4. Electric (a) and magnetic (b) fields at (1) 100 km and (2) 50 m from the
return stroke. Observe that the plot shows the magnetic field x c where c is the speed
of light in free space. Curve c shows the electric field on a ten times faster time
scale.
One of the key features of the developed model is that it predicts the slow
front in the channel base current waveform which is the current signature
generated by the connecting leader. This is mathematically incorporated into
12
the model as a modification of the velocity profile of the discharge phase of

the upward connecting leader.
Previously, Thottappillil and Uman [31] showed that a better agreement
between the initial peak of the calculated and measured radiation fields of a
subsequent return stroke for the case of a current waveform containing a
slow front could be obtained if the return stroke velocity was assumed to
increase exponentially from a small value to the experimentally measured
value. However, in contrast to the present model, they did not attempt to
connect the velocity profile to the duration of the slow front of the channel
base current. Note that all the channel base current models of the CG type
have the velocity profile and charge distribution, or the velocity profile and
the discharge time constant profile as inputs.
Thus, in any other channel base current model of type CG, the only modification needed to introduce the connecting leader and hence to utilize a channel base current with a slow front, is to change the velocity profile as given
in paper [I] (the authors in [I] do not rule out the possibility of finding a better velocity profile for the connecting leader). For example, the electric fields
generated by the Traveling Current Source (TCS) and DiendorferUman
(DU) models after this change is incorporated in them are also shown in
figure 2.5. Note that the model predicted electromagnetic fields do not show
the peculiar features that were present in them before this modification was
made.
25
6x104
20
4x10
b
10
2x104
V/m
V/m
V/m
15
c
0x100
1x10
8x10
4x10
0x10
4
6
Time, Ps
10
b
a
-2x104
20
40
60
Time, Ps
80
100
-4x10
20
40
60
Time, Ps
80
100
Figure 2.5. Electric fields at (1) 100 km, (2) 100 m and (3) 50 m as predicted by the
TCS and DU model. Curves a and b show the electric fields predicted by the TCS
and DU models respectively when the channel base current is the same as that given
in figure 2.3. Curves (c) and (d) show the respective waveforms when the models
are modified to take into account the connecting leader.
2.1.2.1.2
Positive first strokes
Experimental observations based on both electric field and direct current

measurements indicate that the main difference between the positive and
13
negative return stroke currents is the presence of a long current tail in the
former[9, 11]. The electric field measurements indicate that the first few tens
of microseconds of the positive return stroke current is qualitatively similar
to that of the negative first strokes. After this initial stage the negative current continues to decay, whereas the positive current starts to increase again,
reaching a second peak within about 100 300 Ps and decay within a few
milliseconds [32, 33]. Cooray [33] suggested that this second current enhancement is produced when the positive return stroke front encounters a
large source of positive charge, probably located on an extensive dendritic
pattern of mainly horizontal branches in the cloud, as it reaches the cloud
end of the leader channel. The current waveform shown in figure 2.6 has
these features and can be used to represent a typical positive first return
stroke current.
0
-20
kA
-40
-60
-80
0
200
400 600
Time, Ps
800
1000
Figure 2.6. Current waveform to represent a 60 kA positive first return stroke. The
waveform is also shown in a 10 times faster time scale (curve b).
The slow front duration, tf, of this current waveform is 21 Ps and the rise
time of this current waveform is 22 Ps. This rise time is close to the corresponding median values of positive return stroke currents [30]. The peak
value of the current waveform is 60 kA. This is larger than the median positive current of 35 kA. This choice is based on the experimentally observed
fact that, on average, the peak radiation fields of positives are two times
larger than those of negative first strokes. Since the positive return stroke
speeds do not differ significantly from those of negatives, the only plausible
explanation for this experimental observation is the two times higher median
current in positives than in the negatives. The derivative of the current waveform is 30 kA/Ps. This is also higher than the median value measured in
positives but it will lead to electric field derivatives similar to those
measured. The impulse charge associated with it is 28 C which is close to the
experimentally measured value for a 60 kA positive current.
14
The velocity profile used in calculating electromagnetic fields is similar to

that used earlier for negative return strokes. Since the peak current is twice
that of the negative the value Uo is assumed to be 0.002 C/m. This charge
density leads to a connecting leader of length 130 m which is longer than the
corresponding length obtained for negative strokes. The electromagnetic
fields generated by the model at two distances are shown in figure 2.7. Note
the long slow front and the slow tail of the radiation field. These signatures
are similar to those observed in measured fields. The peak radiation field and
the peak radiation field derivative at 100 km are about 12 V/m and
25V/m/Ps respectively. These values also agree with the typical values observed for positive strokes [19].
0
0x10
-4x10
-4
V/m
V/m
b
-8
1
-12
-8x104
-1x105
a
-2x10
-16
0
40
80
120
Time, Ps
160
200
40
80
120
Time, Ps
160
200
Figure 2.7. Electric (a) and magnetic (b) fields at (1) 100 km and (2) 100 m from a
positive return stroke. Observe that the plot shows the magnetic field x 5c where c is
the speed of light in free space. Curve c shows the electric field on a ten times faster
time scale.
15
3 Lightning Induced Overvoltages On

Overhead Power Lines
As explained in Chapter 2, every stroke in a given lightning flash produces

electromagnetic fields that can illuminate the overhead and underground
electrical networks. In order to represent this coupling phenomenon between
the stroke and the wires experiencing the illumination, various models (field
to wire coupling models) have been developed namely, Rusck [34], Taylor et
al. [35], Chowdhuri and Gross [36], Rachidi [37], Agrawal et al. [38]. Consequently, various methodologies can be applied to determine the voltages
and currents induced on the conducting systems due to an external field,
considering any of the above mentioned models [34-38] that represent the
general field to wire coupling mechanism under the limits of transmission
line approximation [39-40]. Traditionally, the transmission line theory is
used to calculate the induced voltages/currents, assuming that the response
of the line satisfies a Transverse Electromagnetic (TEM) field structure,
wherein the transverse dimension of the lines are smaller than the minimum
significant wavelength [39-40]. Hence, the line can represented by a series of
elementary segments connected in cascade and that each segment is progressively illuminated by the incident electromagnetic field, which can be used
for solving the wave propagation along the line. Furthermore, although these
models are well established and known, but the calculations involved in implementing those models for a practical problem is not trivial. This led to a
restricted and limited use of commercial transient analysis software for the
lightning interaction studies. Therefore, there is a need to have either a tool
that will allow easier manipulation of the coupling models for the case of
complex electrical networks or a methodology for easy and efficient implementation of some of the coupling models in the available commercial transient simulation packages (packages that can handle complex electrical networks). In this Chapter, some comparisons among different field to wire
coupling models available in the literature are presented. The models will be
presented under the assumption that the conductors are located above a perfectly conducting ground. Also, a brief description of solution techniques
(time or frequency domain) used for the calculation of lightning induced
overvoltages is presented. Finally, a discussion is made on the influence of
the ground losses on the induced overvoltage calculations.
17
3.1 Rusk model

In 1958, Rusck [34] presented a field to wire coupling model derived in
terms of the total distributed currents and voltages along the line. The proposed transmission lines equations associated with the model were derived
relating the total electric field on the conductor surface to the scalar and vector potentials.
Z
Ez
Ey
Ex
Z1
Y
(l,0,hl)
(0,0,0)
x
Z2
x+'x
Figure 3.1. Geometry of the problem under consideration.
Considering the geometry presented in Figure 3.1 (Note: This line configuration and line terminations are used to explain all the coupling models in
this chapter), the transmission line equations derived by Rusck are:
wu M ( x, t )
wi ( x, t )
iR L
0
wx
wt
wI i ( x,0, hl , t )
wu M ( x, t )
wi ( x, t )
C
C
wt
wt
wx
(3.1)
(3.2)
In equations (3.1) and (3.2) uM(x,t) is the voltage induced in the line due to
the scalar potential (Ii) of the incident field. R, L and C are the corresponding resistance, inductance and capacitance per unit length. The total voltage
u(x,t) on the line is given by,
hl
u ( x, t )
u M ( x, t )
wAzi ( x,0, z , t )
dz
w
t
0
(3.3)
In equation (3.3), hl is the height of the conductor and Aiz is the vertical component of the incident vector potential. Therefore, the boundary conditions
for the transmission corresponding to equations (3.1) and (3.2) are,
18
hl
u (0, t )
Z 1 i (0, t )
u( L ,t )
Z 2 i( L ,t )
wAzi (0,0, z , t )
dz
wt
0
(3.4)
wAzi ( l ,0 , z ,t )
dz
wt
(3.5)
Observe that the forcing function appearing in the transmission line equations associated with Rusck model are the incident scalar potential along the
line and the vertical component of the incident vector potential at the line
terminations. An important contribution of Rusk is that he proposed a simplified equation to estimate the peak induced overvoltage (equation 3.6)
based on a given stroke location and stroke amplitude. A drawback of equation (3.6) is that no information regarding the front and decay time can be
obtained.
U max
Zo
I max hl
d
(3.6)
In (3.6) d is the distance of the stroke location from the line, Imax is the peak
current of the corresponding return stroke, hl is the conductor height and Zo
is given by
Zo
1
4 S
Po
Ho
(3.7)
30:
Figure 3.2 depicts the transmission line representation of the Rusk model.
R'x
u(x, t)
C 'x
wI i ( x,0, h, t )
wt
L 'x
C 'x
u (x+'x, t) R'x
L 'x
wI i ( x 'x,0, h, t )
wt
C 'x
u (x+2'x, t)
wI i ( x 2'x,0, h, t )
wt
Figure 3.2. Transmission line segment representing Rusck coupling model.
3.2 Taylor et al. model

In 1965, Taylor, Satterwhite and Harrison presented a model derived in
terms of the distributed voltage and current sources [35]. Their proposed
transmission line equations, in terms of total line voltage and line currents
are,
19
wu ( x, t )
wi ( x, t )
iR L
wx
wt
wi ( x, t )
wu ( x, t )
C
wx
wt
w
B iy ( x, z , t ) dz
wt 0
(3.8)
C
w
E zi ( x, z , t ) dz
wt 0
(3.9)
Note that for the case of Taylor et al. model two forcing sources are used.
Unlike the Rusk model, this formulation is based on the incident vertical
electric field (Eiz) and the incident horizontal (transverse) magnetic induction
field (Biy). The corresponding transmission line representation associated
with the Taylor et al. model is presented in figure 3.3
h

us(x, t)
R'x
L 'x
w
B iy ( x 'x, z, t ) dz
wt 0
R'x
us(x+'x, t)
w
B iy ( x 2'x, z , t ) dz
wt 0
us(x+2'x, t)
-+

L 'x
-+
C 'x
C 'x
C
w
E zi ( x 'x, z , t ) dz
wt 0
C 'x
C
w
E zi ( x 2'x, z, t ) dz
wt 0
Figure 3.3. Transmission line coupling circuit associated with Taylor, Satterwhite
and Harrison model.
3.3 Chowdhuri and Gross model

In 1967, Chowdhuri and Gross presented a new coupling model for the
lightning induced voltage calculations for overhead lines [36]. Several
changes have been introduced by Chowdhuri himself to improve his original
formulation. The last modification was published by Chowdhuri in 1990
[41]. The corresponding transmission line equations based on the Chowdhuri
coupling model are,
wu ( x, t )
wi ( x, t )
iR L
wt
wx
wi ( x, t )
wu ( x, t )
C
wx
wt
(3.10)
C
w
wt 0
(3.11)
Eiz is the vertical component of incident electric field. The boundary conditions for the above set of equations are,
u (0, t )
20
Z1 i (0, t )
(3.12)
u (0, t )
(3.13)
Z1 i (l , t )
The equivalent transmission line representation based on Chowdhuri coupling model is shown in figure 3.4.
R'x
u(x, t)
C 'x
L 'x
u(x+'x, t) R'x
w
wt 0
C 'x
L 'x
w
E zi ( x 'x, z , t ) dz
wt 0
u(x+2'x, t)
C 'x
w
E zi ( x 2'x, z , t ) dz
wt 0
Figure 3.4. Transmission line segment representing Chowdhuri - Gross coupling

model.
It should be mentioned here that the transmission line equations presented by

Chowdhuri and Gross [36] are similar to those of Rusck [34], but they are
expressed in terms of total line voltage and incident inducing voltages instead of total line voltage and incident scalar potentials [40].
3.4 Agrawal et al. model

The simplest and accurate coupling model under the limits of transmission
line approximation that is used for lightning induced voltage calculations
was presented in 1980 by Agrawal, Price and Gurbaxani [38] wherein the
transmission line equations were derived in terms of scattered line voltage
(equations 3.14-3.15).
wu s ( x, t )
wi( x, t )
iR L
wx
wt
wi( x, t )
wu s ( x, t )
C
wx
wt
E xi ( x, h, t )
(3.14)
(3.15)
Hence, the propagating scattered voltage (us) along the line is due to the
distributed voltage sources resulting from the horizontal component of incident electric field (Eix) at the line height. Consequently, the total voltage on
the line u(x,t) at any point and at any instant is given by,
h
u ( x, t )
u s ( x, t ) E zi ( x,0, z , t ) dz
(3.16)
The boundary conditions for the scattered voltages at the two line terminations are given by equations 3.17 and 3.18 respectively.
21
u s (0, t )
u s ( L, t )
Z1 i (0, t ) E zi (0,0, z , t ) dz
(3.17)
0
h
Z 2 i ( L, t ) E zi (l ,0, z , t ) dz
(3.18)
The corresponding transmission line representation based on Agrawal et al.

coupling model is shown in figure 3.5.
R'x
L 'x
Ex 'x
R'x
L 'x
Ex 'x
-+
us(x, t)
C 'x
C 'x
-+
us(x+'x, t)
C 'x
us(x+2'x, t)
Figure 3.5. Distributed circuit representation of Agrawal et al. model.
3.5 Rachidi model

In 1993, Rachidi presented a field to wire coupling model [37] in terms of
incident horizontal magnetic field forcing source and scattered line currents.
The corresponding transmission line equations based on Rachidi coupling
model are,
wu ( x, t )
wi s ( x, t )
iR L
wx
wt
wi s ( x, t )
wu ( x, t )
C
wx
wt
(3.19)
1 wB xi ( x, z, t )
dz
L0
wy
(3.20)
It is interesting to note that Rachidi coupling model in terms of scattered line

currents is a dual of Agrawal et al. coupling model, which is in terms of
scattered line voltages. Consequently, the total current in the line at any
point and at any time is related with the total scattered current by,
i ( x, t )
i s ( x, t )
1
B iy ( x,0, z , t ) dz
L0
The boundary conditions at the line terminations are,

22
(3.21)
i s (0, t )
u s ( L, t )
u (0, t ) 1

B iy (0,0, z , t ) dz
Z1
Lc 0
(3.22)
u (l , t ) 1

B iy (l ,0, z , t ) dz
Z2
L0
(3.23)
Figure 3.6 shows the transmission line representation of Rachidi model.

