Bahan Ajar Manajemen Energi

The What, Why, and How of Energy
Management
This article explains what "energy management" is, why it's important, and how you can use it to
save energy.
We'll start with the "what", and then move on to the "why", and the "how":
What is energy management?

"Energy management" is a term that has a number of meanings, but we're mainly concerned with
the one that relates to saving energy in businesses, public-sector/government organizations, and
homes:
The energy-saving meaning

When it comes to energy saving, energy management is the process of monitoring,
controlling, and conserving energy in a building or organization. Typically this involves the
following steps:
1. Metering your energy consumption and collecting the data.
2. Finding opportunities to save energy, and estimating how much energy each opportunity
could save. You would typically analyze your meter data to find and quantify routine
energy waste, and you might also investigate the energy savings that you could make by
replacing equipment (e.g. lighting) or by upgrading your building's insulation.
3. Taking action to target the opportunities to save energy (i.e. tackling the routine waste
and replacing or upgrading the inefficient equipment). Typically you'd start with the best
opportunities first.
4. Tracking your progress by analyzing your meter data to see how well your energy-saving
efforts have worked.
(And then back to step 2, and the cycle continues...)
To confuse matters, many people use "energy management" to refer specifically to those energysaving efforts that focus on making better use of existing buildings and equipment. Strictly
speaking, this limits things to the behavioural aspects of energy saving (i.e. encouraging people
to use less energy by raising energy awareness), although the use of cheap control equipment
such as timer switches is often included in the definition as well.
The above four-step process applies either way - it's entirely up to you whether you consider
energy-saving measures that involve buying new equipment or upgrading building fabric.
Other meanings
Photo by Valerie Everett

It's not just about saving energy in buildings - the term "energy management" is also used in
other fields:
It's something that energy suppliers (or utility companies) do to ensure that their power
stations and renewable energy sources generate enough energy to meet demand (the
amount of energy that their customers need).
It's used to refer to techniques for managing and controlling one's own levels of personal
energy. We're far from qualified to say anything more about this!
It also has relevance in aviation it's a skill that aircraft pilots learn in some shape or
form. We know nothing about aircraft energy management, but we can at least manage a
picture of a man on a plane...
Anyway, from now on we will pay no more attention to these other definitions - all further
references to "energy management" will be to the energy-saving sort described above.
Home energy management

Whilst energy management has been popular in larger buildings for a long time, it has only
recently started catching on in homes. Most homeowners aren't even aware of the term, and take
more of a haphazard, flying-blind approach to reducing their energy consumption...
But the monitoring- and results-driven approach used by professional energy managers is just as
effective in the home as it is in larger buildings.
So, if you're a homeowner looking to save energy, don't be put off by the fact that this article
focuses more on non-residential buildings. Most of the principles that apply to businesses and
other organizations are also applicable to homes. Certainly the four-step process introduced
above and detailed below is entirely applicable to home energy management.
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Why is it important?
Energy management is the key to saving energy in your organization. Much of the importance of
energy saving stems from the global need to save energy - this global need affects energy prices,
emissions targets, and legislation, all of which lead to several compelling reasons why you
should save energy at your organization specifically.
The global need to save energy

If it wasn't for the global need to save energy, the term "energy management" might never have
even been coined... Globally we need to save energy in order to:
Reduce the damage that we're doing to our planet, Earth. As a human race we would
probably find things rather difficult without the Earth, so it makes good sense to try to
make it last.
Reduce our dependence on the fossil fuels that are becoming increasingly limited in
supply.
Photo by Kevin Dooley

Wind turbines can only do so much - we humans use a lot of energy!
Controlling and reducing energy consumption at your organization

Energy management is the means to controlling and reducing your organization's energy
consumption... And controlling and reducing your organization's energy consumption is
important because it enables you to:
Reduce costs this is becoming increasingly important as energy costs rise.
Reduce carbon emissions and the environmental damage that they cause - as well as the
cost-related implications of carbon taxes and the like, your organization may be keen to
reduce its carbon footprint to promote a green, sustainable image. Not least because
promoting such an image is often good for the bottom line.
Reduce risk the more energy you consume, the greater the risk that energy price
increases or supply shortages could seriously affect your profitability, or even make it
impossible for your business/organization to continue. With energy management you can
reduce this risk by reducing your demand for energy and by controlling it so as to make it
more predictable.
On top of these reasons, it's quite likely that you have some rather aggressive energyconsumption-reduction targets that you're supposed to be meeting at some worrying point in the
near future... Your understanding of effective energy management will hopefully be the secret
weapon that will enable you to meet those aggressive targets...
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How best to manage your energy consumption?

We identified four steps to the energy-management process above. We'll cover each of them in
turn:
1. Metering your energy consumption and collecting the data

As a rule of thumb: the more data you can get, and the more detailed it is, the better.
The old school approach to energy-data collection is to manually read meters once a week or
once a month. This is quite a chore, and weekly or monthly data isn't nearly as good the data that
comes easily and automatically from the modern approach...
The modern approach to energy-data collection is to fit interval-metering systems that

automatically measure and record energy consumption at short, regular intervals such as every
15-minutes or half hour. There's more about this on our page about interval data.
Detailed interval energy consumption data makes it possible to see patterns of energy waste that
it would be impossible to see otherwise. For example, there's simply no way that weekly or
monthly meter readings can show you how much energy you're using at different times of the
day, or on different days of the week. And seeing these patterns makes it much easier to find the
routine waste in your building.
2. Finding and quantifying opportunities to save energy

The detailed meter data that you are collecting will be invaluable for helping you to find and
quantify energy-saving opportunities. We've written an article that explains more about how to
analyze your meter data to find energy waste.
The easiest and most cost-effective energy-saving opportunities typically require little or no
capital investment.
For example, an unbelievable number of buildings have advanced control systems that could,
and should, be controlling HVAC well, but, unbeknown to the facilities-management staff, are
faulty or misconfigured, and consequently committing such sins as heating or cooling an empty
building every night and every weekend.
(NB "HVAC" is just an industry acronym for Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning. It's a
term that's more widely used in some countries than others.)
And one of the simplest ways to save a significant amount of energy is to encourage staff to
switch equipment off at the end of each working day.
Looking at detailed interval energy data is the ideal way to find routine energy waste. You can
check whether staff and timers are switching things off without having to patrol the building day
and night, and, with a little detective work, you can usually figure out who or what is causing the
energy wastage that you will inevitably find.
Detailed energy data is the key to finding the easiest energy savings
(chart created using Energy Lens software)
And, using your detailed interval data, it's usually pretty easy to make reasonable estimates of
how much energy is being wasted at different times. For example, if you've identified that a lot
of energy is being wasted by equipment left on over the weekends, you can:
a. Use your interval data to calculate how much energy (in kWh) is being used each
weekend.
b. Estimate the proportion of that energy that is being wasted (by equipment that should be
switched off).
c. Using the figures from a and b, calculate an estimate of the total kWh that are wasted
each weekend.
Alternatively, if you have no idea of the proportion of energy that is being wasted by equipment
left on unnecessarily, you could:
i.
Walk the building one evening to ensure that everything that should be switched off is
switched off.
ii.
Look back at the data for that evening to see how many kW were being used after you
switched everything off.
iii.
Subtract the target kW figure (ii) from the typical kW figure for weekends to estimate the
potential savings in kW (power).
iv.
Multiply the kW savings by the number of hours over the weekend to get the total
potential kWh energy savings for a weekend.
Also, most buildings have open to them a variety of equipment- or building-fabric-related

energy-saving opportunities, most of which require a more significant capital investment. You
are probably aware of many of these, such as upgrading insulation or replacing lighting
equipment, but good places to look for ideas include the Carbon Trust and Energy Star websites.
Although your detailed meter data won't necessarily help you to find these equipment- or
building-fabric-related opportunites (e.g. it won't tell you that a more efficient type of lighting
equipment exists), it will be useful for helping you to quantify the potential savings that each
opportunity could bring. It's much more reliable to base your savings estimates on real metered
data than on rules of thumb alone. And it's critically important to quantify the expected savings
for any opportunity that you are considering investing a lot of time or money into it's the only
way you can figure out how to hone in on the biggest, easiest energy savings first.
3. Targeting the opportunities to save energy

Just finding the opportunities to save energy won't help you to save energy - you have to take
action to target them...
For those energy-saving opportunities that require you to motivate the people in your building,
our article on energy awareness should be useful. It can be hard work, but, if you can get the
people on your side, you can make some seriously big energy savings without investing anything
other than time.
As for those energy-saving opportunities that require you to upgrade equipment or insulation:
assuming you've identified them, there's little more to be said. Just keep your fingers crossed that
you make your anticipated savings, and be thankful that you don't work for the sort of
organization that won't invest in anything with a payback period over 6 months.
Photo by Alana Elliott

Insulation - it usually works well, even when it looks like this...
4. Tracking your progress at saving energy

Once you've taken action to save energy, it's important that you find out how effective your
actions have been:
Energy savings that come from behavioural changes (e.g. getting people to switch off
their computers before going home) need ongoing attention to ensure that they remain
effective and achieve their maximum potential.
If you've invested money into new equipment, you'll probably want to prove that you've
achieved the energy savings you predicted.
If you've corrected faulty timers or control-equipment settings, you'll need to keep

checking back to ensure that everything's still working as it should be. Simple things like
a power cut can easily cause timers to revert back to factory settings - if you're not
keeping an eye on your energy-consumption patterns you can easily miss such problems.
If you've been given energy-saving targets from above, you'll need to provide evidence
that you're meeting them, or at least making progress towards that goal...
And occasionally you might need to prove that progress isn't being made (e.g. if you're at
your wits' end trying to convince the decision makers to invest some money into your
energy-management drive).
Our article on energy-performance tracking explains how best to analyze your metered energy
data to see how well you're making progress at saving energy. Like step 2, this step is one that
our Energy Lens software has been specifically designed to help with.
Managing your energy consumption effectively is an ongoing process...