R'x
u(x, t)
C 'x
L 'x
u(x+'x, t) R'x
1 wB xi ( x, z , t )
dz
L0
wy
C 'x
L 'x
1 wB xi ( x 'x, z, t )
dz
L0
wy
u(x+2'x, t)
C 'x
1 wB xi ( x 2'x, z, t )
dz
L0
wy
Figure 3.6. Transmission line segment representing Rachidi coupling model.
3.6 Discussion
It has been shown that there isnt a unique formulation to represent the lightning induced voltage for overhead power lines. The variety of models as
discussed in the previous section has led considerable discussion and controversies within the power community, concerning validities and accuracies
for the engineering applications. Although, the basis for all the formulations
are from Maxwell equations, the dilemma arises due to the fact that in each
coupling model different forcing sources are adopted and expressed in terms
of different components of illuminating electromagnetic fields. For instance
the coupling model of Rusk are in terms of the scalar potential (Mi) of the
incident field, Chowdhuri in terms of the incident vertical component electric field (Eiz), Agrawal et al. in terms of horizontal component of incident
electric field (Eix) and Rachidi in terms of the transverse component of the
incident magnetic field (Bix). An important observation is that, if the transmission line equations corresponding each of the coupling models based on
Taylor et al. or Agrawal et al. or Rachidi are solved independently for the
total line voltages for any case of stroke location, one can arrive at the same
total line voltages even though each coupling model is unique. This has been
demonstrated by Nucci et al. in [40].
Comparisons either analytically or numerically among various models
namely Chowdhuri, Rusck, Taylor et al. and Agrawal et al. coupling models
have been reported in the literature [40, 42, 43]. In [42] it was concluded that
Chowdhuri model does not consider a source term namely the contribution
23
of the incident magnetic field component. In 1994 Cooray [43] showed that
the coupling model of Rusk is identical to that of Agrawal et al. provided
that the lightning channel is vertical. Indeed most of the calculations of induction in power lines due to lightning are performed by assuming a vertical
lightning channel.
Although various comparisons among the available coupling models have
been presented in the literature [40, 42, 43], the reported results consider just
few particular numerical cases [40, 42] or comparisons are made from a
theoretical point of view where no numerical results are presented [43].
Moreover, since Agrawal et al., Rusck, Taylor et al. and Rachidi model can
be considered as equivalents, it will be worth making detailed comparisons
of Chowdhuri coupling model with any of those previously mentioned models based on statistical approach (with large number of cases) and not just
with few or specific cases as in the literature [40, 42]. Consequently, the
proposed comparison is made with Agrawal et al. model which seems to
have received high credibility among the power community. However, before presenting the comparisons of the two coupling models, lets first discuss the possible ways of solving the transmission line equations and the
difficulties in the implementation of the Agrawal et al. coupling model in
transient analysis programs namely ATP-EMTP.
3.7 An overview of the methods used to evaluate

lightning induced voltages
Various approaches can be applied to solve the transmission line equations,
i.e., Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD), Method of Moments (MoM),
Finite Element Method (FEM), etc. Note that if the transmission line equations are solved entirely in frequency domain an Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) can be performed on frequency response to obtain the corresponding results in time domain. Traditionally, a direct time domain (FDTD)
or frequency domain (FD-IFFT) methodology has been adopted to solve the
field to wire coupling problems involving transmission line equations [4445]. By calculating lightning induced voltages in frequency domain, the
problem is considerably simplified because all the time integrals or time
derivatives are transformed to corresponding proportional or inversely proportional frequency terms. However, the frequency domain approach does
not provide an easy way to implement power equipment models that involve
a non linear characteristic [44].
Time domain approach has been widely used for the calculation of transients
in power systems. In this regard, various transient analysis programs are
24
available since late seventies. The inherent advantage of adopting a time

domain approach is the freedom available to the user in incorporating their
own models for non-linear elements like SPDs, circuit breakers, switches,
power electronics, etc. which are more realistic problems and has been attempted in this thesis.
It is to be mentioned here that owing to the advantages of time domain simulations as mentioned above, the author favors using time domain simulations
rather than a frequency domain approach. However, in this thesis both methodologies have been used in several study cases as discussed in papers [IIVI]. On one hand, the frequency domain approach was implemented to analyze two distribution type line arrangements, where only the induce voltages
and the influence of a finitely conducting ground were evaluated and that no
power system components were simulated. On the other, a modification of
Agrawal et al. formulation is proposed for its easy and efficient implementation in transient analysis program, i.e., ATP-EMTP. One of the important
advantages using this program is that it has inbuilt power line models
namely Semlyen [46], Marti [47] and Noda [48] setups, that can handle any
multi-conductor overhead power line configuration. Moreover, those setups
are capable of including the frequency dependant skin effect and ground
losses, line transpositions, conductor bundling, etc. Lets discus the possible
drawbacks associated with the direct implementation of Agrawal et al.
model in ATP-EMTP. In ATP-EMTP a transmission line segment is represented as shown in figure 3.7, which effectively is a two-port network connected in cascade.
Transmission line model
segment ('x)
R'x
V(x, t)
C 'x
2
L 'x
C 'x
2
Transmission line model

segment ('x)
R'x
L 'x
C 'x
2
C 'x
2
V(x+2'x, t)
Figure 3.7. Transmission line segment representation in ATP-EMTP.
Observe that each segment no matter whichever line model/setup is used, the
moment one defines the line geometry and material mediums the impedance
and admittance parameters (line constants as described in ATP-EMTP [46,
49]) are fixed. Hence, one cannot insert a source term in series with the line
impedance of figure 3.7, as the impedance and admittance parameter of the
line is embedded within an inaccessible two-port network. Therefore, it is
25
inherent that the Agrawal et al. model cannot be directly implemented in the
ATP-EMTP with the available line models/setups, which indeed is a drawback. Various studies have been reported in the literature where the model
has been inefficiently implemented. In [50], the coupling phenomena associated with the lightning fields due to indirect strikes were programmed using
the models language available in the ATP-EMTP [49].
On the other hand Borghetti et al.[51] has used a separate Lightning Induced
Over Voltage (LIOV) code written in a high level programming language for
modeling the coupling phenomena, wherein the calculated output voltages/currents where linked to the ATP-EMTP externally. Note, though [50]
and [51] have used the Agrawal et al. model for the induced voltage calculations, neither of them used the available built in line models/setups within
the ATP-EMTP as discussed earlier.
As mentioned earlier, Agrawal et al. model cannot be implemented in a userfriendly way in combination with the available built in line models/setups.
To make it convenient and efficient for the ATP-EMTP users for lightning
induced voltage calculations with indirect strikes, a methodology is proposed
that will allow the user to implement both the Agrawal et al. model and the
available built in line models/setups, thereby all the computational capabilities and features of ATP-EMTP software can be effectively used. The detailed derivation of the proposed methodology is presented in paper [II] and
the modified transmission line segment that is still equivalent to Agrawal et
al. coupling model is presented in figure 3.8
R'x
L 'x
Ex 'x
i(x,t)
i(x+'x,t)
-+
us(x, t)
C 'x
2
C 'x
2 u
is
1
C 'x
2
us(x+'x, t)
Figure 3.8. Agrawal et al. model simplification.
Note that it was decided to add the sources with the shunt elements, i.e., with
the capacitance because of the following reasons. For typical overhead wires
the ground losses and conductor losses do not affect the admittance of the
line. It has been shown in [52] that the frequency dependent skin effect
losses, affects only the internal series impedance of the line. Also it was
explained in [53] that the ground losses specifically ground admittance has
negligible influence on the line capacitance and overall line admittance and
that the ground impedance largely modifies the series external impedance of
the line. This is the reason why in ATP-EMTP line models [49] the frequency dependent losses are included in the series impedance of the line.
26
One can also put a current source in parallel with the series impedance
branch as shown in figure 3.9, thereby removing the voltage source that was
in series with the series impedance of the line as in figure 3.5. The time domain shunt current source in figure 3.9 will be a convolution of the horizontal component of electric field and the inverse of the frequency dependant
line series impedance, which is difficult to compute a priory. Therefore, such
an approach is considered not suitable for efficient implementation in ATPEMTP. On the other hand the approach presented in figure 3.8 is simple and
easier to implement with ATP-EMTP in conjunction with any line models/setup.
Ex 'x
Zl
R'x
us(x, t)
C 'x
Ex 'x
Zl
L 'x
C 'x
R'x
us(x+'x, t)
L 'x
C 'x
us(x+2'x, t)
Figure 3.9. Agrawal et al. equivalent model simplification using shunt current
source across the series line impedance
In general a complete equivalent circuit of a transmission line has also conductance element connected in parallel to the capacitance of the line. This
element represents the conduction current between the conductor and the
surrounding medium. In the case of overhead power lines, this conductance
is negligible and is usually neglected. Therefore in the analysis presented in
paper [II], the line conductance terms had not been included. This analysis
can be also extended to the case with shunt conductance too. Consequently,
an additional current source directly proportional to the admittance value of
the conductance will appear in parallel to the source term shown in figure
3.8.
As mentioned earlier, the line constants (impedance and admittance parameters) are fixed for a given line configuration and material medium. Thus, the
impedance and admittance parameter of the line are embedded within an
inaccessible two-port network. It is interesting to note from figure 3.8, that
with the new circuit formulation, the forcing source associated with Agrawal
et al. model is not in the series with the series impedance branch of the line
section but effectively between the two transmission line segments, i.e., connected between the accessible port of two adjacent line segments. Hence,
with this new methodology there isnt any limitation for the direct imple-
27
mentation of the Agrawal et al. model in the ATP-EMTP with the available
frequency dependant line models/setups.
3.8 Monte Carlo simulations: Comparison of two

analytical formulation [III]
Nucci et al. has shown that Chowdhuri Gross model is not complete as it
neglects the contribution from the horizontal component of electric field
[42]. However, the simulation results comparing Agrawal et al. and Chowdhuri Gross models presented in [42] show that the consequence of missing
the horizontal component of electric field term in the final total induced
voltage is significant only for very particular cases that are decided mainly
by the stroke location and its orientation along the line. In all the simulations
and the discussions to follow the lightning channel vertical and not tortuous.
It is to be noted that the occurrences of those particular cases as mentioned
above are highly probabilistic, therefore comparisons and judgment of coupling models based on particular cases alone is not appropriate and complete. Consequently, in paper [III] an attempt to compare the two coupling
models on a statistical basis is made. For this, the Monte Carlo methods have
been adopted and from these simulations, it will be shown that even though
the two coupling models predict different induced voltage levels for a given
particular case, the cumulative probability density distribution of the induced
voltages show only nominal difference whether one uses Agrawal et al.
model or Chowdhuri Gross model. This is the message the author likes to
provide with for the power system protection engineers.
Moreover, various methods have been proposed to evaluate lightning performance of distribution lines [54-57]. The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) in the standard 1410-2004 [54] has presented a procedure to calculate the probability of the occurrence of an induced voltage
larger than the critical impulse flashover voltage (CFO) based on Rusck
formulation. Borghetti et al. has shown in [55] that a similar result as those
obtained in [54] can be achieved by using Monte Carlo method in combination with a program to calculate the lightning induced voltages based on
Agrawal et al. model. Since the IEEE method and Monte Carlo method are
found to be equivalent, the author would like to make statistical comparisons
based on Monte Carlo method but by using either the Agrawal et al. model
or the Chowdhuri Gross model as discussed in [III]. Therefore the study
will be more focused on the comparisons among the two coupling models
based on a valid statistical analysis associated with the evaluation of the
performance of power distribution lines [54-55].
28
In the present analysis we have not included any case of direct strikes so as
to focus only on indirect strikes as applicable to the present work and ground
losses and corona effects are not considered as the aim of the work is to
mainly focus on the comparison between the two coupling models prediction
of induced voltages. For calculations of the return stroke electromagnetic
fields, a simple Transmission Line (TL) type return stroke model is adopted
where the stroke is propagating with a constant velocity equal to one thirds
the speed of light.
In the study, 10000 events were considered. Each event was defined by a
peak current and the coordinates of the striking point of the lightning flash
(xs,ys). For the peak current a lognormal distribution with mean value of
33kA and a standard deviation of 0.6 was used [58]. For the location of the
lightning stroke a continuous uniform distribution was used. These are presented in figure 3.10.
Observe that the ys coordinate in the histogram have least events for distances between 0-100 m. This is due to the fact that, for a given return stroke
current there will be a minimum distance to be fulfilled in order to ensure
that the stroke will result in a nearby strike and not a direct one. Hence, the
electro-geometric model was used to identify whether there was a direct
strike or not for this the striking distance was calculated using equation
(3.24) based on [58].
8 I o0.65
(3.24)
In equation (3.24) I0 is the peak value of the return stroke in kilo amperes
and d is the striking distance. The simulations were carried out with the two
coupling models using ATP EMTP [49]. For all the cases a conductor was
located at a height 10 m over a perfectly conducting ground. The line was
terminated by a resistance that has a value equal to the surge impedance of
the line. The length of the conductor is 1km and the midpoint of the line is at
the origin of the assumed coordinate system (0,0,h). Thus, due to the symmetry of the problem, the position of the stroke was kept within the first
quadrant. Observe that the near end is located in the positive x-axis and the
far end is on the negative one as illustrated in figure 3.11.
29
800
700
(a)
No. of events
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
50
100
150
200
Current [kA]
250
300
350
1200
(b)
1000
No. of events
800
600
400
200
100
200
300
400
Xs distribution [m]
500
600
500
600
1200
(c)
1000
No. of events
800
600
400
200
100
200
300
400
Ys distribution [m]
Figure 3.10. Input data histograms: (a) Lognormal distribution histogram for the
Peak current, (b) Continuous uniform distribution histogram for the x coordinate, (c)
Continuous uniform distribution histogram for the y coordinate.
30
Near end
Striking
point (x,y)
Y
1000 m
Far end
Figure 3.11. Coordinate system of the line conductor and the lightning stoke.
3.8.1 Results
In total 10000 cases were simulated. For both the models, the calculated
induced voltage peak values at the near and far ends for each event were
recorded. Moreover, regardless the coupling model used for the calculation
of the induced voltages, there were negligible number of cases where the
peak values are grater than 300 kV. However, for the comparison between
the two analytical formulations, all the events are taken into account. In
figures 3.12-3.13 the peak induced overvoltage distributions are shown. Observe that the obtained results resemble a log normal distribution, irrespective of the adopted field to wire coupling model. Their corresponding mean
values are presented in table 3.1.
Table 3.1. Mean value of the voltage distribution for the two analytical formulations
at both end of the power line.
Model
Chowdhuri Gross model
Agrawal et al.
model
Mean value
near end
[kV]
Standard Deviation near end

[kV]
Mean value
far end
[kV]
Standard Deviation far end

[kV]
31.62
40.03
37.86
45.76
43.49
48.78
42.50
49.48
31
Voltage Distribution Near End Chowdhuri Model
Voltage Distribution Far End Chowdhuri Model
800
1200
700
1000
(a)
(b)
600
Nro of events
Nro of events
800
500
400
300
600
400
200
200
100
0
50
100
150
Voltage[kV]
200
250
300
50
100
150
Voltage[kV]
200
250
300
Figure 3.12. Voltage distribution Chowdhuri and Gross model: (a) Near end, (b).
Far end.
Voltage Distribution Near End Agrawal Model
Voltage Distribution Far End Agrawal Model
600
600
500
500
(b)
(a)
400
Nro of events
Nro of events
400
300
300
200
200
100
100
50
100
150
Voltage[kV]
200
250
300
50
100
150
Voltage[kV]
200
250
300
Figure 3.13. Voltage distribution Agrawal et al. model: (a) Near end, (b) Far end.
From table 3.1 it is observed that for Chowdhuri - Gross formulation mean
values are smaller than the ones obtained with the Agrawal et al. formulation. These differences between the mean values of two coupling models are
27.3% and 10.9% for the near and far ends respectively with Agrawal et al.
formulation as the base. Also notice that there arent any significant differences between the voltage distributions as can be seen in figures 3.12 3.13.
To quantify the deviation in the calculated induced voltages between the two
coupling models, for each given case/event, the peak voltage ratio between
the Chowdhuri Gross model and the Agrawal et al. model were estimated.
Consequently, the distribution and a probability function of these ratios were
computed and shown in figure 3.14 -3.15. Their corresponding mean values
and standard deviation are shown in table 3.2.
32
Table 3.2. Mean value of the probability distribution of the ratio between the peaks
values calculated with the two analytical formulations
Near end
Far end
Mean value Lossless line [%]
67.26
88.21
Standard deviation Lossless

line [%]
9.78
22.03
Ratio distribution between peak values: Near end
Ratio distribution between peak values: Far end
1200
4000
Chowdhuri/Agrawal
Chowdhuri/Agrawal
3500
1000
3000
(a)
(b)
Nro of events
Nro of events
800
600
2500
2000
1500
400
1000
200
500
0
40
50
60
70
80
Ratio [%]
90
100
0
60
110
80
100
120
140
160
Ratio [%]
180
200
220
240
Figure 3.14. Voltage peak ratio distribution: (a) Near end, (b) Far end.
Probability Function: Near end
Probability Function: Far end
10
Chowdhuri/Agrawal
Chowdhuri/Agrawal
0.8
(a)
(b)
-1
Nro of events [%]
Probability [%]
0.6
0.4
0.2
10
-2
10
-0.2
0.4
-3
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Ratio [%]
0.9
1.1
10
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
Ratio [%]
1.6
1.8
Figure 3.15. Probability distribution for the ratio between the peak values calculated with the two analytical formulations: (a) Near end, (b) Far end.
3.8.2 Discussion
As mentioned earlier, the aim of the comparison between the two formulation as discussed in the previous section for lightning induced over voltage
calculations is to evaluate the models in broader perspective and not based
on just few particular case studies as in [40, 42]. The exhaustive calculations
in the previous section have shown that there is a strong correlation between
the voltage distribution and the return stroke current distribution. As it can
be seen from figures 3.12-3.13, the obtained voltage distribution is log33
normal type. However, when the two models are compared based on individual peak values there are differences.
According to [42], Chowdhuri and Gross formulation should yield to larger
induced overvoltages than Agrawal et al. model. This is based on the fact
that this model does not consider the horizontal component of the electric
field [40, 42]. However, it can be observed from the simulation results that
in most of the cases Agrawal et al. formulation achieved lager peak induced
over voltages, whereas only for few particular cases this situation is opposite. When a large number of cases were analyzed, these differences on the
calculated peak values between two coupling models were around 60% to
80%. Also, observe from figure 3.14 that for the near end induced voltages,
this ratio gives almost a normal distribution, while at the far end it resembles
a log normal distribution. Consequently, the probability of occurrence of an
induced voltage (Vi) larger than a given voltage (vo), i.e., P(Vi t vo) is larger
for the case of Agrawal et al. model than the Chowdhuri - Gross model. This
is clearly seen in figure 3.16. Observe that the probabilistic distribution of
the calculated induced voltage presents lower deviations for the case of the
far end than for the case of the near end, i.e., 3.42% and 5.78% respectively.
Probability Function: Near end
Probability Function: Far end
10
10
Chowdhuri
Agrawal
Chowdhuri
Agrawal
(a)
(b)
-1
-1
10
Probability [%]
Probability [%]
10
-2
-2
10
10
-3
10
-3
50
100
150
Overvoltage [kV]
200
250
300
10
50
100
150
Overvoltage [kV]
200
250
300
Figure 3.16. Overvoltage probability function values calculated with the two analytical formulations and using the two transmission lines formulations. : (a) Near
end, (b) Far end.
3.9 Influence of ground losses on the lightning induced

overvoltage calculations
Until now the analyses presented in the thesis have been based on the case of
lightning electromagnetic fields propagating over a perfectly conducting
ground. Though this assumption yields to a considerable simplification of
the problem studied and that it is not a realistic scenario. It is known that a
soil with finite conductivity will not entirely reflect the electromagnetic
34
fields incident to it and there will be fields penetrating into the soil. This
phenomenon will seriously affect the line impedance parameter particularly
the external impedance and also the signatures of the propagating lightning
electromagnetic pulses incident on the overhead line. Indeed, these two
situations has been studied separately by different researchers, i.e., either
treating only the influence of the lossy ground on the waves propagating
along the lines [59-61] or the influence of a finitely conducting ground on
the lightning electromagnetic fields incident on the line [62-64]. Rachidi et
al. have shown the influence of ground losses on both the incident lightning
electromagnetic fields and also propagating waves along the conductors
[53].
The problem of wave propagation in wires above a lossy ground was first
treated by Carson [59] in 1926. According to him the total external impedance of the wires is a sum of wires external impedance calculated under
perfect ground conditions and a frequency dependant ground impedance
term due to the penetration of magnetic fields into the ground. In his derivations of the ground impedance, he neglected the displacement currents in the
soil and used a low frequency approximation of the ground propagation constant. The low frequency limit depends on the ground conductivity and
ground permittivity, therefore, Carsons formulation is only valid if the
maximum frequency of the propagating signal is below one tenth of the
critical frequency given by equation 3.25. In 1949, Sunde, extended Carsons ground impedance expressions as given by equations (3.26 and 3.27)
for self and mutual ground impedances respectively, for wide range of frequencies [60] by taking into account complete ground propagation constant
as given by (3.28).
Zc
Vg
(3.25)
Hg
Sunde
Z gkk
j Z
P o f e 2hk u
du
2 S 0 u 2 J 2 u
g
(3.26)
Sunde
Z gkl
j Z
Po
e >hk hl u @
cosd kl u du
2 S 0 u2 J 2 u
g
(3.27)
Jg
j Z P o (V g j Z H g H o )
(3.28)
The set of equations proposed by Sunde cover the frequency range associated with lightning transients. It is to be noticed that other researchers [5253, 65-66] have developed a similar formulations related with the problem
adopting a more accurate approach than Carson. The author feels that those
35
formulations even if included in the present calculations will not lead to significant deviations compared to Sunde formulation.
As mentioned earlier, a finitely conducting ground will considerably affect
the wave shape of the propagating lightning electromagnetic pulse. Various
theories have been described in the literature that describes this phenomenon. The presence of finitely conducting ground affects the horizontal component of the incident electric field at a given line height. Equation (3.29)
expresses the ratio of the Fourier transform of the horizontal electric field to
that of the vertical electric field. This equation is known as the Wavetilt
Formula [53, 62].
W ( j Z)
Er ( j Z )
Ez ( j Z )
(3.29)
Vg
Hg
j Z Ho
Wavetilt formula is applicable to strokes located at distances beyond 5km

[53]. It has been shown by Rachidi et al. [53] that for stroke located close
distances (in the range of 200m or so), Wavetilt formula is in considerable
error. A more appropriate formulation known as Cooray-Rubinstein formulation given by equation (3.30), that overcomes the drawbacks of Wavetilt
formula have been reported in the literature [52-53, 63-64]. It should be remembered that the presence of finitely conducting ground is incorporated as
a correction term in the total incident horizontal electric field, i.e., the total
horizontal electric field at a given line height is the sum horizontal electric
field calculated at the line height under perfect ground conditions and the
electric field at the ground level (calculated as the product of magnetic field
at the ground level with prefect ground condition and the ground surface
impedance).
E r ( r , z , jZ )
E rp (r , z , jZ ) H Mp (r ,0, jZ )
c Po
Hg
Vg
(3.30)
jZH o
To demonstrate the influence of a finite conducting ground on the lightning

induced voltages two results are shown in figures 3.17-3.18. Observe that for
a line of 1 km length the calculated induced voltage is considerably affected
by the ground impedance (figure 3.17). However when the line length increases the surge attenuation along the line is no longer negligible and the
induced voltage is affected by the ground loses both in the incident lightning
electromagnetic pulse and the propagating surges along the line [53].
36

a typical subsequent return stroke (Vg=0.001 S/m, Hr=10). Dashed line (Ideal line):
induced voltage calculated taken into account the ground finite conductivity only
when calculating the exciting fields, neglecting the ground impedance. Dotted line
(Ideal field): result obtained when the finite ground conductivity is taken into
account on the surge propagation along the line. Peak current 12 kA. Striking point:
50 m from the line center. Adapted from [53].

line): induced voltage calculated taken into account the ground finite conductivity
only when calculating the exciting fields, neglecting the ground impedance. Dotted
line (Ideal field): result obtained when the finite ground conductivity is taken into
account on the surge propagation along the line. Peak current 12 kA. Striking point:
50 m from the line center. Adapted from [53].
37
4 Some Practical Applications Of Lightning