At the very least you should keep analyzing your energy data regularly to check that things aren't
getting worse. It's pretty normal for unwatched buildings to become less efficient with time: it's
to be expected that equipment will break down or lose efficiency, and that people will forget the
good habits you worked hard to encourage in the past...
So at a minimum you should take a quick look at your energy data once a week, or even just
once a month, to ensure that nothing has gone horribly wrong... It's a real shame when easy-tofix faults such as misconfigured timers remain unnoticed for months on end, leaving a huge
energy bill that could have easily been avoided.
But ideally your energy-management drive will be an ongoing effort to find new opportunities to
target (step 2), to target them (step 3), and to track your progress at making ongoing energy
savings (step 4). Managing your energy consumption doesn't have to be a full-time job, but you'll
achieve much better results if you make it part of your regular routine.
Energy management
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Energy management includes planning and operation of energy-related production and
consumption units. Objectives are resource conservation, climate protection and cost savings,
while the users have permanent access to the energy they need. It is connected closely to
environmental management, production management, logistics and other established business
functions. The VDI-Guideline 4602 released a definition which includes the economic
dimension: Energy management is the proactive, organized and systematic coordination of
procurement, conversion, distribution and use of energy to meet the requirements, taking into
account environmental and economic objectives.[1]
Contents
1 Organizational integration
2 Energy management in operational functions

o 2.1 Facility Management
o 2.2 Logistics
o 2.3 Energy procurement
o 2.4 Production
o 2.5 Production planning and control
o 2.6 Maintenance
o 2.7 Information technology
3 Energy Strategies
o 3.1 Potential energy strategies
o 3.2 Energy strategies of companies
o 3.3 Energy strategies of politics
o 3.4 Ethical and normative basis of the energy strategies
4 See also
5 External links
6 References
Organizational integration
It is important to integrate the energy management in the organizational structure, so that the
energy management can be implemented. Responsibilities and the interaction of the decision
makers should be regularized. The delegation of functions and competencies extend from the top
management to the executive worker. Furthermore, a comprehensive coordination can ensure the
fulfillment of the tasks.
It is advisable to establish a separate organizational unit energy management in large or
energy-intensive companies. This unit supports the senior management and keeps track. It
depends on the basic form of the organizational structure, where this unit is connected. In case of
a functional organization the unit is located directly between the first (CEO) and the second
hierarchical level (corporate functions such as production, procurement, marketing). In a
divisional organization, there should be a central and several sector-specific energy management
units. So the diverse needs of the individual sectors and the coordination between the branches
and the head office can be fulfilled. In a matrix organization the energy management can be
included as a matrix function and thus approach most functions directly.
Energy management in operational functions

Facility Management
Facility management is an important part of energy management, because a huge proportion
(average 25 per cent) of complete operating costs are energy costs. According to the International
Facility Management Association (IFMA), facility management is "a profession that
encompasses multiple disciplines to ensure functionality of the built environment by integrating
people, place, processes and technology."
The central task of energy management is to reduce costs for the provision of energy in buildings
and facilities without compromising work processes. Especially the availability and service life
of the equipment and the ease of use should remain the same. The German Facility Management
Association (GEFMA e.V.) has published guidelines (e.g. GEFMA 124-1 and 124-2), which
contain methods and ways of dealing with the integration of energy management in the context
of a successful facility management.[2] In this topic the facility manager has to deal with
economic, ecological, risk-based and quality-based targets. He tries to minimize the total cost of
the energy-related processes (supply, distribution and use).[3]
The Passivhaus uses a combination of low-energy building techniques and technologies.

The most important key figure in this context is kilowatt-hours per square meter per year
(kWh/ma). Based on this key figure properties can be classified according to their energy
consumption.
Europe: In Germany a low-energy house can have a maximum energy consumption of 70

kWh/ma.
North America: In the United States, the ENERGY STAR program is the largest program
defining low-energy homes. Homes earning ENERGY STAR certification use at least
15% less energy than standard new homes built to the International Residential Code,
although homes typically achieve 20%-30% savings.[4]
In comparison, the Passive house (Passivhaus in German) ultra-low-energy standard, currently

undergoing adoption in some other European countries, has a maximum space heating
requirement of 15 kWh/ma. A Passive House is a very well-insulated and virtually air-tight
building. It does not require a conventional heating system. It is heated by solar gain and internal
gains from people. Energy losses are minimized.[5]
There are also buildings that produce more energy (for example by solar water heating or
photovoltaic systems) over the course of a year than it imports from external sources. These
buildings are called energy-plus-houses.[6]
In addition, the work regulations manage competencies, roles and responsibilities. Because the
systems also include risk factors (e.g., oil tanks, gas lines), you must ensure that all tasks are
clearly described and distributed. A clear regulation can help to avoid liability risks.[7]
Logistics
Carriage of goods
Logistics is the management of the flow of resources between the point of origin and the point of
destination in order to meet some requirements, for example of customers or corporations.
Especially the core logistics task, transportation of the goods, can save costs and protect the
environment through efficient energy management. The relevant factors are the choice of means
of transportation, duration and length of transportation and cooperation with logistics service
providers.
The logistics causes more than 14% percent of CO2 emissions worldwide. For this reason the
term Green Logistics is becoming increasingly important.
Possible courses of action in terms of green logistics are:[8]
Shift to ecofriendly transport carrier such as railroad and waterway
Route and load optimization
Formation of corporate networks, which are connected by logistics service
Optimizing physical logistics processes by providing a sophisticated IT support
Organizations have the possibility to evaluate their logistics objectives and environmental
strategies. For this purpose, there is software that calculates caused emissions based on indicators
such as transport, type of fuel, route or driving distance. The Institute for Energy and
Environmental Research from Heidelberg the ko-Institut from Berlin, the Rail Management
Consultants GmbH (RMCon/ IVE mbH) from Hanover developed a program that calculates
environmental impacts of different carriers across the world. They were supported by five major
European railway companies. The program is called EcoTransIT and is free-to-use. In addition to
the direct emissions, the calculation also covers the indirect energy consumption (generation,
transmission and distribution of energy).[9] The program is suitable for organizations of all sizes
and can serve as the basis for the environmental balance.[10]
Besides transportation of goods, the transport of persons should be an important part of the
logistic strategy of organizations. In case of business trips it is important to attract attention to the
choice and the proportionality of the means of transport. It should be balanced whether a
physical presence is mandatory or a telephone or video conference is just as useful. Home Office
is another possibility in which the company can protect the environment indirectly.[11]
Energy procurement
Procurement is the acquisition of goods or services. Energy prices fluctuate constantly, which
can significantly affect the energy bill of organizations. Therefore poor energy procurement
decisions can be expensive. Organizations can control and reduce energy costs by taking a
proactive and efficient approach to buying energy. Even a change of the energy source can be a
profitable and eco-friendly alternative.[12]
Production
Production is the act of creating output, a good or service which has value and contributes to the
utility of individuals.[13] This central process may differ depending on the industry. Industrial
companies have facilities that require a lot of energy. Service companies, in turn, do not need
many materials, their energy-related focus is mainly facility management or Green IT. Therefore
the energy-related focus has to be identified first, then evaluated and optimized.
Production planning and control

Usually, production is the area with the largest energy consumption within an organization.
Therefore also the production planning and control becomes very important. It deals with the
operational, temporal, quantitative and spatial planning, control and management of all processes
that are necessary in the production of goods and commodities. The "production planner" should
plan the production processes so that they operate on an energy efficient way. For example,
strong power consumer can be moved into the night time. Peaks should be avoided for the
benefit of a unified load profile.
The impending changes in the structure of energy production require an increasing demand for
storage capacity. The Production planning and control has to deal with the problem of limited
storability of energy. In principle there is the possibility to store energy electrically, mechanically
or chemically. Another trend-setting technology is lithium-based electrochemical storage, which
can be used in electric vehicles or as an option to control the power grid. The German Federal
Ministry of Economics and Technology realized the significance of this topic and established an
initiative with the aim to promote technological breakthroughs and support the rapid introduction
of new energy storage.[14]
Maintenance
Maintenance is the combination of all technical and administrative actions, including supervision
actions, intended to retain an item in, or restore it to, a state in which it can perform a required
function.[15] Detailed maintenance is essential to support the energy management. Hereby power
losses and cost increases can be avoided.[16]
Examples of how it is possible to save energy and costs with the help of maintenance:
Defrost the fridges
Check the barometer of cars and trucks
Insulation of hot systems
Improve leaks in building envelopes
Information technology
The center of an environmental and resource saving structure of information technology is Green
IT. In the article Harnessing Green IT: Principles and Practices, San Murugesan defines the field
of green computing as "the study and practice of designing, manufacturing, using, and disposing
of computers, servers, and associated subsystemssuch as monitors, printers, storage devices,
and networking and communications systems efficiently and effectively with minimal or no
impact on the environment.[17] This includes the optimization of resource consumption during
manufacturing, operation and disposing of computers. With the help of IT, work processes can be
eliminated or improved energetically.[18]
Approaches:
Production of devices: You should make sure that the equipment was manufactured
resource-conserving and consume less power than comparable devices.
Purchase and operation of equipment: Energy Staris an international standard for energy
efficient consumer products originated in the United States of America. The Energy Star
label can help to identify energy efficient devices. Important elements are for example
more efficient power adapter, a modern stand-by and sleep mode.[19]
IT support: Many programs support organizations to conserve energy. This includes large
ERP systems as well as the IT support of small systems. There are also commercial
energy management systems.
Energy Strategies
A long-term energy strategy should be part of the overall strategy of a company. This strategy
may include the objective of increasing the use of renewable energies. Furthermore, criteria for
decisions on energy investments, such as yield expectations, are determined.[20] By formulating

an energy strategy companies have the opportunity to avoid risks and to assure a competitive
advance against their business rivals.[21]
Potential energy strategies

According to Kals there are the following energy strategies:[22]
Passive Strategy: There is no systematic planning. The issue of energy and environmental
management is not perceived as an independent field of action. The organization only
deals with the most essential subjects.
Strategy of short-term profit maximization: The management is concentrating exclusively

on measures that have a relatively short payback period and a high return. Measures with
low profitability are not considered.
Strategy of long-term profit maximization: This strategy includes that you have a high
knowledge of the energy price and technology development. The relevant measures (for
example, heat exchangers or power stations) can have durations of several decades.
Moreover, these measures can help to improve the image and increase the motivation of
the employees.
Realization of all financially attractive energy measures: This strategy has the goal to
implement all measures that have a positive return on investment.
Maximum strategy: For the climate protection one is willing to change even the object of
the company.
In reality, you usually find hybrid forms of different strategies.
Energy strategies of companies

Many companies are trying to promote its image and time protect the climate through a proactive
and public energy strategy. General Motors (GM) strategy is based on continuous improvement.
Furthermore they have six principles: e.g. restoring and preserving the environment, reducing
waste and pollutants, educating the public about environmental conservation, collaboration for
the development of environmental laws and regulations.[23]
Nokia created its first climate strategy in 2006. The strategy tries to evaluate the energy
consumption and greenhouse gas emissions of products and operations and sets reduction targets
accordingly.[24] Furthermore, their environmental efforts is based on four key issues: substance
management, energy efficiency, recycling, promoting environmental sustainability.[25]
The energy strategy of Volkswagen (VW) is based on environmentally friendly products and a
resource-efficient production according to the "Group Strategy 2018".[26] Almost all locations the
of the Group are certified to the international standard ISO 14001 for environmental
management systems.[27]
When looking at the energy strategies of companies it is important to you have the topic
greenwashing in mind. This is a form of propaganda in which green strategies are used to
promote the opinion that an organization's aims are environmentally friendly.[28]
Energy strategies of politics

Even many countries formulate energy strategies. The Swiss Federal Council decided in May
2011 to resign nuclear energy medium-dated. The nuclear power plants will be shut down at the
end of life and will not be replaced. In Compensation they put the focus on energy efficiency,
renewable energies, fossil energy sources and the development of water power.[29]
The European Union has clear instructions for its members. The "20-20-20-targets" include, that
the Member States have to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 20% below 1990 levels, increase
energy efficiency by 20% and achieve a 20% share of renewable energy in total energy
consumption by 2020.[30]
Ethical and normative basis of the energy strategies

The basis of every energy strategy is the corporate culture and the related ethical standards
applying in the company.[31] Ethics, in the sense of business ethics, examines ethical principles
and moral or ethical issues that arise in a business environment. Ethical standards can appear in
company guidelines, energy and environmental policies or other documents.
The most relevant ethical ideas for the energy management are:
Utilitarianism: This form of ethics has the maxim that the one acts are good or right,
whose consequences are optimal for the welfare of all those affected by the action
(principle of maximum happiness). In terms of energy management, the existence of
external costs should be considered. They do not directly affect those who profit from the
economic activity but non-participants like future generations. This error in the market
mechanism can be solved by the internalization of external costs.[32]
Argumentation Ethics: This fundamental ethical idea says that everyone who is affected
by the decision, must be involved in decision making. This is done in a fair dialogue, the
result is completely uncertain.[33]
Deontological ethics: The deontological ethics assigns individuals and organizations

certain obligations. A general example is the golden rule: "One should treat others as one
would like others to treat oneself." Therefore everyone should manage their duties and
make an energy economic contribution.[33]
Energy demand management