Induced Overvoltages
Engineers in charge for the operation and maintenance of complex distributed systems, e.g., power systems, telecommunications systems, cable TV
systems, electrified railway systems, etc., has a difficult task in identifying
the reasons for failure of their equipments and apparatus in the event of transients i.e., due to the lightning strikes with reference to the present work. A
service provider has the responsibility to account for the reliability of their
systems as a large number of customers depend on the interrupted operation
of those systems. Thereby customers expectations are duly met with. Consequently, from a service providers perspective there is need to understand
the causes of system outages and how those outage could be avoided. Lightning is one of the major sources for electrical overstresses that can cause
failure, permanent degradation, or temporary malfunction of electrical and
electronic devices and systems. For example, insurance claims resulting
from lightning damage in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming during the period
from 1987 to 1993 resulted in over $7 million a year [67]. Thus, it is also
necessary to investigate the possible coupling paths through which the lightning transients sneak into the systems, so that by providing suitable/adequate
protections, those sneaking transients could be either diverted or suppressed.
To address the above issues as a first step, in this chapter various study cases
are treated that correspond to lightning interaction with practical distribution
type systems, electrified railway systems and HVDC systems. For all the
induced voltage calculations presented in this chapter Agrawal et al. field to
wire coupling model [38] was adopted.
4.1 Surge transfer from high voltage to low voltage

side of distribution transformer in the event of
nearby lightning strikes [IV]
In electrical power systems, the low voltage networks are more sensitive to
incoming transients, as they usually have lower insulation level. The characteristics of those transients depend on various associated coupling mechanisms within the distribution system itself. It could be either via direct light39
ning strike (externally generated) or switching operations/faults (internally

generated) or indirect lightning strikes (externally generated). As applicable
to present work, indirect lightning strikes is not of significant importance for
high voltage power system, but it is really harmful for low voltage networks.
Therefore, it is essential to understand the possible coupling path that these
transients can make through to the final consumer in the low voltage side.
Traditionally, a distribution system is primarily radial with a step down
transformer located near the load centers [68]. Consequently, it is important
to evaluate different existing circuit models of the distribution transformers,
since they play an important role in affecting the shapes and magnitudes of
the transients before it reaches the final customer service point. For this, two
distribution transformer circuit models taken from [69] known as TM-1 and
from [70] known as TM-2, will be used for analysis in this thesis. These
models will be analyzed with different low voltage configurations and the
simulations are carried out using the computer program of ATP-EMTP. The
differences among the two circuit models of TM-1 and TM-2 are such that in
TM-1 [69] the high and low voltage terminals stray capacitances, the capacitance between the high voltage and low voltage bushings as well as the
magnetization branch of the transformer are considered, while TM-2 was
derived based on laboratory measurements by Piantini et al. [70]. The circuit
model details of TM-1 and TM-2, implemented for the present simulations
can be found in paper [IV].
4.1.1 Case Studies - 1

In total six different cases were analyzed. The length of the overhead wire
was equal to 500 m on the high voltage side and 200 m on the low voltage
side as shown in figure 4.1. The induced overvoltages were calculated for
different stroke locations. These are presented in table 4.1 and the corresponding reference system with the different stroke location is shown in
figure 4.1.
Table 4.1. Lightning flash location for the different study cases.
Study case
Number
1
2
3
4
40
X coordinate [m]
Y coordinate [m]
100
100
100
100
0
250
600
700
0m
100m
High Voltage
terminal
600m 700m
250m
13.8/0.22 kV
Transformer
Terminal
y
Load
Terminal
Figure 4.1. Coordinate system for the study cases.
The high and low voltage power line height was 10m. The return stroke peak
current was 15 kA. The ratio (E) between the return stroke velocity and the
speed of light in free space was assumed to be 0.1. A simple transmission
line type model was used for representing the return stroke. As shown in
table 4.1, the position along the x axis of the lightning stroke was kept constant at 100m from the power line for all the cases. The termination resistance at the high voltage terminal of the power network and the load terminal
had a value equal to the surge impedance of the line.
4.1.2 Results and discussions

As mentioned earlier, the lines at both the ends were terminated in its surge
impedance, this was done to avoid any ambiguities associated with reflections at the line terminations and more importantly if at all there is any reflection in the system under study, it would be solely due to the transformer,
so that any comparisons we make will be more focused to the transformers
alone. More over, the aim was to investigate, how the induced transients are
transferred from the high voltage side of the transformer to the low voltage
network. Thus no results will be reported for voltage at the high voltage terminal of the line namely y=0m. Only the voltages at the high voltage side of
the transformer, at the low voltage side of the transformer and at the load
terminal will be presented. The simulation results on the high voltage side of
the transformer model TM-1 and TM-2 are presented in figure 4.2 and 4.3
respectively.
41
[69]. Red: 0m. Green: 250m. Blue: 600m. Pink: 700m.
[70]. Red: 0m. Green: 250m. Blue: 600m. Pink: 700m
Comparing figures 4.2 and 4.3 it is seen that isnt any considerable difference between the calculated voltages whether one uses TM-1 or TM-2.
However, on careful observation of the rising portion of the calculated induced voltages as shown in figure 4.4, it is seen that the rise time for voltages with TM-2 is approximately 0.5Psec smaller than that of TM-1.
Figure 4.4. Rise time comparison of the calculated induced overvoltage at the high
voltage side of the transformer. Red: 0 m model 1. Green: 0 m model 2.
42
Now lets consider the induced voltages at the low voltage side of the transformer TM-1 and TM-2 as shown in figures 4.5 and 4.6. The influences of
transformer are more considerable at the low voltage side rather than the
high voltage side. The induced voltages at the low voltage side of the transformer show smaller rise times and are oscillatory. It is observed that in the
case of TM-1 the voltage oscillations persist until 10 Ps while for TM-2 it
lasts for only 5 Ps. This was not observed at the high voltage terminal of the
transformer. Therefore, it can be concluded that the transformer TM-2 has
higher damping factor than TM-1. Comparing the magnitudes voltages at the
low voltage side of the transformer, it is observed that peak voltage of TM-2
is 10% lower than TM-1. It is important to note that the peak induced voltage in the low voltage side of the transformer (no matter which transformer
model is adopted), considerably exceeds the basic insulation level of low
voltage networks, i.e., it is highly probable this might result in an insulation
breakdown.
TM-1. Red: 0m. Green: 250m. Blue: 600m. Pink: 700m.
TM-2. Red: 0m. Green: 250m. Blue: 600m. Pink: 700m.
Next we consider the induced voltages at the load terminal to figure out as to
what would be the levels of induced voltages that will propagate along the
line for a given distance. Note that the load terminal was terminated in line
43
characteristic impedance. However, this might not represent a real situation

for the low voltage termination because the responses at the load will depend
on the characteristic of the connected load, which might be way different
from the line characteristic impedance. The simulation results for this case
are presented in figure 4.7 and 4.8. It can be seen that the signature of the
induced voltage at the load is similar with both transformer models. A reason
why the induced voltages suffer distortions at the load, which is different
from the low voltage side of the transformer, is due to the fact that the injected transformer secondary voltage on to the line interacts with the distributed sources due to the horizontal component of electric field on the line and
the riser source at the load due to the vertical component of electric field.
Table 4.2 summarizes the peak values of the induced voltages at the high
voltage side, low voltage side of transformers and load terminal for both the
transformer models.
Red: 0m. Green: 250m. Blue: 600m. Pink: 700m
Red: 0m. Green: 250m. Blue: 600m. Pink: 700m.
44
Table 4.2. Calculated peak over voltages

Distance
[m]
0
HV
28.8
250
600
700
77.8
31.4
19.82
Over voltage TM-1[kV]

LV
Load
3.8
3.9
8.0
29.57
13.29
7.8
39.6
30.2
HV
30.65
78.9
30.63
20.19
Over voltage TM-2 [kV]

LV
Load
3.4
5.1
6.0
21.41
15.91
9.2
39.6
30.1
The presence of transformer considerably affects the resulting over voltage

at various points of the distribution system due to nearby lightning strikes.
When the peak induced voltage on the line is calculated separately without a
transformer and with a transformer, it was seen that (for the case treated
here) just because of the presence of the transformer the peak induced voltage at the high voltage side of the transformer is twice compared to case in
the absence of the transformer. The main reason for this is the input impedance of the transformer, which is larger than the surge impedance of the line
under study. Note that the parameters of the lines will depend on the geometry of the system and not on the operating voltage of the network. Also note
that the line parameters at both sides of the transformer are the same.
Some changes were observed in the wave shape of calculated overvoltage
with the different transformer models. However, no conclusions related to
the model can be drawn from this study presented here because the transformers used in [69] and [70] are of different sizes. It is believed that their
associated transfer functions are different. Also, it has been reported in the
literature that the transformer response is governed by several parameters
associated with its design/construction namely rated power, insulation type,
voltage level, transformation ratio, winding, connection, etc [71-73]. A large
variety of transformers types with different rated characteristics can be found
connected in power networks of the same rated voltage. Although the network characteristics are similar for different cases (line arrangement, conductor height/size, insulators, etc), their corresponding induced voltages
might differ since the system response is highly dependant on the characteristics of the transformer as seen from the simulations presented here. The
author like to mention here that this study was to mainly demonstrate that
how the presence of a transformer connected to a typical overhead line configuration can significantly affect the surge transfer characteristics from the
high voltage to low voltage side of the transformer in the event of nearby
lightning strikes. Moreover while designing the appropriate lightning protection simulations has to be made with the interconnected system too so that
more realistic insulation coordination can be achieved.
45
In regards to use of SPDs to divert/control the voltage level at the low voltage side of the transformer, the simulation results indicate that it is not sufficient by just connecting an SPD only at the low voltage terminal of the transformer and ignoring the load terminal. This is because the total voltage on
the line is decided by a) lightning fields interacting the overhead line in the
low voltage side, b) load at the service terminals (which is again connected
to the overhead line) and c) reflections produced by the transformer (that
propagate along the line). All these have to be considered together in deciding the suitable surge protection scheme.
4.2 Transient response of DC converter station

subjected to lightning induced overvoltages [V]
The progress in semiconductor technology has resulted in the development
of a variety of cost effective devices that today are used in high voltage DC
power systems. It is foreseen that such a technology will have a wider applications in the future DC power links. Therefore, it is of interest to understand
the response of DC power stations when they are subjected to lightning induced over voltages. In addition to this it is also necessary to identifying the
coupling mechanisms and surge transfer characteristics from DC to AC systems and vice versa. The study presented in this section is conducted utilizing the network components in ATP-EMTP and adopting the field to wire
coupling model of Agrawal et al. [38].
4.2.1 Case studies - 2

Filter
POS001
POS001
POS001
Figure 4.9. Considered power electronic circuit with harmonic filters.
46
Three circuit configurations were considered, they are, a six pulse power
converter similar to Nelles et al. [74] without harmonic filter connected at
the AC side, the same power converter of Nelles et al. [74] but with harmonic filters corresponding to 5th and 7th harmonic connected at the AC
side. The values of the filter components are similar to those used by Khatri
et al. in [75]. The general schematic of the six pulse power converter with
the filter is shown in figure 4.9. In all the three cases the transient response
of the system were analyzed for a 10 kA return stroke with the stroke located
at 500 m from the high voltage DC converter station and 100 m from the
HVDC power line as shown in figure 4.10.
Striking
point
500m
100m
Figure 4.10. Lightning strike location for the HVDC study cases.

The transient responses of a line commutated circuit with a diode bridge
rectifier are presented in this section. Due to the short time duration (micro
second scale) of the lightning induced overvoltage, the transient signal appearing at the terminals of the converter (on the DC side), is a sharp voltage
pulse superimposed on the DC signal at around 13.5ms, which can be seen in
the zoomed view of figure 4.11.
Figure 4.11. Zoom of the transient voltage on the DC side of the conversion station.
(a) Positive terminal. (b) Negative terminal.
47
It should be remembered that the voltage appearing across the terminals DC

terminals is the difference between voltages appearing on the positive and
the negative pole/line, i.e. the differential voltage. Looking at the induced
voltages from figure 4.11 it is seen that the differential transient voltage is
negligible since their shapes and magnitudes are identical. In order to investigate the possible coupling path and surge transfer characteristics between
DC and AC side, the voltage signal appearing on the AC side of the converter station was calculated, which is shown in figure 4.12.
400
[kV]
(a)
300
200
100
-100
(b)
-200
-300
13.40
13.40
13.40
13.40
13.41
13.41
[ms]
13.41
Figure 4.12. Zoom of the transient voltage on the AC side of the conversion station.
(a) Phase A. (b) Phase B and C.
With regard to the cases where the harmonic filters were connected, no differences were observed on the calculated transient voltage wave shapes at
the AC side. The reason for this could be the following. The frequency content of the lightning voltage transients lay much above the central frequency
of the harmonic filters (originally designed for low frequency applications).
Therefore, the transients pass through the filters without any distortion. Note
also that the harmonic filter does not provide any overvoltage protection to
the system against these types of transients. Thus, further protection measures have to be provided if lightning induced over voltages are to be diverted
from the system. It was observed that the transient response of the converter
station at the AC terminals was the same with and without the harmonic
filters.
The results indicate that lightning induced voltage transients do not represent
a critical threat for a high voltage DC converter station whereas the common
mode induced voltage could have larger peak values. It should be mentioned
here that we did not include logic or control systems in the present study.
Moreover, we did not study the failure modes of the diodes or spark over at
the terminals. There could be situations where the lightning induced transient
can change the conduction mode of the diodes. This may result in an erroneous status in the control system, leading to partial or total loss of the power.
Moreover, the control units of the station are powered by an auxiliary power
transformer connected to the AC side of the converter station which could be
48
a possible coupling path for lightning transients as discussed in the previous

sections. More importantly, the simulation showed that the transient voltages
propagate to the AC system through the diodes. These voltages are affected
neither by the load connected on the DC side of the converter station nor by
the harmonic filters connected on the AC side. Thus, the full voltage transient may sneak into the control system through the auxiliary transformer,
causing unwanted system upsets and damage, since the control system has a
low insulation level, making it vulnerable to the transient voltages caused by
lightning strikes in the vicinity.
4.3 Lossy ground effects on lightning induced

voltages: A sensitivity analysis on different
overhead power line configurations [VI]
The cases previously analyzed were calculated under the assumption that the
overhead lines were located above a perfectly conducting ground. Also, the
lightning induced voltages previously calculated were based on the implementation of the new circuital approach as described in paper [II] in ATPEMTP, i.e., all the calculations were made in the time domain. To implement
the effects of lossy ground on the electromagnetic fields incident on the
overhead line in ATP-EMTP like programs is not an easy task. In [50], the
field to wire coupling phenomena with ground losses associated with the
lightning fields due to indirect strikes were programmed using the models
language [49] available in the ATP-EMTP. However, this approach adopted
in [50] is an inefficient way to compute the lightning induced voltages as
there are other programming languages that are faster and more versatile
than the model language of ATP-EMTP. Therefore, there is a need for a
computer program that will allow easier implementation of the coupling
models for complex electrical networks over a lossy ground. Several of such
computer programs are available today, STIDDA is one of them.
STIDDA (Sobre Tensiones Inducidas Debido a Descargas Atmosfricas) is
the Spanish abbreviation for induced over voltages due to lightning flashes.
The program was developed in the High Voltage Laboratory at the Simn
Bolvar University, Caracas-Venezuela. It was designed to calculate the induced over voltages on an overhead power line due to a cloud to ground
lightning flash in its vicinity. The program uses the Agrawal et al. coupling
model to represent the field to wire coupling mechanism and solves the
transmission line equations in frequency domain.
This section is aimed at investigating, how the induced voltages are affected
by the presence of a finitely conducting ground. In STIDDA, the influence
49
of a lossy ground on the waves propagating on transmission lines (line impedance parameters) were considered based on Sundes formulation [60] as
discussed in the previous Chapter. On the other hand the effect of a finitely
conducting ground on the lightning electromagnetic fields incident on the
power lines were based on Cooray-Rubinstein approach [53, 63-64]. Also
the effect of overhead ground wires on the magnitudes of the voltages induced in the phase wires is studied. Moreover, a sensitivity analysis is also
carried out. The parameters that were considered for this are return stroke
velocity, current rise times and stroke location.
4.3.1 Case studies - 3

In the present study two standard overhead distribution type power lines
namely horizontal and vertical configuration were considered as shown in
figure 4.13. In both horizontal and vertical configurations the study was
made with and without ground wires leading to four separate study cases.
1.12
0.6
0.6
0.6
1.12
1.64 0.6
10
10
Figure 4.13. Overhead lines configurations (all the distances are in meters).
In total, three observations point were selected along the line located at 500,
1500 and 2000 m from the line centre. The ground conductivities were either
perfectly conducting or 0.01S/m or 0.001S/m or 0.0001S/m and the ground
relative permittivity was kept constant 10 for all the cases [53, 76]. In order
to ensure that all the events treated will result in a close by flash and not a
direct strike to ensure this the electro-geometric model was used [58], which
has been already explained in Chapter 3 (equation 3.24). The cases simulated
can be classified into three major categories with the stroke current kept
constant at 50kA, namely:
Category-1: Stroke velocity was constant at 1.1x108m/s, current rise time
was constant at 1.2Ps and the distance of the stroke from the line centre was
varied from 150m to 1500m.
50
Category-2: Stroke velocity was constant at 1.1x108m/s, distance of the

stroke from the line centre was 150m and current rise time was varied from
0.5Ps to 10Ps.
Category-3: Distance of the stroke from the line centre was 150m, current
rise time was constant at 1.2Ps and the stroke velocity was varied from
1.1x108m/s to 2.0x108m/s.
In all the categories, 10 values were chosen for each variable. Note that the
strike point of the lightning is equidistant to both ends of the power line as
shown in figure 4.14.
Strike
Point
Y
Z
Y
Yo
Figure 4.14. Geometry used for the induced overvoltage calculations.

In total, 1440 cases were performed. The simulation results presented in the
figures 3 to 15 of paper [VI] are discussed here. Lets consider the case in
which the point of strike is the variable. It is seen that when the ground was
perfectly conducting and the point of strike is at 150 m, the positive peak
voltages were in the range of 100 kV for all the observations points. When
the striking point was moved far away from the power line the peak values
were reduced. This is because as can be seen from equations (2.1 to 2.3)
[13], the electric and magnetic fields are inversely proportional to the distance terms.
It was observed that when the rise time of the current at the base of the
channel is increased, the calculated overvoltage peak value become smaller.
This is because as can be seen from equations (2.1 to 2.3), the lightning electromagnetic fields have a component, which is proportional to the stroke
current derivative. Since the peak current is kept constant, the maximum
derivative of the current decreases with increasing the rise time.
51
Consider now the return stroke velocity as the variable. In general, when the
ground conductivity is high and the distance to the point of strike is small the
induced voltage is mainly governed by the static field component. If the
current is kept constant, the charge per unit length will decrease with increasing return stroke velocity. Therefore, the amplitude of the induced voltage decreases with increasing velocity when the ground conductivity is high.
However, when the conductivity is low, the horizontal component of electric
field dominates. This field is proportional to the speed of propagation of the
current in the channel. Therefore, as the ground conductivity is decreased,
the induced voltage increases with increasing return stroke speed. This behavior is shown in the figures no. 3 and 7 of paper [VI].
It is important to mention that when the losses in the ground are taken into
account the induced over voltage will present a bipolar wave shape. The
negative peak of this voltage increases with decreasing ground conductivity.
Moreover, the negative values obtained in all the cases are larger than the
positive ones. Consequently, for low ground conductivity soils, the important voltage magnitude to be considered is the negative one.
It has been reported in the literature that, the larger the conductor heights,
larger will be the induced voltage due to the capacitive coupling [77].
Therefore, since the conductor of lowest height in the vertical configuration
is at the same height as the horizontal line configuration and the two upper
conductors in the vertical arrangement that are at 0.6 and 1.2 meters respectively from the lower conductor location, the induced voltages appearing on
the vertical array are expected to be larger than those calculated for the horizontal line configuration. It is important to mention here that the author is
not making a comparison on the performances between a vertical conductor
arrangement and the horizontal conductor arrangement of phase wires. Instead, a comparison is being made between two arrangements in terms of
presence and absence of ground conductors on the levels of induced voltages
on the phase wires. Author feels this information would be more valuable for
the power industry as in any case whether it is horizontal or vertical configuration the presence of a ground wire is necessary to protect the phase wires
from direct strikes too.
It has been reported in the literature [76-79] that the magnitude of induced
voltages obtained is reduced when an overhead ground conductor is placed
in system. To compare these results in a systematic manner the protective
ratio concept is used. This is defined as the ratio between the peak value of
the induced voltage obtained with a ground wire and the peak induced voltage calculated without ground wire for a given case. These results are summarized in figures 4.15-4.16 for positive and negative peak voltages respectively, wherein the corresponding average protective ratio is shown for all
52
the cases discussed above. In average the calculated protective ratio for the
positive peaks was in the order of 70%, which is in good agreement with the
results presented in the literature [76-79]. Also, this value changed when the
ground losses were accounted. Observe that, for the lower ground conductivities, the ground wires do not help in reducing the positive peak voltage
appearing on the line, while the negative peak voltages are considerably
reduced. More importantly, for cases of lower ground conductivities the
negative voltage magnitudes are larger than their positive counterparts. It
was observed that in some cases when the ground conductivity is high, the
protective ratio for the negative peak is larger than unity. However, it can be
noticed that when the ground conductivity is high the negative peak voltages
are negligible in comparison with corresponding positive ones. Therefore,
the concept of the protective ratio to determine the effectiveness of the
ground wire on the reduction of the induce voltages should also account for
the ground conductivity, which is an important message the author would
like to convey.
Protective Ratio-Positive peaks Horizontal Configuration
Inf
0.01
0.001
0.0001
1.2
Protective Ratio
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
tf
Vo
Yo
500 m
tf
Vo
Yo
tf
1500 m
Variables-Observation Point
Vo
Yo
2000 m
Protective Ratio Vertical Configuration

Inf
0.01
0.001
0.0001
1.2
Protective Ratio
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
tf
Vo
500 m
Yo
tf
Vo
Yo
1500 m
Variables-Observation points
tf
Vo
Yo
2000 m
Figure 4.15. Average Protective Ratio for the maximum positive peak achieved. Up:
Horizontal configuration. Down: Vertical configuration.
53
Negative Protective Ratio-Horizontal Configuration

Inf
0.01
0.001
0.0001
1.8
1.6
1.4
Protective Ratio
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
tf
Vo
Yo
500 m
tf
Vo
Yo
tf
1500 m
Variables-Observation point
Vo
Yo
2000 m
Negative Protective Ratio-Vertical Configuration

Inf
0.01
0.001
0.0001
2
1.8
1.6
Protective Ratio
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
tf
Vo
500 m
Yo
tf
Vo
Yo
1500 m
Variable-Observation Points
tf
Vo
Yo
2000 m
Figure 4.16. Average Protective Ratio for the minimum negative peak achieved. Up:
Horizontal configuration. Down: Vertical configuration.
4.4 Measurements of lightning transients entering a

Swedish railway facility [VII]
Until now, all the results analyzed in the thesis are based on exhaustive numerical calculations and not based on experimental investigations. Therefore
one could question the validity of models and simulations discussed in this
thesis. To validate one needs to have experimental results for a later com54
parison with the theory. Special attention should be given to large distributed
networks where the system components are exposed to direct or indirect
lightning strikes. In this regard, various experimental results have been reported with distribution power system based on natural lightning flashes [8084] or from triggered lightning [6, 85-88]. However, not much field data is
available related to transients coupling with electrified railway systems a
system much different from the conventional power distribution system. In
the summer 2003, Uppsala University in association with the Swedish Railway Administration (Banverket) decided to investigate how lightning transient enter into the railway systems. The chosen place for the measurement
was a technical house at Tierp station, approximately 60 km from Uppsala.
4.4.1 Measurement system

The measurement station was located at 17.51 degrees longitude and
60.3467 latitude. The cable entering into the technical house is shown in
figure 4.17. The auxiliary power supply cable enters first into the switchgear
unit and then to a three-phase step down transformer and through the fuse
unit reaches the Banverket local supply unit. Measurements were made at
this point using a data acquisition system (DAQ) as shown in the figure 4.17.
Figure 4.17. Entrance of auxiliary power cable into the technical house.
A four channel programmable Data Acquisition (DAQ) system NIPCI6115,