Energy demand management, also known as demand side management (DSM), is the
modification of consumer demand for energy through various methods such as financial
incentives [1] and education. Usually, the goal of demand side management is to encourage the
consumer to use less energy during peak hours, or to move the time of energy use to off-peak
times such as nighttime and weekends.[2] Peak demand management does not necessarily
decrease total energy consumption, but could be expected to reduce the need for investments in
networks and/or power plants for meeting peak demands. An example is the use of energy
storage units to store energy during off-peak hours and discharge them during peak hours. [3]
The term DSM was coined following the time of the 1973 energy crisis and 1979 energy crisis.
Demand Side Management was introduced publicly by Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
in the 1980s. [4] Nowadays, DSM technologies become increasingly feasible due to the
integration of information and communications technology and power system, resulting in a new
term: Smart Grid.
Contents
1 Operation
2 Logical foundations
3 Types of Energy Demand Management
4 Examples
5 Problems with DSM
6 DSM in Systems Based on Hydropower
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 External links
Operation
Electricity use can vary dramatically on short and medium time frames, and the pricing system
may not reflect the instantaneous cost as additional higher-cost ("peaking") sources are brought
on-line. In addition, the capacity or willingness of electricity consumers to adjust to prices by
altering demand (elasticity of demand) may be low, particularly over short time frames. In many
markets, consumers (particularly retail customers) do not face real-time pricing at all, but pay
rates based on average annual costs or other constructed prices.
Various market failures rule out an ideal result. One is that suppliers' costs do not include all
damages and risks of their activities. External costs are incurred by others directly or by damage
to the environment, and are known as externalities. One approach would be to add external costs
to the direct costs of the supplier as a tax (internalisation of external costs). Another possibility
(referred to as the second-best approach in the theory of taxation) is to intervene on the demand
side by some kind of rebate.
Energy demand management activities should bring the demand and supply closer to a perceived
optimum.
Governments of many countries mandated performance of various programs for demand
management after the 1973 energy crisis. An early example is the National Energy Conservation
Policy Act of 1978 in the U.S., preceded by similar actions in California and Wisconsin.
Definition - DSM (Demand Side Management) is the 'Scientific control of usage and demand of
Electricity, for achieving better load factor and economy, by the Licensee/Supplier'. TOD (Time
of Day) Metering and differential pricing is the method/procedure for achieving targets in DSM.
Logical foundations
Demand for any commodity can be modified by actions of market players and government
(regulation and taxation). Energy demand management implies actions that influence demand for
energy. DSM is originally adopted in electricity, today DSM is applied widely to utility including
water and gas as well.
Reducing energy demand is contrary to what both energy suppliers and governments have been
doing during most of the modern industrial history. Whereas real prices of various energy forms
have been decreasing during most of the industrial era, due to economies of scale and
technology, the expectation for the future is the opposite. Previously, it was not unreasonable to
promote energy use as more copious and cheaper energy sources could be anticipated in the
future or the supplier had installed excess capacity that would be made more profitable by
increased consumption.
In centrally planned economies subsidizing energy was one of the main economic development
tools. Subsidies to the energy supply industry are still common in some countries.
Contrary to the historical situation, energy prices and availability are expected to deteriorate.
Governments and other public actors, if not the energy suppliers themselves, are tending to
employ energy demand measures that will increase the efficiency of energy consumption.
Types of Energy Demand Management

Energy Efficiency: Using less power to perform the same tasks.
Demand Response: Any reactive or preventative method to reduce, flatten or shift peak demand.
Demand Response includes all intentional modifications to consumption patterns of electricity of
enduser customers that are intended to alter the timing, level of instantaneous demand, or the
total electricity consumption. [5] Demand Response refers to a wide range of actions which can be
taken at the customer side of the electricity meter in response to particular conditions within the
electricity system (such as peak period network congestion or high prices). [6]
Dynamic Demand: Advance or delay appliance operating cycles by a few seconds to increase the
Diversity factor of the set of loads. The concept is that by monitoring the power factor of the
power grid, as well as their own control parameters, individual, intermittent loads would switch
on or off at optimal moments to balance the overall system load with generation, reducing
critical power mismatches. As this switching would only advance or delay the appliance
operating cycle by a few seconds, it would be unnoticeable to the end user. In the United States,
in 1982, a (now-lapsed) patent for this idea was issued to power systems engineer Fred
Schweppe.[7]
Examples
The government of the state of Queensland, Australia plans to have devices fitted onto certain
household appliances such as air conditioners, pool pumps, and hot water systems. These devices
would allow energy companies to remotely cycle the use of these items during peak hours. Their
plan also includes improving the efficiency of energy-using items, encouraging the use of oil
instead of electricity, and giving financial incentives to consumers who use electricity during offpeak hours, when it is less expensive for energy companies to produce.[8]
In 2007, Toronto Hydro, the monopoly energy distributor of Ontario, had over 40,000 people
signed up to have remote devices attached to air conditioners which energy companies use to
offset spikes in demand. Spokeswoman Tanya Bruckmueller says that this program can reduce
demand by 40 megawatts during emergency situations.[9]
Problems with DSM

Some people argue that demand-side management has been ineffective because it has often
resulted in higher utility costs for consumers and less profit for utilities.[10]
One of the main goals of demand side management is to be able to charge the consumer based on
the true price of the utilities at that time. If consumers could be charged less for using electricity
during off-peak hours, and more during peak hours, then supply and demand would theoretically
encourage the consumer to use less electricity during peak hours, thus achieving the main goal of
demand side management.
Another problem of DSM is privacy: The consumers have to provide some information about
their usage of electricity to their electricity company.
DSM in Systems Based on Hydropower

Demand side management is completely applied for electric system based on thermo power
plants or even for systems where renewable energy, as hydroelectricity, is predominant but with
a complementary thermo generation, for instance, in Brazil.
In Brazils case, despite the generation of hydroelectric power corresponds to more than 80% of
the consumption, to achieve a practical balance in the generation system, the energy generated by
hydroelectric plants is used only to supply the part of the consumption below the peak hours.
Peak generation is supplied by the use of fossil fuels power plants. In 2008, Brazilian consumers
paid more than U$ 1 billion[11] for complementary thermoelectric generation not previously
programmed.
In Brazil, the consumer pays for all the investment to provide energy, even if a plant sits idle. In
the case of fossil fuel thermo plants, at least for the majority of them, the consumers pay for the
fuels and others operation costs only when these plants generate energy. The energy, per unit
generated, is more expensive in thermo plants than in hydroelectric. Only some of the Brazilians
thermoelectric use natural gas as fuel so they are polluting significantly more. In other words, the
power generated to meet the peak demand has higher costs, both when the thermo plants are
operating (investment plus operation cost) or not (investment only) and their pollution has an
environmental cost and potentially, financial and social liability for its use. Thus, the expansion
and the operation of the current system are not as efficient as they could be using demand side
management. The consequence of this inefficiency issue is increase in energy tariffs passed on to
the consumers.
Moreover, because electric energy is generated and consumed almost instantaneously, all the
facilities, as transmission lines and distribution nets, are built for peak consumption. During the
non-peak periods their full capacity is not utilized.
The reduction of peak consumption can benefit the efficiency of the electric systems, like the
Brazilian system, in some senses: as deferring new investments in distribution and transmission
networks, and reducing the necessity of complementary thermo power operation during peak
periods, which can diminish both the payment for investment in new power plants to supply only
during the peak period and the environmental impact associated with greenhouse gas emission.
References
1.
VDI-Guideline VDI 4602, page 3, Beuth Verlag, Berlin 2007.
2.
viewed 10 November 2012.[dead link]
3.
"viewed 10. November 2012". Energy20.net. 2010-02-03. Retrieved 2013-12-31.
4.
"Features of ENERGY STAR Qualified New Homes." - EnergyStar.gov,

Retrieved 7 March 2008.
5.
"retrieved 8 December 2012". Passiv.de. Retrieved 2013-12-31.
6.
"retrieved 3 December 2012". Plusenergiehaus.de. Retrieved 2013-12-31.
7.
Johannes Kals: Betriebliches Energiemanagement - Eine Einfhrung, p. 75 77,

Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2010, ISBN 978-3-17-0211333-9
8.
"abgerufen am 10. November 2012". Iml.fraunhofer.de. 2013-12-20. Retrieved

2013-12-31.
9.
"retrieved 4 December 2012". Ecotransit.org. Retrieved 2013-12-31.
10.
"retrieved 4 December 2012". Ecotransit.org. Retrieved 2013-12-31.
11.
Johannes Kals: Betriebliches Energiemanagement - Eine Einfhrung.

Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2010, ISBN 978-3-17-021133-9, p.103-105.
12.
"retrieved 10 November 2012". Energieagentur.nrw.de. Retrieved 2013-12-31.
13.
Kotler, P., Armstrong, G., Brown, L., and Adam, S. (2006) Marketing, 7th Ed.
Pearson Education Australia/Prentice Hall.
14.
"retrieved 6 December 2012" (in (German)). Bmwi.de. 2012-04-24. Retrieved

2013-12-31.
15.
British Standard Glossary of terms (3811:1993)
16.
"abgerufen am 12. November 2012". Ps-consulting.de. 2013-11-21. Retrieved

2013-12-31.
17.
San Murugesan, Harnessing Green IT: Principles and Practices, IEEE IT

Professional, JanuaryFebruary 2008, pp 24-33.
18.
Johannes Kals: Betriebliches Energiemanagement - Eine Einfhrung, p. 147 148, Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2010, ISBN 978-3-17-0211333-9.
19.
"abgerufen am 12. November 2012" (in (German)). Fr-online.de. Retrieved 201312-31.
20.
J. Kals, K. Wrtenberger: IT-untersttztes Energiemanagement in: HMD - Praxis

der Wirtschaftsinformatik HMD, Heft 285/2012, S. 73-81.
21.

Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2010, ISBN 978-3-17-021133-9, p. 181.
22.

Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2010, ISBN 978-3-17-021133-9, p. 182-184.
23.
"retrieved 21. December 2012". Gm.com. 2012-01-13. Retrieved 2013-12-31.
24.
Global Change country. "retrieved 22. December 2012". Nokia.com. Retrieved

2013-12-31.
25.
Global Change country. "retrieved 22. December 2012". Nokia.com. Retrieved

2013-12-31.
26.
"retrieved 22. December 2012.". Volkswagenag.com. Retrieved 2013-12-31.
27.
retrieved 22. December 2012.[dead link]
28.
"retrieved 16.01.2013". Greenwashingindex.com. Retrieved 2013-12-31.
29.
"retrieved 14. December 2012". Bfe.admin.ch. 2013-12-12. Retrieved 2013-1231.
30.
"retrieved 14. December 2012" (in (German)). Bmwi.de. 2012-07-04. Retrieved

2013-12-31.
31.
J. Kals, K. Wrtenberger: IT-untersttztes Energiemanagement in: HMD - Praxis

der Wirtschaftsinformatik HMD, Heft 285/2012, p. 73.
32.

Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2010, ISBN 978-3-17-021133-9, p. 200.
33.
Johannes Kals: Business Ethics and Corporate Energy Management, in:

Karczewski, Leszek; Kretek, Henryk (eds): Odpowiedzialny biznes i konsumerysm
wyzwaniem XXI Wieku (Responsible Business and Responsible Consumerism as a
Challenge of the 21st Century), Polen, Raciborz 2012, p. 6.
Hotel energy management

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Hotel Energy Management is the practice of controlling procedures, operations and equipment
that contribute to the energy use in a hotel operation. This can include electricity, gas, water or
other natural resources. Because hotels can have complicated operations and extensive facilities
they utilize many different types of energy resources. Hotel energy usages are tracked and
classified by the U.S. Department of Energy and statistics are regularly published in the Energy
Information Administration annual reports.
Current practices
Modern practices to control energy usage includes contributions by the guests themselves which
has been popularized by information cards requesting guests to save water by letting hotel
housekeeping staff know if they would care to re-use towels and bed linens. This reduces the
amount of water and/or cleaning substances used by the hotel laundry department which also
reduces the expense to the property owner or manager.
Recently consultants have developed entire organizations around advising hotels where they are
operating inefficiently or using more energy than necessary. Some of them participate by
providing the products to implement their advice for a share of the cost savings. These
companies have proliferated over the years as public and business energy concerns grow and are
known as ESCO's (Energy Service COmpanies). Other practices include using infrared motion
sensors and door contacts to control the heating and air conditioning systems (HVAC) when
guests leave them on and leave the room or leave open balcony doors or windows.
Hotel facility managers are using cloud-based software to manage their energy efficiency
projects. The Department of Energy (DOE) Software Directory describes EnergyActio software,
a cloud based platform designed for this purpose.
Energy management markets in general have been going through several changes including the
shift to service based or porformance contracted models used by Energy Services Companies
(ESCOs). Traditionally ESCOs do not address the hotel segment because of the small values
associated with hotel energy retrofits and the difficulty in measuring so many potential load
soources.
Energy service company

(Redirected from Energy Service Company)
"ESCo" redirects here. For other uses, see ESCO (disambiguation).
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of the subject. (June 2011)
This article appears to be written like an advertisement. (March 2013)
An energy service company or energy savings company (acronym: ESCO or ESCo) is a
commercial or non-profit business providing a broad range of energy solutions including designs
and implementation of energy savings projects, retrofitting, energy conservation, energy
infrastructure outsourcing, power generation and energy supply, and risk management.
A newer breed of ESCO evolving in the UK now focuses more on innovative financing methods.
These include off-balance sheet vehicles which own a range of applicable equipment configured
in such a way as to reduce the energy cost of a building. The building occupants, or landlord,
then benefit from the energy savings and pay a fee to the ESCO SPV in return. At all times, the
saving is guaranteed to exceed the fee. The ESCO starts by performing an analysis of the
property, designs an energy efficient solution, installs the required elements, and maintains the
system to ensure energy savings during the payback period.[1] The savings in energy costs are
often used to pay back the capital investment of the project over a five- to twenty-year period, or
reinvested into the building to allow for capital upgrades that may otherwise be unfeasible. If the
project does not provide returns on the investment, the ESCO is often responsible to pay the
difference.[2]
Contents
1 History
o 1.1 The beginning
o 1.2 Industry growth through the 1970s and 1980s
o 1.3 The 1990s: Utilities and consolidated energy companies become the major
players
o 1.4 Decade of the 2000s: Consolidation, exit of many utilities
2 How it works
o 2.1 Energy savings tracking methods
o 2.2 Developing a project
o 2.3 Choosing an ESCO
o 2.4 Utilizing the savings
3 U. S. Federal Program: "Super-ESPC"
4 ESCO 2.0
o 4.1 Retro-commissioning
o 4.2 Independent Measurement and Verification
o 4.3 Key components of ESCO 2.0
o 4.4 UK and European based ESCOs
5 References
6 Further reading
7 See also
History
The beginning
The start of the energy savings business can be attributed to the energy crisis of the late 1970s, as
entrepreneurs developed ways to combat the rise in energy costs. One of the earliest examples
was a company in Texas, Time Energy, which introduced a device to automate the switching of
lights and other equipment to regulate energy use. The primary reason that the product did not
initially sell was because potential users doubted that the savings would actually materialize. To
combat this doubt, the company decided to install the device upfront and ask for a percentage of
the savings that was accumulated. The result was the basis for the ESCO model. Through this
process, the company achieved higher sales and more return since the savings were large.[3]
Industry growth through the 1970s and 1980s

As more entrepreneurs saw this market grow, more companies came into creation. The first wave
of ESCOs were often small divisions of large energy companies or small, upstart, independent
companies. However, after the energy crisis came to an end, the companies had little leverage on
potential clients to perform energy-saving projects, given the lower cost of energy. This
prevented the growth experienced in the late 1970s from continuing. The industry grew slowly
through the 1970s and 1980s,[3] spurred by specialist firms such as Hospital Efficiency
Corporation (HEC Inc.), established in 1982 to focus on the energy intensive medical sector.
HEC Inc., later renamed Select Energy Services, was acquired in 1990 by Northeast Utilities,
and sold in 2006 to Ameresco.[4]
The 1990s: Utilities and consolidated energy companies become the major
players
With the rising cost of energy and the availability of efficiency technologies in lighting, HVAC
(heating, ventilation and air conditioning), and building energy management, ESCO projects
became much more commonplace. The term ESCO has also become more widely known among
potential clients looking to upgrade their building systems that are either outdated and need to be
replaced, or for campus and district energy plant upgrades.
With deregulation in the U.S. energy markets in the 1990s, the energy services business
experienced a rapid rise. Utilities, which for decades enjoyed the shelter of monopolies with
guaranteed returns on power plant investments, now had to compete to supply power to many of
their largest customers. They now looked to energy services as a potential new business line to
retain their existing large customers. Also, with the new opportunities on the supply side, many
energy services companies (ESCOs) started to expand into the generation market, building
district power plants or including cogeneration facilities within efficiency projects.[5] For
example, in November 1996 BGA, Inc., formerly a privately held, regional energy performance
contracting and consulting company was acquired by TECO Energy, and in 2004 was acquired
by Chevron Corporation. In 1998, BGA entered the District Energy Plant business, completing
construction on the first 3rd-party owned and operated district cooling plant in Florida.[6]
Decade of the 2000s: Consolidation, exit of many utilities

In the wake of the Enron collapse in 2001, and the sputtering or reverse of deregulation efforts,
many utilities shut down or sold their energy services businesses. There was a significant
consolidation among the remaining independent firms. According to the industry group
NAESCO, revenues of ESCOs in the U.S. grew by 22% in 2006, reaching $3.6 billion.[7]
How it works
Energy savings tracking methods
IPMVP Options Table: Determining Energy Savings

After installing energy conservation measures (ECMs), ESCOs often determine the energy
savings resulting from the project and present the savings results to their customers. A common
way to calculate energy savings is to measure the flows of energy associated with the ECM, and
then to apply spreadsheet calculations to determine savings. For example, a chiller retrofit would
require measurements of chilled water supply and return temperatures and kW. The benefit of
this approach is that the ECM is isolated, and that only energy flows associated with the ECM
itself are considered.
This method is described as Option A or Option B in the International Performance Measurement
and Verification Protocol (IPMVP). Table 1 presents the different options. Option A requires
some measurement and allows for estimations of some parameters. Option B requires
measurement of all parameters. In both options, calculations are done (typically in spreadsheets)
to determine what energy savings. Option C uses utility bills to determine energy savings.
There are many situations where Option A or Option B (Metering and Calculating) is the best
approach to measuring energy savings, however, some ESCOs insist upon only using Option A
or Option B, when clearly Option C would be most appropriate. If the ESCO was a lighting
contractor, then Option A should work in all cases. Spot measurements of fixtures before and
after, agreed upon hours of operation, and simple calculations can be inserted into a spreadsheet
that can calculate savings. The same spreadsheet can be used over and over. However, for
ESCOs that offer a variety of different retrofits, it is necessary to be able to employ all options so
that the best option can be selected for each individual job. Controls Retrofits, or retrofits to
HVAC systems are typically excellent candidates for Option C.[8]
After installing the energy conservation measures (ECMs), the savings created from the project
must be determined. This process, termed Measurement and Verification (M&V), is frequently
performed by the ESCO, but may also be performed by the customer or a third party. The
International Performance Measurement and Verification Protocol (IPMVP) is the standard
M&V guideline for determining actual savings created by an energy management program.
Because savings are the absence of energy use, they cannot be directly measured. IPMVP
provides 4 methods for using measurement to reliably determine actual savings. A plan for
applying the most appropriate of the 4 general methods to a specific project is typically created
and agreed upon by all parties before implementation of the ECMs.
IPMVP Option A Retrofit Isolation: Key Parameter Measurement Savings are determined by
field measurement of the key performance parameter(s) which define the energy use of the
ECMs affected system(s). Parameters not selected for field measurement are estimated.
IPMVP Option B Retrofit Isolation: All Parameter Measurement Savings are determined by
field measurement of the energy use of the ECM-affected system.
IPMVP Option C Whole Facility Savings are determined by measuring energy use at the
whole facility or sub-facility level.
IPMVP Option D Calibrated Simulation Savings are determined through simulation of the
energy use of the facility, or of a sub-facility. The simulation model must be calibrated so that it
predicts an energy pattern that approximately matches actual metered data.
Table 1 provides suggested IPMVP options for different project characteristics. For each project,
an M&V approach which balances the uncertainty in achieved savings and the cost of the M&V
plan should be selected. Some plans include only short term verification approaches and others
include repeated measurements for an extended period. Because the expense of determining the
amount of savings achieved erodes the benefit of the savings themselves, IPMVP suggests not
spending more than 10% of the expected savings on M&V. Often M&V approaches are bundled
with other monitoring, support, or maintenance services that help achieve or ensure the savings
performance. These costs should not be considered M&V expenses and depending on the project
and services details, may greatly exceed 10% of the savings.
Developing a project
The energy savings project often begins with the development of ideas that would generate
energy savings, and in turn, cost savings. This task is usually the responsibility of the ESCO. The
ESCO often approaches a potential client with a proposal of an energy savings project and a
performance contract. This ESCO is said to drive the project. Once the owner is aware of the
possibility of an energy savings project, he or she may chose to place it out for bid, or just stick
with the original ESCO. During the initial period of research and investigation, an energy auditor
from the ESCO surveys the site and reviews the project's systems to determine areas where cost
savings are feasible, usually free of charge to the client. This is the energy audit, and the phase is
often referred to as the feasibility study. A hypothesis of the potential project is developed by the
client and the auditor, and then the ESCOs engineering development team expands upon and
compiles solutions.
This next phase is referred to as the engineering and design phase, which further defines the
project and can provide more firm cost and savings estimates. The engineers are responsible for
creating cost-effective measures to obtain the highest potential of energy savings.[3] These
measures can range from highly efficient lighting and heating/air conditioning upgrades, to more
productive motors with variable speed drives and centralized energy management systems.[1]
There is a wide array of measures that can produce large energy savings.
Once the project has been developed and a performance contract signed, the construction or
implementation phase begins. Following the completion of this phase, the monitoring and
maintenance or Measurement and Verification (M & V) phase begins. This phase is the
verification of the pre-construction calculations and is used to determine the actual cost savings.
This phase is not always included in the performance contract. In fact, there are three options the
owner must consider during the performance contract review.[1] These options are, from least to
most expensive:
No warranty other than that provided on the equipment.
ESCO provided M & V to show the projected energy savings during the short term
following completion.
ESCO provided M & V to show the projected energy savings during the entire payback
period.
A typical transaction involves the ESCO borrowing cash to purchase equipment or to implement
energy-savings for its clients. The client pays the ESCO its regular energy cost (or a large
fraction of it), but the energy savings enable the ESCO to pay only a fraction of that to their
energy supplier. The difference goes to pay the interest on the loan and to profit. Typically, ESCs
are able to implement and finance the efficiency improvements better than their client company
could by itself.
Choosing an ESCO
Once the project has been defined, but before much of the engineering work has been completed,
it may be necessary to choose an ESCO by putting the project out to bid. This is usually the
case when the client has developed the project on his or her own or is required to allow others to
bid on the work as required by the government. The latter is the case on any state or federally
funded project. The typical process includes a Request for Qualification (RFQ) in which the
interested ESCOs submit their corporate resumes, business profiles, experience, and initial plan.
Once received, the client creates a short list of 3-5 companies. This list is of the companies
whose profile for the project best matches with the owners ideas in the RFQ. The client then
asks for a Request for Proposal (RFP) that is a much more detailed explanation of the project.
This document contains all cost savings measures, products, M & V plans, and the performance
contract. The client often allows a minimum of six weeks to compile the information before
having it submitted. Once submitted, the Proposals are then reviewed by the client, who may
conduct interviews with the applicants. The client then selects the ESCO that presents the best
possible solution to the energy project, as determined by the client. A good ESCO will help the
owner put all the pieces together from start to finish. According to the Energy Services Coalition,
A qualified ESCO can help you put the pieces together:
Identify and evaluate energy-saving opportunities;
Develop engineering designs and specifications;
Manage the project from design to installation to monitoring;
Arrange for financing;
Train your staff and provide ongoing maintenance services; and
Guarantee that savings will cover all project costs.[2]
Utilizing the savings
Graphical representation of energy savings.
Once the project is completed the immediate results of energy savings (often between 15 and 35
percent), and the long term maintenance costs can be put towards the capital investment of
upgrading the energy system.[2] This is often how ESCOs and performance contracts work. The
initial implementation is done, in a sense, free of charge, with the payment coming from the
percentage of the energy savings collected by a financing company or the ESCO. The client may
also wish to use some capital investment money to lower that percentage during the payback
period. The payback period can range from five to twenty years, depending on the negotiated
contract. Most state or federally funded projects have a max payback of 15 years. Once the
equipment and project have been paid for, the client may be entitled to the full amount of savings
to use at their will. It is also common to see large capital improvements financed through energy
savings projects. Upgrades to the mechanical/electrical system, new building envelope
components, or even restorations and retrofits may be included in the contract even though they
have no effect on the amount of energy savings. By utilizing the energy savings, the client may
be able to put the funds once used to pay for energy towards the capital improvement that would
otherwise be unfeasible with the currently allotted funding.
U. S. Federal Program: "Super-ESPC"