controlled through a desktop computer was connected to four sensors measuring electric field near the track, phase voltage, phase current, and earth
current, respectively. Detailed information related to the measurement setup
is given in paper [VII].
55
4.4.2 Discussion
The measurement system was installed in Tierp on May 22, 2003 and operated until September 03, 2003. Although it was aimed to record the transients caused by lightning, it was found that the system has several transients
apparently not caused by lightning, but probably caused by switching operations, arcing at pantograph etc. We do not consider those events and concentrate only on the transients that were caused due to lightning. Since the electric field antenna was placed to correlate a given event with a lightning flash,
we considered only the case where the trigger settings were kept on electric
field (channel 0). By comparing the data from lightning location system, it
was found that in the year 2003 within a radius of 50km around the measurement station 7757 strokes were recorded. The largest lightning activity
took place on 30th of July and about 1500 strokes were recorded by the
lightning location system. In the paper [VII] we show measured transient
records for two flashes corresponding to the 30th of July. Records corresponding to two flashes, 15.40.35.625 (flash 1) and 16.01.01.905 (flash 2).
The flash name indicates the time stamp of the data acquisition computer.
The overall electric field record, phase to neutral voltage and the earth current flowing out of the equipotential bar are presented in paper [VII]. The
phase current was not shown because no appreciable current above the noise
level was registered. For flash 1, there are two return strokes at about 7 ms
and 20 ms. For flash 2 there are about four return strokes at about 16 ms, 42
ms, 80 ms and 110 ms. The bipolar pulses corresponding to the preliminary
breakdown activity in the cloud also can be seen at around 0 ms, before the
first return strokes in both the flashes. The vertical scale of the electric field
record has to be multiplied by some unknown constant, because it is not
calibrated. The maximum recorded over voltage is about 4 kV. It is to be
noticed that the phase to neutral voltage signature resembles the derivative of
the electric field, while the earth current wave shape is more like the electric
field. It should be mentioned that the transformer transfer function has a
large influence on the transferred surge from primary to secondary [89].
It is important to be mentioned that it was not possible to identify the lightning flashes that caused the records corresponding to flash 1 and flash 2 due
to timing problem as described below. The time recorded by the DAQ system upon a field trigger was corresponding to the computer time whereas the
lightning location system was recording the strokes based on the GMT time.
In addition to that the computer time was not corrected with every hour or
day as the measurement station was not accessible at such a convenience.
For example, on July 29, the computer time was adjusted to GMT within one
second accuracy. On August 5, it was found that the computer time has
drifted ahead of GMT time by 37 seconds. This result in about 5.3 seconds
drift per day assuming a linear relation which it might not be the real case.
56
Consequently all the stroke locations 37 seconds earlier than flash 1 and
flash 2 are included as possible lightning strokes corresponding to this two
measured events. The recorded current and voltages are summarized in table
4.3 for flash 1 and flash 2.
Table 4.3. Measured currents and voltages at the technical house at Tierp
Event ID
Line to neutral Voltage [kV]
Earth Current [A]
Flash 1
Flash 2
4.1 kV
3.6 kV
0.28
0.55
The corresponding electric field measured for flash 1 and 2 had a difference
about 1 unit for first return strokes. An important remark from the data collected is that the supply voltage waveforms were not found in all the records
that were created between the times 15.37.49 to 15.41.08 on July 30. The
reason for this could be that the 22 kV auxiliary power conductors were not
carrying power during this period possibly due to a switching operation related to lightning. By comparing the recorded electric field for the above
mentioned events, it can be seen that the polarity are similar. But if we observe the corresponding voltages we see that the initial polarities of the two
are opposite. Similar behavior for the polarity is seen if we compare the corresponding earth currents. At present we dont know the reason for this difference in polarity.
4.5 Breakdown mechanism in lightning induced

effects: The role of arc resistance [VIII]
Various electrical breakdown process are in association with the different
physical stages of a Lightning flash namely preliminary breakdown, return
stroke, dart leader, among others. Indeed, lightning is considered the larger
electrical discharge taking place in nature. Also, on the lightning induced
overvoltage context, the electromagnetic field impinging an overhead power
line can give rise to a flash over either within two conductors, along the insulator or over the surge protective devices. Therefore, it is essential to understand how this electrical breakdown process could be adequately model for a
better understanding of its physical mechanism as well as for engineering
applications. Several physical parameters/properties have been modeled in
the literature and the resistance of the spark channel is one of them. More
importantly, an understanding of the way in which the resistance of the spark
channel varies as a function of time is important, not only for the comprehension of the gas discharge physics but also in various industrial applications where electric sparks are used as ultra fast switches. However, the experimental data reported in the literature on the temporal variation of the
57
resistance of spark channels is scanty [90]-[95] and it is inherent more experimental data on the subject.
Recently, Engel et al. [96] compared the experimental results associated
with the resistance of a spark channel as reported in [97] with the predictions
of several theoretical models. It was showed in [96] that some theories agree
better with the experimental data than others. However, the current waveform used in [97] had a very short decay time, i.e., about 3 Ps. Moreover, the
majority of the current wave form reported in regards to the arc resistance
channel has time durations shorter than 10 Ps. More importantly, Norinder
and Karsten [98] presented in 1948 a pioneer work whereas the resistance of
the spark channel for various gap lengths was measured. The maximum peak
current obtained by Norinder and Karsten was between 23-100kA [98].
However, their generated current was ring type with a decay time of 60 Ps. It
is to be noticed that no data have been reported in the literature for lightning
current impulse with a long decay time. Therefore, it is of interest to investigate how various theories fare with experimental data of this kind. In this
section the results of two experiments conducted to measure the time varying
resistance of spark channels are discussed. In the first experiment a 1cm gap
spark channel was created by using current impulses generator with peak
values between 35kA and 48kA. The second experiment is the results of a
12.8cm gap channel with peak currents amplitudes ranging from 200A to
2200A. The results are presented in paper [VIII].
4.5.1 Experimental setup

For the first experiment, a high energy discharge with a 10/350 s current
impulse was created between two spherical electrodes kept approximately
1cm apart. This current impulse was produced with a Haefely impulse current generator. Several data sets were collected for two different peak current
values of 38kA and 48kA. For the current measurement, a Rogowski coil
(Pearson Current monitor 1080, 200 kA, 1.5MHz, 250 ns) connected to a PC
via a data acquisition card (Dias 733 from Haefely) was used. The voltage
was measured using a high voltage probe of type North Star PVM-5 connected to a Leccroy LC574, 1GHz, 4Gsa/s transient recorder. The computer
with the data acquisition card was placed in a separate screened room while
the transient recorder was placed closer to the experimental setup, in the high
voltage hall, in a screened box and isolated from the main power supply by
means of UPS.
In second experiment (where the spark was created by the Marx generator),
it was observe that it over shoots the zero line becoming negative for a short
period of time. This negative overshoot in the voltage is created partly by the
inductance in the circuit and partly due to the response of the voltage di58
vider. These effects can be corrected by using the procedure outlined in [99].
The corrected waveform is shown in figure 4.18 by the solid line. Observe
that the overshoot disappear almost completely after the application of the
correction
1
0.9
0.8
Voltage [p.u.]
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
Time [us]
1.6
1.8
2.2
Figure 4.18. Normalized measured voltage across a 12.8 cm gap. Doted line: Raw
voltage measurement. Solid line: Voltage corrected as in [99].
4.5.2 Discussion
In total six different models were evaluated and compared with the experimental results namely Barannik et al.[90], Demenik et al. [91], Kushner et
al. [92], Rompe and Weizel [93], Toepler [94] and Vlastos [95]. The comparison indicates that the resistance models need to be improved due to the
large disagreement with the obtained data. It is important to be noticed that
the models reported by Demenik et al. [91], Kushner et al. [92] and Vlastos
[95] are function of the radius of the arc resistance. Consequently, the dynamic model of the arc resistance radius presented by Braginskii was used.
This radius formulation is not function of the gap length. Therefore, it will
lead to same channel radius irrespectively of the length of the spark. Furthermore, for small distances, the electrode effects play an important role on
the dynamic behavior of the arc channel. Therefore, further investigation
leading to more accurate resistance formulation is needed.
It was observed that the majority of the models present larger differences
especially with the experimental results obtained with the high energetic
current impulse (current generator). However, this is not the case for
Kushner et al. model. Hence, to have better match with the recent experiments, a new set of constants for the model has to be establish. The experi59
mental results indicate that these constants can not be a fix value. It has to be
connected to the energy dissipated in the spark.
Also, the result shows the importance on various corrections that we have
made in the present study. If the anode and cathode voltage drop would have
not been considered for the case of small gaps, larger discrepancy between
theory and practice were expected. However, as can be observed from the
results in paper [VIII], the simulation and experimental results are overlapped. On the other hand, if the obtained voltage with the Marx generator
experiment would have not been corrected, negative resistance values will be
obtained. Therefore, it is important to quantify the unwanted distortion on
the measured voltage that could lead to erroneous results.
60
5 Response Of Surge Protective Devices To

Lightning Type Transients
Up to now, the lightning electromagnetic environment and its interaction

with distributed systems were investigated. No details about the components
designed to divert the transients have been made. In this chapter experimental results of the transient response of Surge Protective Devices (SPDs)
against fast impulses will be discussed. The time derivatives of the currents
used during the experiments were corresponding to the subsequent return
strokes [12]. Those experiential results were compared with SPDs response
to standard 8/20 s lightning current impulses. Also, to investigate how
various theories agree with experimental data, two varistor models available
in the literature were compared against the experimental data. Finally, a brief
account on the response of SPDs against fast voltage impulses is given. This
chapter will cover the results presented in papers [IX] and [X].
5.1 Varistor models

Various mathematical models to represent the transient behavior of Metal
Oxide Varistor (MOV) have been developed based on standard lightning
impulse tests. These models are routinely used in ATP-EMTP type programs
for the analysis of the various electronic circuits under transient conditions.
In this section two of these models namely Simplified Varistor model [100]
and Durbaks model [101] will be presented.
5.1.1 Simplified varistor model.

The simplest varistor model consists of a combination of resistance, inductance and capacitance. The first two represent the characteristics of the leads
of the component while the last one represents the properties of the material
and packaging. All these three components will be connected with a variable
resistor, which represent the non-linear characteristic of the varistor.
61
L
C
Figure 5.1. Simplified Varistor model
The V-I characteristic for the non-linear branch is given in [102] and is
mathematically represented as,
log(u ) b1 b2 log(i ) b3 e log(i ) b4 e log(i )
(5.1)
In equation (5.1) i is the varistor current and b1, b2, b3, b4 are constant values
defined in [102] for a given varistor type.
5.1.2 Durbaks varistor model

The IEEE working group [100] strongly recommends the use of Durbaks
model [101] for transient analysis with varistors. The characteristic of the
variable resistor associated with this model is represented by two non-linear
branches, A0 and A1, separated by an R, L parallel combination that will play
an important role for fast front signals. The equivalent circuit diagram for
this varistor model is presented in figure 5.2.
L0
L1
R0
R1
A0
A1
Figure 5.2. Durbaks Varistor model
Observe that if the circuit component values are properly selected for high
frequency signals, the inductance L1 will limit the current flow through the
non-linear branch A1 while for low frequencies; these two non-linear
branches will be in parallel. By combining these two branches, it is expected
that the model could have a better performance at different frequency ranges.
Therefore, the assumed values of the two nonlinear components will considerably affect the models response at different frequencies. According to
[103], the V-I characteristic of the two non-linear components is obtained by
62
the ratio currents flowing in A0 and A1 branches. Consequently, in [103] a

current ratio equal 0.02 is recommended. Based on this assumption, the V-I
characteristics (A0, A1) were determined. These are shown in figure 5.3.
3
A0
A1
2.95
2.9
Voltage [V]
2.85
2.8
2.75
2.7
2.65
2.6
0
10
10
10
Current [A]
10
10
Figure 5.3. Calculated V-I characteristic used for Durbaks varistor model according
to [103]. Continuous line A0, Dashed line: A1.
5.2 Experimental setup

5.2.1 Fast transient impulse current generator
The Fast Transient Generator or Roman Generator, developed at Uppsala University by Roman [104-105] was used as a High Current Derivative
Impulse Generator. The generator produced peak currents up to 1500A
with 10 ns rise time and its rate-of-rise is in the order of 1011 A/s. The current impulse is ring wave type as shown in figure 5.4. The Voltage and current waveforms were recorded with LeCroy 9350L oscilloscope with sampling rate of 500 Ms/s. The voltage drop across the test sample was measured with 3 Tektronix resistive voltage attenuators, which gives total attenuation of 1000 times. The step response of the voltage measurement
system is presented in figure 5.5.
63
Current [A]
(a)
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
100
200
300
400
500
600
time [nsec]
700
800
900
1000
Amplitude
0.8
(b)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
6
10
10
10
10
log(f)
Figure 5.4. (a) Fast current impulse produced by Roman Generator (b) Normalized
frequency spectrum
12
Voltage [V]
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
10
(a)
Time [ns]
12
Voltage [V]
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
0.5
1
Time [ns]
1.5
(b)
Figure 5.5. (a) Continuous line: input voltage impulse, Dash line: voltage measurement setup response. (b) Initial portion of the impulse response. Continuous line:
input voltage impulse. Dashed line: voltage measurement setup response.
64
The voltage measurement setup was a coaxial assembly which was necessary to observe the sub-microsecond pulse without any test connections artifacts [106-108]. The Current was measured with a Rogowoski coil (EATON
Current Probe, 10 kA, 520 A/V) terminated with a 50 resistor at channel
entrance to the oscilloscope. For all the measurements a pre-trigger of 100 ns
was used to have the complete picture of the full transient behavior of the
SPD.
5.2.2 Standard 8/20 Ps lightning impulse generator