Since its creation in the 1990s, a single U. S. government program known as "Super-ESPC"
(ESPC stands for Energy Savings Performance Contracts) has been responsible for $2.9B in
ESCO contracts.[9] The program was modified and reauthorized in December 2008, and sixteen
firms were awarded Indefinite delivery/indefinite quantity (IDIQ) contracts for up to $5B each,
for total potential energy-savings projects worth $80B.
Grouping the sixteen firms provides a convenient illustration of the industry structure and the
ways that each firm generates value through projects that use the ESCO model of energy-savings
performance contracts. Equipment-affiliated firms use performance contracting as a sales
channel for their products. Utility-affiliated firms offer ESCO projects as a value-added service
to attract and retain large customers and generally focus only on their utility footprint. Nonutility energy services companies are product neutral, tend to have a larger geographic footprint,
and typically offer a wide range of services from energy retrofits to renewable energy
development.
Equipment affiliated
Noresco (Carrier)
Honeywell Building Solutions SES
Johnson Controls Government Systems, L.L.C. (York)
Schneider Electric
Siemens Government Services, Inc.
Trane
Utility affiliated
ConEdison
Constellation
FPL Energy Services
Pepco Energy Services
Non-utility energy services
Ameresco (Ennovate, E3, APS...Acquired)
The Benham Companies, LLC (SAIC Acquired)
Chevron Energy Solutions
Clark Energy Group LLC (formerly Clark Realty Builders, L.L.C.)
Lockheed Martin Services, Inc.
McKinstry
Brewer Garrett
Motion detector
(Redirected from Motion sensor)
A motion detector attached to an outdoor, automatic light.

A motion detector is a device that detects moving objects, particularly people. A motion detector
is often integrated as a component of a system that automatically performs a task or alerts a user
of motion in an area. Motion detectors form a vital component of security, automated lighting
control, home control, energy efficiency, and other useful systems.
Contents
1 Overview
2 Sensors
3 Dual-technology motion detectors
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Overview
Inexpensive Asian-made motion detector using to control the lighting

An electronic motion detector contains a motion sensor that transforms the detection of motion
into an electric signal. This can be achieved by measuring optical changes in the field of view.
Most inexpensive motion detectors can detect up to 15 feet (5 meters). Specialized systems are
more expensive but have much longer ranges. Tomographic motion detection systems can cover
much larger areas because the signals penetrate walls and obstructions.
A motion detector may be connected to a burglar alarm that is used to alert the home owner or
security service after it detects motion. Such a detector may also trigger a red light camera.
Motion detectors have found great application in domestic and commercial applications. Some of
these applications include motion-activated outdoor lighting systems, motion sensor street lamps
and motion sensor lanterns.
Sensors
PIR-sensor seen on center of the left circuit board

There are four types of sensors used in motion sensor spectrum:
Passive infrared (PIR)
Passive infrared sensors detect a person's body heat as it changes against the background
of the room. No energy is emitted from the sensor, thus the name "passive infrared"
(PIR).
Ultrasonic
The active variety sends out pulses of ultrasonic waves (acoustic sound waves above the
frequency that a human can hear) and measures the reflection off a moving object.
Motion causes the frequency of the reflected wave to change (Doppler effect). The
passive variety listens for sounds in the ultrasonic range.[1]
Microwave
A microwave sensor sends out electromagnetic pulses and measures the changes in
frequency (Doppler) due to reflection off a moving object.
Tomographic motion detector
Tomographic motion detection systems sense disturbances to radio waves as they pass
from node to node of a mesh network. They have the ability to detect over complete areas
because they can sense through walls and obstructions.
Dual-technology motion detectors

Many modern motion detectors use combinations of different technologies. While combining
multiple sensing technologies into one detector can help reduce false triggering, it does so at the
expense of reduced detection probabilities and increased vulnerability. For example, many dualtech sensors combine both a PIR sensor and a microwave sensor into one unit. In order for
motion to be detected, both sensors must trip together. This lowers the probability of a false
alarm since heat and light changes may trip the PIR but not the microwave, or trees may trigger
the microwave but not the PIR. If an intruder is able to fool the PIR or microwave, however, the
sensor will not detect. Dual-tech sensors are only as strong as their weakest link.
Often, PIR technology will be paired with another model to maximize accuracy and reduce
energy usage. PIR draws less energy than microwave detection, and so many sensors are
calibrated so that when the PIR sensor is tripped, it activates a microwave sensor. If the latter
also picks up an intruder, then the alarm is sounded.
HVAC
This article is about heating, ventilation, and air conditioning; HVAC may also stand
for High-voltage alternating current.
"Climate control" redirects here. For efforts to reduce changes to Earth's climate,
see Climate change mitigation.
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This article needs additional citations for verification. (August 2009)
This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality
standards. (August 2009)
HVAC systems use ventilation air ducts installed throughout a building to supply
conditioned air to a room through outlet vents, called diffusers; and ducts to remove
air through return-air grilles.
HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) is the technology of indoor and vehicular
environmental comfort. HVAC system design is a subdiscipline of mechanical engineering,
based on the principles of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer. Refrigeration is
sometimes added to the field's abbreviation as HVAC&R or HVACR, or ventilating is dropped as
in HACR (such as the designation of HACR-rated circuit breakers).
HVAC is important in the design of medium to large industrial and office buildings such as
skyscrapers and in marine environments such as aquariums, where safe and healthy building
conditions are regulated with respect to temperature and humidity, using fresh air from outdoors.
Contents
1 Overview
2 Heating
3 Ventilation
o
3.1 Mechanical or forced ventilation
3.2 Natural ventilation
3.2.1 Airborne diseases
4 Air conditioning
5 Energy efficiency
5.1 Heating energy
5.2 Geothermal heat pump
5.3 Ventilation energy recovery
5.4 Air conditioning energy
6 Air filtration and cleaning

o
6.1 Clean air delivery rate and filter performance
7 HVAC industry and standards

o
7.1 International
7.2 North America
7.3 Europe
7.2.1 United States
7.3.1 United Kingdom
7.4 Australia
7.5 Asia
7.5.1 Philippines
7.5.2 India
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
Overview
Ventilation on the downdraught system, by impulsion, or the 'plenum' principle,

applied to schoolrooms (1899)
Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning is based on inventions and discoveries made by
Nikolay Lvov, Michael Faraday, Willis Carrier, Reuben Trane, James Joule, William Rankine,
Sadi Carnot, and many others.[1]
The invention of the components of HVAC systems went hand-in-hand with the industrial
revolution, and new methods of modernization, higher efficiency, and system control are
constantly introduced by companies and inventors worldwide. The three central functions of
heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning are interrelated, especially with the need to provide
thermal comfort and acceptable indoor air quality within reasonable installation, operation, and
maintenance costs. HVAC systems can provide ventilation, reduce air infiltration, and maintain
pressure relationships between spaces. The means of air delivery and removal from spaces is
known as room air distribution.[2]
The starting point in carrying out an estimate both for cooling and heating depends on the
exterior climate and interior specified conditions. However before taking up the heat load
calculation, it is necessary to find fresh air requirements for each area in detail, as pressurization
is an important consideration.
In modern buildings the design, installation, and control systems of these functions are integrated
into one or more HVAC systems. For very small buildings, contractors normally capacity
engineer and select HVAC systems and equipment. For larger buildings, building services
designers and engineers, such as mechanical, or building services engineers analyze, design, and
specify the HVAC systems, and specialty mechanical contractors fabricate and commission them.
Building permits and code-compliance inspections of the installations are normally required for
all sizes of buildings.[citation needed]
Although HVAC is executed in individual buildings or other enclosed spaces (e.g. think
NORAD's underground headquarters), the equipment involved is in some cases an extension of a
larger district heating (DH) or district cooling (DC) network, or a combined DHC network. In
such cases, the operating and maintenance aspects are simplified and metering is necessary to
bill for the energy that is consumed, and in some cases energy that is returned to the larger
system. (For example, in a DHC network at a given time a building may be utilizing chilled
water for air conditioning, but the warm water it returns may be utilized by another building for
heating or the overall DH portion of the DHC network, likely with energy added to boost the
temperature.)[3][4][5]
Basing HVAC on a larger network helps provide an economy of scale that is often not possible
for individual buildings, for utilizing renewable energy sources such as solar heat,[6][7][8] winter's
cold,[9] the cooling potential in some places of lakes or seawater for free cooling, and the
enabling function of seasonal thermal energy storage.
The HVAC industry is a worldwide enterprise, with roles including operation and maintenance,
system design and construction, equipment manufacturing and sales, and in education and
research. The HVAC industry was historically regulated by the manufacturers of HVAC
equipment, but regulating and standards organizations such as HARDI, ASHRAE, SMACNA,
ACCA, Uniform Mechanical Code, International Mechanical Code, and AMCA have been
established to support the industry and encourage high standards and achievement.
Heating
Central heating unit