To inject a standard 8/20 s lightning current impulse to the test sample, a
NSG650 Schaffner generator was used. The voltage and current signatures
were recorded with a LeCroy 9350L oscilloscope with sampling rate of
250Ms/s. A Tektronix P6015A high voltage probe with inner impedance of
100 M, bandwidth of 75MHz and a 1000 times attenuation factor was used
for voltage measurements. The current was measured with a 5kA Rogowoski
coil which gives 20 A/V (Pulse current transformer model 411) terminated
with a 50 resistor and 10 times attenuation was added at the channel input
of the oscilloscope.
5.3 Discussion
It was observed from the experimental results that the SPDs had a fast response time when they were subjected to fast transient impulse currents. In
most of the cases, the current amplitude was reduced to less than 50% of the
peak value within the first two cycles. Also, the total duration of the applied
current impulse, as seen from figure 5.4, was reduced to around 600 ns for
the gas discharge tubes. On the other hand for the varistors, the peak current
amplitude was reduced to less than 20% within the first two cycles with total
pulse duration of 200ns. With regard to the time reduction observed experimentally for the fast current impulse, numerical simulations with either of
the varistor models indicated that it could be due to the attenuation associated with the bulk resistance of the varistor (paper IX) itself, i.e., an increase
in the circuit resistance will result in a shorter time duration compared to
generator current under short circuit conditions. Moreover, when the diameter of those disk type varistors decrease, the current impulse time duration
also decrease as shown in figure 5.6. The reason for this is the fact that the
varistor bulk resistance is inversely proportional to the disk area, which is
further proportional to square of the radius. Therefore, a decrease in the disk
diameter will result in a larger current attenuation due to the increase of the
resistance.
65
700
600
500
400
300
200
EC230
EC150
EC90
S05K230
S07K230
S10K230
S14K230
S20K230
S20K150
100
S20K95
Current Impulse Time Duration [ns]
800
Surge Protector Type
Figure 5.6. Observed impulse duration for both tested varistors and GDTs. Triangles: Results associate with sample 1. Square: Results associate with sample 2.
Now consider the voltage signatures. It was observed that the gas discharge
tube presents a narrow spike whose peak was 6 to 7 times larger than their
nominal rated values for each of the components. A similar observation can
be found in the voltage drop across the varistors terminal, i.e., it was almost
7 times higher than their corresponding clamping voltage specified in the
manufacturer data sheet (figure 5.7). Therefore, when a fast current transient
are impressed on the varistors or GDTs, neither the varistors nor the GDTs
will provide the protection level as given by the manufacturer, i.e., it will not
protect the downstream connected loads against such current impulses.
Clamping Voltage [V]
Measured voltage [V]
1200
1000
Voltage [V]
800
600
400
200
0
S07K20
S14K17
S20K20
S20K150
Varistor Type
Figure 5.7. Comparison of the clamping vs. the maximum voltage achieved for a
fast current impulse.
66
If the voltage measured across the SPDs terminals for the two current pulses
previously presented (Fast transient and Standard 8/20 Ps lightning impulse
currents) are compared, it was seen that the clamping voltages due to fast
transients for the tested components are considerably greater than those observed with standard 8/20 s lightning current impulses.
Maximum Clamping Voltage [V]
1250
(a)
1200
1150
1100
1050
1000
950
900
850
S05K230
S07K230
S10K230
S14K230
S20K230
800
1400
(b)
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
S05K230
S07K230
S10K230
S14K230
0
S20K230
Maximum Clamping Voltage[V]
Varistor Type
Varistor Type
Figure 5.8. (a) Maximum clamping voltage vs. different varistor sizes from fast
transient generator. (b) Maximum clamping voltage vs. different varistor sizes from
Schaffner generator. Triangles: Results corresponding to sample 1. Square: Results
corresponding to sample 2.
It is observed from figure 5.8b that decreasing the disk diameter of the varistor result in higher clamping voltage. However, no clear conclusion can be
made for fast current impulse test results. The reason for this could be the
following: for the standard 8/20 Ps current impulse, the inductive impedance
of the leads is much smaller than the bulk resistance of the varistor, i.e., the
transient response of the varistor will be controlled mainly by the varistor
67
resistance. However, when the varistor is subjected to high current derivative

impulses, its response are governed by the inductance of the leads, i.e., the
influence of the non linear resistance of the varistor becomes less dominant.
Also, it was observed that when the injected peak current values are increased, the current impulse time duration also increased. This can be explained by considering only the envelope function of the analytical expression for the ring wave form given by equation (5.2),
I1
I Max e D t1
(5.2)
In equation (5.2) D is indirectly connected to the resistance, inductance and

capacitance of the experimental setup, i.e., generator and the test object.
t1
I
ln Max
D I1
1
(5.3)
Equation (5.3) clearly shows that the time of appearance of a given current
value is proportional to the peak current of that given signal.
Another important observation was that when the series combination of a
varistor and a GDT was investigated, significant differences in the time duration of the currents impulses were obtained. When the varistor is connected to the line the pulse duration is around 400 ns while for the case when
the GDT was connected to the line the pulse decay in around 250 ns. This
observation was not expected since if it is considered that the transient response of both surge protectors is polarity independent [108]. Moreover, if
the current signatures are different for the two cases analyzed (varsitor connected to the line or GDT connected to the line), then one could expect some
difference also on the voltage signature. However, the voltages recorded for
the two study cases are almost identical. The author expresses his difficulty
to explain this unexpected result and proposes that further investigation has
to be made in order to have a better understanding of this phenomenon.
With regard to the compassion between varistor models and experimental
results, it was observed that for all the cases with slow front current input
signal, the models are capable of reproducing the behavior of the varistor
with a good accuracy. However, a closer look at the initial portion of the
measured voltage signals and simulated voltages, it was seen that there are
differences. On the other hand, when the comparison are made between the
experimental results and Durbaks model, for the varistors with fast transient
current impulses, a better agreement was found than the simple varistor
model. However, the peak values obtained by using these two models did
not differ considerably.
68
Also, it is important to mention that the results obtained by using the Roman
Generator show that the resistance of the varistor during the conduction
stage can also depend on the fast current signatures. The results indicate that
even the bulk resistance may vary as a function of time. These dependencies
are probably due to the skin depth of the varistor material. An experimental
data corresponding to this situation is shown in figure 5.9.
4.5
3.5
Resistance (Ohms)
2.5
1.5
0.5
-0.5
-1.5
-2.5
-3.5
-4.5
0.00
20.00
40.00
60.00
80.00
100.00
120.00
140.00
time (ns)
Figure 5.9. Resistance value of varistor S20K150 obtained when the voltage waveform is divided by the current waveform. An approximate resistance value for the
varistor bulk resistance of 1 Ohm is obtained.
The author would like to emphasize that, the over voltage protection
schemes cannot be decided based on the conventional data provided by the
manufacturer of the SPDs. The results based on such data may not be valid
for very fast incoming transients. Such fast transients could produce high
voltage stresses resulting in a serious damage to the devices that are to be
protected. Therefore a new concept of overvoltage protection has to be developed to cover the different shapes of transients (fast and slow), that could
be generated in electrical networks due to lightning flashes.
69
6 Conclusions and Scopes for Future Works
6.1 Concluding remarks

In this thesis investigations on various key issues associated with the lightning interaction phenomena with overhead distribution power lines have
been carried out. The following are the list important conclusions/contributions that can be derived from the thesis:
a) Return stroke phenomena: - Return stroke modeling was carried out
to reproduce the experimentally observed remote lightning electromagnetic fields, so as to have a proper source representation. This is
because the lightning induced voltages on any given system depend
mainly on the incident lightning electromagnetic fields. The return
stroke model developed belongs to the current generation type and
was applicable to both negative and positive first return strokes. The
key feature of the model is in its capability to reproduce the slow
front of the channel base current waveform for first return strokes
due to the connecting leaders. In the model, this feature is mathematically represented as a modification in the velocity profile of
upward connecting leader. It is also shown that the channel base current models belonging to the current generation type available in the
literature may produce electromagnetic fields with characteristics
that are different from the experimental observations when the channel base current contains a slow front.
b) Implementing Agrawal et al. field to wire coupling models in ATPEMTP: - In this thesis, it has been shown that there are difficulties in
implementing the Agrawal et al. field to wire coupling models in
user friendly transient analysis packages. Therefore a new and computationally efficient technique based on circuit theory is proposed
for an easier implementation of Agrawal et al. field to wire coupling
models in ATP-EMTP a like ATP-EMTP (a package widely used by
power engineers). This was necessary so that the built in line models
of ATP-EMTP can be easily included in conjunction with Agrawal
et al. model.
71
c) Judging the validity of coupling models: - An important question is

how to judge the validity of a given model. In this thesis it is shown
that judging the validity of coupling models by just simulating specific/special cases alone is incomplete and it is claimed/shown that a
more appropriate statistical comparisons have to be for a judicious
judgment. Two field to wire coupling models namely Chowdhuri
Gross model [36] and Agrawal et al. model [38] were compared, it
was demonstrated that the differences among the two models exists
only for very particular cases of stroke location and its orientation to
the line. Moreover, it was also shown that the above said differences
do not have significant influences, when a statistical type of analysis
(Monte Carlo method) for outage calculations and insulation coordination practices are carried out.
d) Surge transfer through distribution transformers: - A detailed study
has been carried out to investigate the transients sneaking through a
distribution type transformer from high voltage side to low voltage
side. The simulation shows a dramatic change in the voltage signatures when the comparisons are made between the high voltage and
low voltage sides of the transformer. The transferred surge at the
low voltage side propagates along the overhead line and combines
with the fictitious sources existing along the line due to the field to
wire coupling mechanisms. Hence at the load terminal a modified
transformer secondary induced voltages appear which has to be considered for appropriate insulation coordination. Also, the protection
level achieved by connecting a surge protector on the low voltage
side of the transformer alone is not sufficient. The main reason is
that, there is a major contribution on the load side due to the lightning electromagnetic fields coupling to the distribution line.
e) Transients sneaking into a typical HVDC converter station: - A
study was made to see the response of a typical HVDC converter
station when lightning flashes occur in the vicinity of high voltage
DC transmission line systems. The simulation shows that the magnitudes of induced voltages are not harmful for the selected system
configuration (6 pulse diode bridge converter with and without harmonic filter). Also, the transients were entering into the converter
station from the DC to AC side without any attenuation/distortion in
the wave shape no matter whether harmonic filters exist or not.
f) Parameters that influence lightning induced voltages in distribution
systems: - For the sensitivity analysis two different distribution
power line configurations were chosen (vertical phase wire ar72
rangement and horizontal phase wire arrangement). Several cases

were studied with the variables as ground conductivity, return stroke
velocity, position of the stroke from the line centre, stroke current
rise time, presence and absence of overhead ground wire and position of the voltage induced along the line. The results indicate that
the ground conductivity has a large influence on the wave shape and
the amplitude of the induced voltages. A bipolar nature in the induced voltage wave forms were obtained when the finitely conducting ground was included and this feature dominates with decreasing
ground conductivity. This phenomenon also influences the induced
voltages on the phase wires when two different distribution power
line configurations were analyzed with and without ground wires.
Therefore, the amplitude of both polarities of lightning induced voltages has to be considered for appropriate insulation coordination
practices.
g) Lightning transients entering typical Swedish railway facility: -For
the first time lightning transients entering the local power supply of
a typical Swedish railway facility located at Tierp in Sweden were
measured. This was necessary for validating the models and simulations presented in the thesis as a future study. At this facility, cloud
to ground lightning at a distance of 5 10 km caused peak over
voltage of 3 5 kV in the low voltage auxiliary power supply network.
h) Role of arc resistance in lightning interaction studies: -In regards
with the study undertaken to measure the resistance of spark channels in air with two different current waveforms, the results show
that the resistance of spark channels initially decreases, reaches a
minimum value and then recover as the current in the spark gap decreases. The minimum resistance of spark channel decreases with
increasing peak current. The results were compared with various
theories that attempt to predict the temporal variation of the resistance of spark channels. This comparison shows that further developments in the existing theoretical models are needed in order to reproduce with better accuracy the dynamic behavior of the channel
resistance.
i)
Response of SPDs to lightning transients: - How reliable are the existing commercial SPDs to lighting type transients? To answer this
questions investigations have been carried out to study the behavior
of SPDs when subjected to fast (representative of typical subsequent
strokes) and slow (representative of typical first strokes) lightning
type transients. When SPDs are subjected with high current deriva73
tive impulses, the results clearly reveal that the clamping voltage due
to these fast transients was considerably larger than the one observed
with standard 8/20s current impulses. Study was also made to
evaluate the applicability of existing varistor models developed for
transient analysis. By comparing two available models of varistor, it
was shown that for a slow front impulse, those two models had a
good agreement with the experimental data. However, for current
impulses into the sub-nanosecond range, further modifications on
the existing models are required.
6.2 Scope for future work