"Heaters" redirects here. For the community in the United States, see Heaters, West
Virginia.
"Heater" redirects here. For other uses, see Heater (disambiguation).
A heater is an object that emits heat or causes another body to achieve a higher temperature. In a
household or domestic setting, heaters are usually appliances whose purpose is to generate
heating (i.e. warmth). Other types of heaters are Ovens and Furnaces.
Heaters exist for all states of matter, including solids, liquids and gases. There are 3 types of heat
transfer: convection, conduction and radiation.
The opposite of a heater (for warmth) is an air cooler (for cold) (see air conditioning) used to
keep the user cooler than the temperature originally surrounding them.
There are many different types of heating systems. Central heating is often used in cool climates
to heat houses and public buildings. Such a system contains a boiler, furnace, or heat pump to
warm water, steam, or air in a central location such as a furnace room in a home or a mechanical
room in a large building. The use of water as the heat transfer medium is known as hydronics.
These systems also contain either duct work for forced air systems or piping to distribute a
heated fluid to radiators to transfer this heat to the air. The term radiator in this context is
misleading since most heat transfer from the heat exchanger is by convection, not radiation. The
radiators may be mounted on walls or installed within the floor to give floor heat.
Most modern hot water boiler heating systems have a circulator, which is a pump, to move hot
water through the distribution system. This distribution system can be via radiators, convectors
(baseboard), hot water coils (hydro-air) or other heat exchangers. The heated water can also
supply an auxiliary heat exchanger to supply hot water for bathing and washing.
Warm air systems distribute heated air through duct work systems of supply and return air
through metal or fiberglass ducts. Many systems use the same ducts to distribute air cooled by an
evaporator coil for air conditioning. The air supply is typically filtered through air cleaners to
remove dust and pollen particles.
One type of heat source is electricity, typically heating ribbons made of high resistance wire.
This principle is also used for baseboard heaters, and portable heaters. Electrical heaters are often
used as backup or supplemental heat for heat pump (or reverse heating) systems.
The heat pump gained popularity in the 1950s.[where?] Heat pumps can extract heat from the
exterior air (air source) or from the ground (ground source). Initially, heat pump HVAC systems
were used in moderate climates, but with improvements in low temperature operation and
reduced loads due to more efficient homes, they are increasing in popularity in other climates.
Heat pumps can be air to air, air to water, water to air and water to water systems. Water on the
supply side of the heat pump is typically geothermal energy from ground water, either surface
water or PEX tubing buried in a trench. Due to the construction of wells and site work,
geothermal systems are typically more expensive to purchase and install than conventional
heating systems.[citation needed]
The invention of central heating is often credited to the ancient Romans, who installed systems
of air ducts called hypocausts in the walls and floors of public baths and private villas.[10]
The use of furnaces, space heaters and boilers as means of indoor heating may result in
incomplete combustion and the emission of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, formaldehyde,
volatile organic compounds, and other combustion byproducts. Incomplete combustion occurs
when there is insufficient oxygen; the inputs are fuels containing various contaminants and the
outputs are harmful byproducts, most dangerously carbon monoxide which is a tasteless and
odorless gas with serious adverse health effects.[11]
Without proper ventilation, carbon monoxide can be lethal at concentrations of 1000 ppm
(0.1%). However, at several hundred ppm, carbon monoxide exposure induces headaches,
fatigue, nausea, and vomiting. Carbon monoxide binds with hemoglobin in the blood, forming
carboxyhemoglobin, reducing the blood's ability to transport oxygen. The primary health
concerns associated with carbon monoxide exposure are its cardiovascular and neurobehavioral
effects. Carbon monoxide can cause atherosclerosis; the hardening of arteries, and can also
trigger heart attacks. Neurologically, carbon monoxide exposure reduces hand to eye
coordination, vigilance, and continuous performance. It can also affect time discrimination.[12]
Forecasting is a method of controlling building heating by calculating demand for heating energy
that should be supplied to the building in each time unit.
Ventilation
Main article: Ventilation (architecture)
An air handling unit is used for the heating and cooling of air in a central location.
Ventilation is the process of changing or replacing air in any space to control temperature or
remove any combination of moisture, odors, smoke, heat, dust, airborne bacteria, or carbon
dioxide, and to replenish oxygen. Ventilation includes both the exchange of air with the outside
as well as circulation of air within the building. It is one of the most important factors for
maintaining acceptable indoor air quality in buildings. Methods for ventilating a building may be
divided into mechanical/forced and natural types.[13]
Mechanical or forced ventilation
"Mechanical" or "forced" ventilation is provided by an air handler and used to control indoor air
quality. Excess humidity, odors, and contaminants can often be controlled via dilution or
replacement with outside air. However, in humid climates much energy is required to remove
excess moisture from ventilation air.
Kitchens and bathrooms typically have mechanical exhausts to control odors and sometimes
humidity. Factors in the design of such systems include the flow rate (which is a function of the
fan speed and exhaust vent size) and noise level. Direct drive fans are available for many
applications, and can reduce maintenance needs.
Ceiling fans and table/floor fans circulate air within a room for the purpose of reducing the
perceived temperature by increasing evaporation of perspiration on the skin of the occupants.
Because hot air rises, ceiling fans may be used to keep a room warmer in the winter by
circulating the warm stratified air from the ceiling to the floor.
Natural ventilation
Natural ventilation is the ventilation of a building with outside air without using fans or other
mechanical systems. It can be via operable windows, louvers, or trickle vents when spaces are
small and the architecture permits. In more complex schemes, warm air is allowed to rise and
flow out high building openings to the outside (stack effect), causing cool outside air to be drawn
into low building openings. Natural ventilation schemes can use very little energy, but care must
be taken to ensure comfort. In warm or humid climates, maintaining thermal comfort solely via
natural ventilation may not be possible. Air conditioning systems are used, either as backups or
supplements. Air-side economizers also use outside air to condition spaces, but do so using fans,
ducts, dampers, and control systems to introduce and distribute cool outdoor air when
appropriate.
An important component of natural ventilation is air change rate or air changes per hour: the
hourly rate of ventilation divided by the volume of the space. For example, six air changes per
hour means an amount of new air, equal to the volume of the space, is added every ten minutes
(see air changes per hour for more detail). For human comfort, a minimum of four air changes
per hour is typical, though warehouses might have only two. Too high of an air change rate may
be uncomfortable, akin to a wind tunnel which have thousands of changes per hour. The highest
air change rates are for crowded spaces, bars, night clubs, commercial kitchens at around 30 to
50 air changes per hour.[14]
Room pressure can be either positive or negative with respect to outside the room. Positive
pressure occurs when there is more air being supplied than exhausted, and is common to reduce
the infiltration of outside contaminants.[15]
Airborne diseases
Natural ventilation is a key factor in reducing the spread of airborne illnesses such as
tuberculosis, the common cold, influenza and meningitis. Opening doors, windows, and using
ceiling fans are all ways to maximize natural ventilation and reduce the risk of airborne
contagion. Natural ventilation requires little maintenance and is inexpensive.[16]
Air conditioning
Main article: Air conditioning
HVAC ventilation exhaust for a 12-story building
Air conditioning and refrigeration are provided through the removal of heat. Heat can be
removed through radiation, convection, or conduction. Refrigeration conduction media such as
water, air, ice, and chemicals are referred to as refrigerants. A refrigerant is employed either in a
heat pump system in which a compressor is used to drive thermodynamic refrigeration cycle, or
in a free cooling system which uses pumps to circulate a cool refrigerant (typically water or a
glycol mix). Free cooling systems can have very high efficiencies, and are sometimes combined
with seasonal thermal energy storage so the cold of winter can be used for summer air
conditioning. Common storage mediums are deep aquifers or a natural underground rock mass
accessed via a cluster of small-diameter, heat exchanger equipped boreholes. Some systems with
small storages are hybrids, using free cooling early in the cooling season, and later employing a
heat pump to chill the circulation coming from the storage. The heat pump is added-in because
the storage acts as a heat sink when the system is in cooling (as opposed to charging) mode,
causing the temperature to gradually increase during the cooling season.
An air conditioning system, or a standalone air conditioner, provides cooling, ventilation, and
humidity control for all or part of a building.
The refrigeration cycle uses four essential elements to cool. The system refrigerant starts its cycle
in a gaseous state. The compressor pumps the refrigerant gas up to a high pressure and
temperature. From there it enters a heat exchanger (sometimes called a "condensing coil" or
condenser) where it loses energy (heat) to the outside, cools, and condenses into its liquid phase.
The liquid refrigerant is returned to another heat exchanger where it is allowed to evaporate,
hence the heat exchanger is often called an "evaporating coil" or evaporator. A metering device
regulates the refrigerant liquid to flow at the proper rate. As the liquid refrigerant evaporates it
absorbs energy (heat) from the inside air, returns to the compressor, and repeats the cycle. In the
process, heat is absorbed from indoors and transferred outdoors, resulting in cooling of the
building.
In variable climates, the system may include a reversing valve that switches from heating in
winter to cooling in summer. By reversing the flow of refrigerant, the heat pump refrigeration
cycle is changed from cooling to heating or vice versa. This allows a facility to be heated and
cooled by a single piece of equipment by the same means, and with the same hardware.
Central, 'all-air' air conditioning systems (or package systems) with a combined outdoor
condenser/evaporator unit are often installed in modern residences, offices, and public buildings,
but are difficult to retrofit (install in a building that was not designed to receive it) because of the
bulky air ducts required.
An alternative to central systems is the use of separate indoor and outdoor coils in split systems.
These systems, although most often seen in residential applications, are gaining popularity in
small commercial buildings. The evaporator coil is connected to a remote condenser unit using
refrigerant piping between an indoor and outdoor unit instead of ducting air directly from the
outdoor unit. Indoor units with directional vents mount onto walls, suspended from ceilings, or
fit into the ceiling. Other indoor units mount inside the ceiling cavity, so that short lengths of
duct handle air from the indoor unit to vents or diffusers around the rooms.
Dehumidification (air drying) in an air conditioning system is provided by the evaporator. Since
the evaporator operates at a temperature below dew point, moisture in the air condenses on the
evaporator coil tubes. This moisture is collected at the bottom of the evaporator in a pan and
removed by piping to a central drain or onto the ground outside. A dehumidifier is an airconditioner-like device that controls the humidity of a room or building. It is often employed in
basements which have a higher relative humidity because of their lower temperature (and
propensity for damp floors and walls). In food retailing establishments, large open chiller
cabinets are highly effective at dehumidifying the internal air. Conversely, a humidifier increases
the humidity of a building.
Air conditioned buildings often have sealed windows, because open windows would work
against an HVAC system intended to maintain constant indoor air conditions.
All modern air conditioning systems, even small window package units, are equipped with
internal air filters. These are generally of a lightweight gauzy material, and must be replaced or
washed as conditions warrant. For example, a building in a high dust environment, or a home
with furry pets, will need to have the filters changed more often than buildings without these dirt
loads. Failure to replace these filters as needed will contribute to a lower heat exchange rate,
resulting in wasted energy, shortened equipment life, and higher energy bills; low air flow can
result in "iced-up" or "iced-over" evaporator coils, which can completely stop air flow.
Additionally, very dirty or plugged filters can cause overheating during a heating cycle, and can
result in damage to the system or even fire.
Because an air conditioner moves heat between the indoor coil and the outdoor coil, both must
be kept clean. This means that, in addition to replacing the air filter at the evaporator coil, it is
also necessary to regularly clean the condenser coil. Failure to keep the condenser clean will
eventually result in harm to the compressor, because the condenser coil is responsible for
discharging both the indoor heat (as picked up by the evaporator) and the heat generated by the
electric motor driving the compressor.
Outside, fresh air is generally drawn into the system by a vent into the indoor heat exchanger
section, creating positive air pressure. The percentage of return air made up of fresh air can
usually be manipulated by adjusting the opening of this vent. Typical fresh air intake is about
10%
Rooftop HVAC unit, with view of fresh air intake vent.

Energy efficiency
Since the 1980s, manufacturers of HVAC equipment have been making an effort to make the
systems they manufacture more efficient. This was originally driven by rising energy costs, and
has more recently been driven by increased awareness of environmental issues. In the US, the
EPA has also imposed tighter restrictions. There are several methods for making HVAC systems
more efficient.
Heating energy
In the past, water heating was more efficient for heating buildings and was the standard in the
United States. Today, forced air systems can double for air conditioning and are more popular.
Some benefits of forced air systems, which are now widely used in churches, schools and highend residences, are
Better air conditioning effects
Energy savings of up to 15-20%
Even conditioning.[citation needed]
A drawback is the installation cost, which can be slightly higher than traditional HVAC systems'.
Energy efficiency can be improved even more in central heating systems by introducing zoned
heating. This allows a more granular application of heat, similar to non-central heating systems.
Zones are controlled by multiple thermostats. In water heating systems the thermostats control
zone valves, and in forced air systems they control zone dampers inside the vents which
selectively block the flow of air. In this case, the control system is very critical to maintaining a
proper temperature.
Geothermal heat pump
Main article: Geothermal heat pump
Geothermal heat pumps are similar to ordinary heat pumps, but instead of using heat found in
outside air, they rely on the stable, even heat of the earth to provide heating, air conditioning and,
in most cases, hot water. The heat extracted through a geothermal heat pump can come from any
source, despite the temperature. However, the warmer the source of heat, the more energy
efficient it will be.[17] From Montana's 70 F (57 C) temperature to the highest temperature
ever recorded in the US134 F (57 C) in Death Valley, California, in 1913many parts of the
country experience seasonal temperature extremes. A few feet below the earth's surface,
however, the ground remains at a relatively constant temperature. Although the temperatures
vary according to latitude, at 6 feet (1.8 m) underground, temperatures only range from 45 to
75 F (7 to 24 C).
While they may be more costly to install than regular heat pumps, they can produce markedly
lower energy bills30 to 40 percent lower, according to estimates from the US Environmental
Protection Agency.
Ventilation energy recovery
Energy recovery systems sometimes utilize heat recovery ventilation or energy recovery
ventilation systems that employ heat exchangers or enthalpy wheels to recover sensible or latent
heat from exhausted air. This is done by transfer of energy to the incoming outside fresh air.
Air conditioning energy
The performance of vapor compression refrigeration cycles is limited by thermodynamics. These

air conditioning and heat pump devices move heat rather than convert it from one form to
another, so thermal efficiencies do not appropriately describe the performance of these devices.
The Coefficient-of-Performance (COP) measures performance, but this dimensionless measure
has not been adopted, but rather the Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER). EER is the Energy
Efficiency Ratio based on a 35 C (95 F) outdoor temperature. To more accurately describe the
performance of air conditioning equipment over a typical cooling season a modified version of
the EER is used, the Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER), or in Europe the ESEER. SEER
ratings are based on seasonal temperature averages instead of a constant 35 C outdoor
temperature. The current industry minimum SEER rating is 13 SEER.
Engineers have pointed out some areas where efficiency of the existing hardware could be
improved. For example, the fan blades used to move the air are usually stamped from sheet
metal, an economical method of manufacture, but as a result they are not aerodynamically
efficient. A well-designed blade could reduce electrical power required to move the air by a third.
[18]
Air filtration and cleaning
Air cleaning and filtration is an important factor of our indoor environment because cleaning the
air filters out what the lungs cannot by removing particles, contaminants, vapors and gases from
the air. The filtered and cleaned air then is used in heating, ventilation and air conditioning. Air
cleaning and filtration should be taken in account when protecting our building environments.[19]
Clean air delivery rate and filter performance
Clean air delivery rate is the amount of clean air an air cleaner provides to a room or space.
When determining CADR, the amount of airflow in a space is taken into account. For example,
an air cleaner with a flow rate of 100 cfm (cubic feet per minute) and an efficiency of 50% has a
CADR of 50 cfm. Along with CADR, filtration performance is very important when it comes to
the air in our indoor environment. Filter performance depends on the size of the particle or fiber,
the filter packing density and depth and also the air flow rate.[19]
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2003-136/2003-136b.html[19]
HVAC industry and standards
International
ISO 16813:2006 is one of the ISO building environment standards.[20] It establishes the general
principles of building environment design. It takes into account the need to provide a healthy
indoor environment for the occupants as well as the need to protect the environment for future
generations and promote collaboration among the various parties involved in building
environmental design for sustainability. ISO16813 is applicable to new construction and the
retrofit of existing buildings.[21]
The building environmental design standard aims to:[21]
provide the constraints concerning sustainability issues from the initial stage
of the design process, with building and plant life cycle to be considered
together with owning and operating costs from the beginning of the design
process;
assess the proposed design with rational criteria for indoor air quality,
thermal comfort, acoustical comfort, visual comfort, energy efficiency and
HVAC system controls at every stage of the design process;
iterate decisions and evaluations of the design throughout the design

process.
North America
United States
Main article: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers
In the United States, HVAC engineers generally are members of the American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), EPA Universal CFC
certified, or locally engineer certified such as a Special to Chief Boilers License issued by the
state or, in some jurisdictions, the city. ASHRAE is an international technical society for all
individuals and organizations interested in HVAC. The Society, organized into regions, chapters,
and student branches, allows exchange of HVAC knowledge and experiences for the benefit of
the field's practitioners and the public. ASHRAE provides many opportunities to participate in
the development of new knowledge via, for example, research and its many technical
committees. These committees typically meet twice per year at the ASHRAE Annual and Winter
Meetings. A popular product show, the AHR Expo, is held in conjunction with each winter
meeting. The Society has approximately 50,000 members and has headquarters in Atlanta,
Georgia.
The most recognized standards for HVAC design are based on ASHRAE data. The most general
of four volumes of the ASHRAE Handbook is Fundamentals; it includes heating and cooling
calculations. Each volume of the ASHRAE Handbook is updated every four years. The design
professional must consult ASHRAE data for the standards of design and care as the typical
building codes provide little to no information on HVAC design practices; codes such as the
UMC and IMC do include much detail on installation requirements, however. Other useful
reference materials include items from SMACNA, ACGIH, and technical trade journals.
American design standards are legislated in the Uniform Mechanical Code or International
Mechanical Code. In certain states, counties, or cities, either of these codes may be adopted and
amended via various legislative processes. These codes are updated and published by the
International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO) or the International
Code Council (ICC) respectively, on a 3-year code development cycle. Typically, local building
permit departments are charged with enforcement of these standards on private and certain public
properties.
In the United States and Canada, as well as throughout the world, HVAC contractors and Air
Duct Cleaning companies are members of NADCA, the National Air Duct Cleaners Association.
NADCA was formed in 1989 as a non-profit association of companies engaged in the cleaning of
HVAC air duct systems. Its mission was to promote source removal as the only acceptable
method of cleaning and to establish industry standards for the association. NADCA has expanded
its mission to include the representation of qualified member companies engaged in the
assessment, cleaning, and restoration of HVAC systems, and to assist its members in providing
high quality service to their customers. The goal of the association is to be the number one
source for the HVAC air duct cleaning and restoration services. NADCA has experienced large
membership growth in the United States, Canada and overseas and has been extremely
successful with the training and certification of Air Systems Cleaning Specialists (ASCS)and
Certified Ventilation Inspectors (CVI). The association has also published important standards
and guidelines, educational materials, and other useful information for the consumers and
members of NADCA. Standards include the Assessment, Cleaning and Restoration (ACR),
Certified Ventilation Inspector (CVI) and other important guidelines.
HVAC professionals in the US can receive training through formal training institutions, where
most earn associate's degrees. Training for HVAC technicians includes classroom lectures and
hands-on tasks, and can be followed by an apprenticeship wherein the recent graduate works
alongside a professional HVAC technician for a temporary period.[22] HVAC techs who have been
trained can also be certified in areas such as air conditioning, heat pumps, gas heating, and
commercial refrigeration.[23]
Europe
United Kingdom
The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers is a body that covers the essential
Service (systems architecture) that allow buildings to operate. It includes the electrotechnical,
heating, ventilating, air conditioning, refrigeration and plumbing industries. To train as a building
services engineer, the academic requirements are GCSEs (A-C) / Standard Grades (1-3) in Maths
and Science, which are important in measurements, planning and theory. Employers will often
want a degree in a branch of engineering, such as building environment engineering, electrical
engineering or mechanical engineering. To become a full member of CIBSE, and so also to be
registered by the Engineering Council UK as a chartered engineer, engineers must also attain an
Honours Degree and a Masters Degree in a relevant engineering subject.
CIBSE publishes several guides to HVAC design relevant to the UK market, and also the
Republic of Ireland, Australia, New Zealand and Hong Kong. These guides include various
recommended design criteria and standards, some of which are cited within the UK building
regulations, and therefore form a legislative requirement for major building services works. The
main guides are:
Guide A: Environmental Design
Guide B: Heating, Ventilating, Air Conditioning and Refrigeration
Guide C: Reference Data
Guide D: Transportation systems in Buildings
Guide E: Fire Safety Engineering
Guide F: Energy Efficiency in Buildings
Guide G: Public Health Engineering
Guide H: Building Control Systems
Guide J: Weather, Solar and Illuminance Data
Guide K: Electricity in Buildings
Guide L: Sustainability
Guide M: Maintenance Engineering and Management
Within the construction sector, it is the job of the building services engineer to design and
oversee the installation and maintenance of the essential services such as gas, electricity, water,
heating and lighting, as well as many others. These all help to make buildings comfortable and
healthy places to live and work in. Building Services is part of a sector that has over 51,000
businesses and employs represents 2%-3% of the GDP.
Australia
The Air Conditioning and Mechanical Contractors Association of Australia (AMCA), Australian
Institute of Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heating (AIRAH), and CIBSE are responsible.
Asia
Asian architectural temperature-control have different priorities than European methods. For
example, Asian heating traditionally focuses on maintaining temperatures of objects such as the
floor or furnishings such as Kotatsu tables and directly warming people, as opposed to the
Western focus, in modern periods, on designing air systems.
Philippines
The Philippine Society of Ventilating, Air Conditioning and Refrigerating Engineers (PSVARE)
along with Philippine Society of Mechanical Engineers (PSME) govern on the codes and
standards for HVAC / MVAC in the Philippines.
India
The Indian Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers (ISHRAE) was
established to promote the HVAC industry in India. ISHRAE is an associate of ASHRAE.
ISHRAE was started at Delhi in 1981 and a chapter was started in Bangalore in 1989. Between
1989 & 1993, ISHRAE chapters were formed in all major cities in India and also in the Middle
East.
Energy management system