The author is aware of the fact that there are several aspects of lightning
interaction with power distribution systems that needs further deeper investigation so as to advance our knowledge in lightning protection and EMC.
Some of the issues that came into the authors notice during the making of
this thesis and based on his experiences with the subject under study could
be the following:
74
Although a methodology was presented for the efficient implementation of Agrawal et al. model in ATP-EMTP, it would be
also advantageous to have a simple model that could consider
the ground loses effects on the propagating lightning electromagnetic fields.
Underground power distribution system has considerably increased in the last decade, especially in urban areas. However,
no calculation/methodology has been reported in the literature to
evaluate the lightning electromagnetic field interaction with underground power distribution systems. Therefore there is a scope
to extend the models and analysis presented in the thesis to such
systems too.
Different models to predict the behavior of the surge protection

devices can be found in the literature. However, the majority of
these models have been developed based on standard lightning
voltage/current impulses. Such standard impulses do not cover
the complete lightning frequency spectrum, i.e., submicrosecond components are ignored. It was shown in this thesis
that, existing models for varistors are incapable of reproducing
the experimentally observed varistor responses under fast transients. Therefore, further developments are necessary for devel-
oping better varistor models that are applicable to faster transients as well.
x
The results of the comparison of various arc resistances model

were previously presented in the thesis whereas considerably
differences were found between the theoretical models and the
experimental results.
Finally, there are still many open questions with regard to the subject of this
thesis or missed a mention in the thesis. The author strongly believes that
even though the problems previously presented are efficiently solved, there
will be always new observations or phenomena or problems from Mother
Nature. All these will keep us wondering and keep us alive as a researcher.
75
7 Sammanfattning
Det moderna informationssamhllets har idag ett stort frtroende till komplexa elektriska och elektroniska system. Frn kundens sida anses ett avbrott
vara helt oacceptabelt och implikationerna/konsekvenserna av dessa avbrott
har blivigt vldigt djupgende. Drfr, i de mnesomrden som involverar
stora distribuerade system ssom telekommunikation, kabel-tv, LAN- och
WAN ntverk etc. r industrin idag hngiven att hitta och utveckla avancerad teknologi och metoder fr att garantera normal drift av olika sammankopplade elektriska och elektroniska ntverk/system. Ett av de strsta system
som frser slutanvndaren r el-kraftntet, som r sammankopplat och leder
till fler mindre komplexa system. Det r vanligt med transient fenomen i
dessa system och kan uppst genom ett brott p en ledning, en brytning av en
strm eller ett blixtnedslag (direkt eller indirekt). Beroende p magnitud och
frekvens utseende hos de olika transienterna (ver-spnningarna/strmmarna) kommer skada p el-kraftntet att vara ofrnkomlig, men p.g.a. sammankoppling till komplex knsliga ntverk kommer ven dessa att vara utsatta
fr transienterna. P grund av detta finns det ett kat krav p att frst karakteristiken hos och konsekvenserna av de olika typer av transienter som intrffar i olika system. Med detta i tanke r denna avhandling ett frsk att
studera transienterna frn ska (blixtnedslag), som r ett ofrnkomligt naturfenomen. Fr att korrekt terge interaktionen mellan blixtens elektromagnetiska flt och de elektriska ntverken, r det vsentligt att ha en modell fr
den s.k. terledaren som r kapabel att reproducera den elektromagnetiska
karakteristiken av en blixt. Flera modeller har utvecklats fr att studera
kopplingen mellan det elektromagnetiska fltet och trd/ledarstrukturer. Den
populraste, enklaste och mest noggranna bland de tillgngliga modellerna
r Agrawal et. al. I denna r kopplingsmekanismen representerad av flera
distribuerade kllor/generatorer lngst ledarstrukturen, varav varenda distribuerad klla r relaterad till den horisontella komponenten av det infallande
elektromagnetiska fltet vid just den punkten av ledaren. andra sidan,
ATP-EMTP r ett vlknt transientsimulationsprogram, vidaspritt bland
elkraftsingenjrer. I detta programpaket finns inbyggda modeller av Semlyen, Marti eller Noda uppstllningar. Det finns ett problem med att applicera
Agrawal et. al. modellen med de inbygga elkraftsledarmodellerna i ATPETMP, vilket r att spnningskllan frn den horisontella komponenten av
det elektriska fltet i Agrawal et. al. r i serie med impedansen i ledarstrukturen och inte mellan tv transmissionsledarsegment. Utver detta propagerar
77
det elektromagnetiska fltet som kopplar med elkraftsledarna ver ett ndligt
ledande jordplan. Drfr kommer jordmnen att selektivt absorbera hgfrekventa komponenter hos det elektromagnetiska fltet, vilket leder till en
frndring av vgformen. En ndligt ledande jord kommer ocks att producera komponenter p markniv av fltet som r horisontella. Flera approximationer finns tillgngliga i litteraturen fr att berkna det horisontella elektriska fltet, dribland the wave-tilt, ytimpedans och Cooray-Rubenstein
approximationen. Drfr r det viktigt att studera frndringen av den inducerade spnningen nr elkraftsledaren befinner sig ver ett ndligt ledande
plan. Drver, fr att skydda frn transienter inducerade frn blixtnedslag
(direkt eller indirekt) r det ndvndigt att anvnda verslagsskydd (eng.
surge protective devices, SPD) kapabla att avleda inkommande transienter
fr att undkomma skada i knsliga system. Emellertid tar standard procedurer fr att testa SPDer inte i tanke existerande submikrosekunds fenomen
hos transinterna. Drfr, fr att kunna skydda knslig utrustning p lgspnnings sidan av ntet r det av yttersta ndvndighet att frst responsen hos
SPDer nr utsatta fr transienter med hg strmderivata.
Denna avhandling r riktad mot att underska problemen som beskrivs ovan.
Speciellt studeras en ny modell fr terledaren, en ansats med en enkel
kretsmodell fr att p ett effektivt stt applicera Agrawal et. al. modellen i
ATP-EMTP, effekten av jordmns konduktiviteten p karakteristiken av den
inducerade spnningen samt responsen hos SPDer nr de utstts fr transienter med extremt hg strmderivata.
78
8 Acknowledgments
It has been an honor and great pleasure to pursue my Ph.D. studies at the
Division for Electricity and Lightning Research at Uppsala University, a
world class institution with more than 70 years of experience in the field.
During these last five years in Uppsala, I had the opportunity to cooperate
with a large number of people that have made this moment possible to happen. Therefore, I would like to express my gratitude to:
Prof. Vernon Cooray, a brilliant scientist, a person with a great imagination
and excellent communication skills. Someone who takes a complex subject
and reformulates it in a way that anyone can understand every single detail.
I am grateful to him and I would like to express my sincere thanks for giving
me the opportunity to learn and do research under his extraordinary guidance.
Prof. Rajeev Thottappillil, for sharing with me his knowledge and practical
expertise in the field of Electromagnetic Compatibility and Lightning. His
advices always came at the right moment, which helped me to keep going
during hard times. His excellent guidance, continuous support and encouraging attitude make me feel confident to face upcoming challenges in my future research career.
Prof. Viktor Scuka, who always was available when his help was required. I
have immense gratitude to Prof. Francisco Roman for introducing me to the
field of surge protection devices and for sharing with me all his experimental
expertise, no matter in which part of the globe he was.
Dr. Nelson Theethayi, for the support and continuous encouragement during
these 5 years of research. For his interesting and fruitful technical discussions. A person that will never let aside a good idea, keeping on developing
it until finally it becomes an excellent scientific contribution. But more importantly, many thanks for his invaluable friendship.
Mr. Ulf Ring, a genius with excellent skills to create whatever experimental
setup was needed. For his help and assistance in anything that was necessary. For the greats moments we shared together in the High Voltage Lab.
79
Ms. Gunnel Ivarsson and Mr.Thomas Gtschl for being always there to help
me whenever it was required.
Mr. Marley Becerra, for the great moments spent either discussing technical
problems, or philosophizing on what should be our task and duties as scientists, or simply while having fun during a drink on a Friday night.
Mr. Daniel Mnsson, for his assistance and help on several high voltages
activities, good technical discussions and for always bringing crazy comments that made us all laugh and relax on the most stressing moments. Also,
for his help during the writing of the thesis sammanfattning.
Dr. Yaqing Liu and Dr. Mighanda Manyahi, for the interesting technical
discussions, for their friendship and the fun times while sharing the room.
Also, I would like to thank Dr. Mihael Zitnik for his guidance during the
high voltage training.
Mr. Surajit Midya, a new young student that joined recently Uppsala University and who brought a fresh attitude with good scientific skills to our group.
Prof. Miguel Martinez, Prof. P. Chowdhuri and Mr. Mauricio Aristizabal for
believing in a thesis proposal that later was awarded with the best student
paper/thesis at the IEEE winter meeting 2002.
Jakke Makela, for all the interesting scientific discussions with practical
purposes, held during the last year and also for letting me get close to his
beautiful family. Also, I would like to express my gratitude to the members
of his working group, Mr. Joni Jantunen, Mr. Ari Hamalainen, Mr. Tom
Ahola and Mr. Niko Porjo. They showed me that a good team attitude can
make a great difference while doing research.
In April 2005, I had the great opportunity to meet an extraordinary team at
Colombo University, Sri Lanka. Thus, I have a great appreciation to Prof.
Mahendra Fernando, Prof. Chandima Gomez and Prof. Upul Sonnadara, for
their help, assistance and for providing a great environment to do research.
Also, the measurement campaign would have not been possible without the
assistance of Mr. Velupillei Jeyanthiran, Mr. S. R. Sharma, Mr. J. A. P. Bodhika, Mr. Chandana Perera, Mr. Suranga Edirisinghe and Mr. Nishshanka
Jayawantha. This great research team made me feel like at home. Special
thanks to Mr. Karunarathna who was always taking good care of us during
this measurement campaign.
I also had the opportunity to meet and cooperate with two great young researchers from the University of Colombo, Sri Lanka, excellent colleagues
80
and with whom I am proud to be co-author in several publications. Therefore, I am thankful to Mr. Prasanna Liyanage and Mr. Mahesh Edirisinghe
for the good time spent during several experiments and technical discussions.
I had also the opportunity to meet good friends in Sweden who always made
me feel at home, they taught me many things that are not possible to find in
books and shared great moments based on their life experiences. These special thanks go to Mr. Carlos Rios, Mrs. Elvia Serrano, Mr. Francisco Valeska, Mrs. Claudia Loaiza, Mr. Carlos Geywitz, Maria Fernanda Gomez,
Timo Marquez and Alexander Kessar. Thanks for all the great moments and
good philosophical discussions that we had.
I would have never been able to reach this moment if during the summer
1992 I would not had the opportunity to improve my English skills and
shared good moments with my relatives in Trinidad and Tobago. I am grateful to all of them for being supportive to my initiatives.
To all the staff and colleagues at the Division for Electricity and Lightning
Research which in different ways have provided me assistance during my
Ph. D. studies.
Last but not least, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my wife,
Marianne; my mother, Raiza; my sisters, Lisbeth A, Lisbeth; my brothers,
Rafael, and Juan C.; my grandparents, Cruz R. and Brigida; my uncle Francisco; my aunties, Gloria, Gladys, Beatriz, Elena and Emma; my two nephews, Daniel and Ralph and my good friends Cesar A. and Gustavo, thanks
for continuing supporting and encouraging me to take new challenges in life.
81
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89
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This thesis consists of the summary of the following publications (either

V. Cooray, R. Montao and V Rakov, A model to represent negative

R. Montao, N. Theethayi, V. Cooray, On the Implementation of

R. Montao, N. Theethayi, V. Cooray, Lightning Induce Over voltage:

R. Montao and V. Cooray Penetration of lightning induced transient

R. Montao and V. Cooray, Induced over voltage sensitivity analysis

N. Theethayi, Y. Liu, R. Thottappillil, T. Gtschl, R. Montano, P. A.

R. Montao, M. Edirisinghe, V. Cooray and F. Roman, Response of

[10.] Y. Liu, Theethayi N, Gonzalez R. M and Thottappillil R, The residual

[20.] M. Aristizabal, R. Montao, P. Chowdhuri and M. Martnez Lightning

List of Tables .............................................................................................. xiii

Return Stroke Electromagnetic Fields ...................................................5

Lightning Induced Overvoltages On Overhead Power Lines ..............17

Some Practical Applications Of Lightning Induced Overvoltages......39

4.2.1 Case studies - 2 ......................................................................46

Response Of Surge Protective Devices To Lightning Type Transients

Conclusions and Scopes for Future Works..........................................71

List of important symbols and abbreviations

Speed of light in free space

x coordinate of the electromagnetic field evaluation point.

x coordinate of the lightning striking point

Modern society, in this age of information technology, takes it for granted

series of blackouts leaving more than 60 million people without electricity.

In Chapter 3 explains the phenomena of field to wire coupling mechanisms

2 Return Stroke Electromagnetic Fields

2.1 Cloud to ground lightning flash

2.1.1 Cloud to ground lightning return stroke electromagnetic

Based on figure 2.1 and in cylindrical coordinates, the vertical component of

The geometrical parameters h, z, R1 and R2 are defined in figure 2.1, while c

the electrostatic field component become dominant. The influence of the

Having seen the features of experimentally observed remote electromagnetic

2.1.2 Return stroke models

a. Gas dynamic or physical models, which are primarily concerned

Current propagation (CP) models (also termed transmission line

A model to represent negative and positive lightning first

The channel base current is known.

2.1.2.1.1 First negative return stroke

Current, Arbitrary units

the model as a modification of the velocity profile of the discharge phase of

Positive first strokes

Experimental observations based on both electric field and direct current

The velocity profile used in calculating electromagnetic fields is similar to

3 Lightning Induced Overvoltages On

As explained in Chapter 2, every stroke in a given lightning flash produces

3.1 Rusk model

Figure 3.1. Geometry of the problem under consideration.

Figure 3.2. Transmission line segment representing Rusck coupling model.

3.2 Taylor et al. model

3.3 Chowdhuri and Gross model

Figure 3.4. Transmission line segment representing Chowdhuri - Gross coupling

It should be mentioned here that the transmission line equations presented by

3.4 Agrawal et al. model

The corresponding transmission line representation based on Agrawal et al.

Figure 3.5. Distributed circuit representation of Agrawal et al. model.

3.5 Rachidi model

It is interesting to note that Rachidi coupling model in terms of scattered line

The boundary conditions at the line terminations are,

Figure 3.6 shows the transmission line representation of Rachidi model.

Figure 3.6. Transmission line segment representing Rachidi coupling model.

3.7 An overview of the methods used to evaluate

available since late seventies. The inherent advantage of adopting a time

Transmission line model

log(u ) b1 b2 log(i ) b3 e log(i ) b4 e log(i )