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adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and
removed. (December 2009)
An energy management system (EMS) is a system of computer-aided tools used by operators
of electric utility grids to monitor, control, and optimize the performance of the generation and/or
transmission system. The monitor and control functions are known as SCADA; the optimization
packages are often referred to as "advanced applications".
The computer technology is also referred to as SCADA/EMS or EMS/SCADA. In these respects,
the terminology EMS then excludes the monitoring and control functions, but more specifically
refers to the collective suite of power network applications and to the generation control and
scheduling applications.
Manufacturers of EMS also commonly supply a corresponding dispatcher training simulator
(DTS). This related technology makes use of components of SCADA and EMS as a training tool
for control centre operators. It is also possible to acquire an independent DTS from a non-EMS
source such as EPRI
Energy management systems are also often commonly used by individual commercial entities to
monitor, measure, and control their electrical building loads. Energy management systems can be
used to centrally control devices like HVAC units and lighting systems across multiple locations,
such as retail, grocery and restaurant sites. Energy management systems can also provide
metering, submetering, and monitoring functions that allow facility and building managers to
gather data and insight that allows them to make more informed decisions about energy activities
across their sites.
Contents
1 Operating systems
2 Other meanings
o 2.1 Energy efficiency
o 2.2 Automated control of building energy
3 See also
4 References
Operating systems
Up to the early 1990s, it was common to find EMS systems being delivered based on proprietary
hardware and operating systems. Back then EMS suppliers such as Harris Controls (now GE),
Hitachi, Cebyc, Siemens and Toshiba manufactured their own proprietary hardware. EMS
suppliers that did not manufacture their own hardware often relied on products developed by
Digital Equipment, Gould Electronics and MODCOMP. The VAX 11/780 from Digital
Equipment was a popular choice amongst some EMS suppliers. EMS systems now rely on a
model based approach. Traditional planning models and EMS models were always independently
maintained and seldom in synchronism with each other. Using EMS software allows planners
and operators to share a common model reducing the mismatch between the two and cutting
model maintenance by half. Having a common user interface also allows for easier transition of
information from planning to operations.
As proprietary systems became uneconomical, EMS suppliers began to deliver solutions based
on industry standard hardware platforms such as those from Digital Equipment (later Compaq),
HP, IBM and Sun. The common operating system then was either DEC OpenVMS or UNIX. By
2004, various EMS suppliers including Alstom, ABB and OSI had begun to offer Windows
based solutions. By 2006 customers had a choice of UNIX, Linux or Windows-based systems.
Some suppliers including NARI, PSI-CNI and Siemens continue to offer UNIX-based solutions.
It is now common for suppliers to integrate UNIX-based solutions on either the Sun Solaris or
IBM platform. Newer EMS systems based on blade servers occupy a fraction of the space
previously required. For instance, a blade rack of 20 servers occupy much the same space as that
previously occupied by a single MicroVAX server.
Other meanings
Energy efficiency
In a slightly different context EMS can also refer to a system in an organization to achieve
energy efficiency through well laid out procedures and methods, and to ensure continual
improvement, which will spread awareness of energy efficiency throughout an entire
organisation.
Automated control of building energy

Main article: Building Management System
The term Energy Management System can also refer to a computer system which is designed
specifically for the automated control and monitoring of those electromechanical facilities in a
building which yield significant energy consumption such as heating, ventilation and lighting
installations. The scope may span from a single building to a group of buildings such as
university campuses, office buildings, retail stores networks or factories. Most of these energy
management systems also provide facilities for the reading of electricity, gas and water meters.
The data obtained from these can then be used to perform self-diagnostic and optimization
routines on a frequent basis and to produce trend analysis and annual consumption forecasts.
References
[1] http://www.abb.com/cawp/db0003db002698/b372f131c1a54e5fc12572ec0005dcb4.aspx
[2] ISO 50001 checklist
Energy conservation
This article is about sustainable energy resources. For the law of conservation of energy in
physics, see Conservation of energy.
Sustainable energy
Energy conservation
Cogeneration
Energy efficiency
Heat pump
Green building
Microgeneration
Passive solar
Renewable energy
Anaerobic digestion
Geothermal
Hydroelectricity
Solar
Tidal
Wind
Sustainable transport
Carbon-neutral fuel
Electric vehicle
Green vehicle
Plug-in hybrid
Sustainable development portal
Renewable energy portal
Environment portal
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Renewable energy
Biofuel
Biomass
Geothermal
Hydropower
Solar energy
Tidal power
Wave power
Wind power
Topics by country
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Energy conservation refers to reducing energy consumption through using less of an energy
service. Energy conservation differs from efficient energy use, which refers to using less energy
for a constant service.[1] For example, driving less is an example of energy conservation. Driving
the same amount with a higher mileage vehicle is an example of energy efficiency. Energy
conservation and efficiency are both energy reduction techniques.
Even though energy conservation reduces energy services, it can result in increased,
environmental quality, national security, and personal financial security.[2] It is at the top of the
sustainable energy hierarchy.[citation needed]
Contents
1 Energy taxes
2 Building Design
3 Transportation
4 Consumer products
5 Energy conservation by the countries

o 5.1 India
o 5.2 Iran
o 5.3 Japan
o 5.4 Lebanon
o 5.5 New Zealand
o 5.6 Sri Lanka
o 5.7 Asia Pacific
o 5.8 United States
o 5.9 Nigeria
o 5.10 Nepal
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Energy taxes
Some countries employ energy or carbon taxes to motivate energy users to reduce their
consumption. As detailed in the book, Green Illusions, carbon taxes can allow consumption to
shift to nuclear power and other alternatives that carry a different set of environmental side
effects and limitations. Meanwhile, taxes on all energy consumption stand to reduce energy use
across the board, while reducing a broader array of environmental consequences arising from
energy production. The State of California employs a tiered energy tax whereby every consumer
receives a baseline energy allowance that carries a low tax. As usage increases above that
baseline, the tax is increasing drastically. Such programs aim to protect poorer households while
creating a larger tax burden for high energy consumers.[3]
Building Design
One of the primary ways to improve energy conservation in buildings is to use an energy audit.
An energy audit is an inspection and analysis of energy use and flows for energy conservation in
a building, process or system to reduce the amount of energy input into the system without
negatively affecting the output(s). This is normally accomplished by trained professionals and
can be part of some of the national programs discussed above. In addition, recent development of
smartphone apps enable homeowners to complete relativily sophisticated energy audits
themselves.[4]
Building technologies and smart meters can allow energy users, business and residential, to see
graphically the impact their energy use can have in their workplace or homes. Advanced realtime energy metering is able to help people save energy by their actions.[5]
Elements of passive solar design, shown in a direct gain application

In passive solar building design, windows, walls, and floors are made to collect, store, and
distribute solar energy in the form of heat in the winter and reject solar heat in the summer. This
is called passive solar design or climatic design because, unlike active solar heating systems, it
doesn't involve the use of mechanical and electrical devices.
The key to designing a passive solar building is to best take advantage of the local climate.
Elements to be considered include window placement and glazing type, thermal insulation,
thermal mass, and shading. Passive solar design techniques can be applied most easily to new
buildings, but existing buildings can be retrofitted.
Transportation
In the United States, suburban infrastructure evolved during an age of relatively easy access to
fossil fuels, which has led to transportation-dependent systems of living. Zoning reforms that
allow greater urban density as well as designs for walking and bicycling can greatly reduce
energy consumed for transportation. The use of telecommuting by major corporations is a
significant opportunity to conserve energy, as many Americans now work in service jobs that
enable them to work from home instead of commuting to work each day.[6]
Consumer products
Consumers are often poorly informed of the savings of energy efficient products. The research
one must put into conserving energy often is too time consuming and costly when there are
cheaper products and technology available using today's fossil fuels.[7] Some governments and
NGOs are attempting to reduce this complexity with ecolabels that make differences in energy
efficiency easy to research while shopping.[8]
To provide the kind of information and support people need to invest money, time and effort in
energy conservation, it is important to understand and link to people's topical concerns.[9] For
instance, some retailers argue that bright lighting stimulates purchasing. However, health studies
have demonstrated that headache, stress, blood pressure, fatigue and worker error all generally
increase with the common over-illumination present in many workplace and retail settings.[10][11]
It has been shown that natural daylighting increases productivity levels of workers, while
reducing energy consumption.[12]
Energy conservation by the countries

At the end of 2006, the European Union (EU) pledged to cut its annual consumption of primary
energy by 20% by 2020.[13] The 'European Union Energy Efficiency Action Plan' is long awaited.
As part of the EU's SAVE Programme,[14] aimed at promoting energy efficiency and encouraging
energy-saving behaviour, the Boiler Efficiency Directive[15] specifies minimum levels of
efficiency for boilers fired with liquid or gaseous fuels.
India
Petroleum Conservation Research Association (PCRA) www.pcra.org is an Indian government
body created in 1977 and engaged in promoting energy efficiency and conservation in every
walk of life. In the recent past PCRA has done mass media campaigns in television, radio & print
media. An impact assessment survey by a third party revealed that due to these mega campaigns
by PCRA, overall awareness level have gone up leading to saving of fossil fuels worth crores of
rupees(Indian currency) besides reducing pollution.
Bureau of Energy Efficiency is an Indian governmental organization created in 2001 responsible
for promoting energy efficiency and conservation.
Iran
In Iran the Iranian Fuel Conservation Company is responsible for promoting energy efficiency
and conservation for fossil fuels. The administration decreased the fuel subsidies primarily to
reduce the effect of rapidly intensifying energy consumption on Iran's economy.
Japan
Advertising with high energy in Shinjuku, Japan.

Since the 1973 oil crisis, energy conservation has been an issue in Japan. All oil based fuel is
imported, so indigenous sustainable energy is being developed.
The Energy Conservation Center promotes energy efficiency in every aspect of Japan. Public
entities are implementing the efficient use of energy for industries and research.
Lebanon
In Lebanon and since 2002 The Lebanese Center for Energy Conservation (LCEC) has been
promoting the development of efficient and rational uses of energy and the use of renewable
energy at the consumer level. It was created as a project financed by the International
Environment Facility (GEF) and the Ministry of Energy Water (MEW) under the management of
the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and gradually established itself as an
independent technical national center although it continues to be supported by the United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP) as indicated in the Memorandum of Understanding
(MoU) signed between MEW and UNDP on June 18, 2007.
New Zealand
In New Zealand the Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority is the Government Agency
responsible for promoting energy efficiency and conservation. The Energy Management
Association of New Zealand is a membership based organization representing the New Zealand
energy services sector, providing training and accreditation services with the aim of ensuring
energy management services are credible and dependable.
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka currently consumes fossil fuels, hydro power, wind power, solar power and dendro
power for their day to day power generation. The Sri Lanka Sustainable Energy Authority is
playing a major role regarding energy management and energy conservation. Today, most of the
industries are requested to reduce their energy consumption by using renewable energy sources
and optimizing their energy usage.
Asia Pacific
Despite the vital role energy efficiency is envisaged to play in cost-effectively cutting energy
demand, only a small part of its economic potential is exploited in the Asia Pacific. Governments
have implemented a range of subsidies such as cash grants, cheap credit, tax exemptions, and cofinancing with public-sector funds to encourage a range of energy-efficiency initiatives across
several sectors. Governments in the Asia-Pacific region have implemented a range of
information provision and labeling programs for buildings, appliances, and the transportation and
industrial sectors. Information programs can simply provide data, such as fuel-economy labels,
or actively seek to encourage behavioral changes, such as Japans Cool Biz program that
encourages setting air conditioners at 28-degrees Celsius and allowing employees to dress
casually in the summer.[16] More in Pacific Energy Summit.
United States
Main article: Energy conservation in the United States
The United States is currently the second largest single consumer of energy, following China.
The U.S. Department of Energy categorizes national energy use in four broad sectors:
transportation, residential, commercial, and industrial.[17]
Energy usage in transportation and residential sectors, about half of U.S. energy consumption, is
largely controlled by individual consumers. Commercial and industrial energy expenditures are
determined by businesses entities and other facility managers. National energy policy has a
significant effect on energy usage across all four sectors.
Nigeria
In Nigeria, the Lagos State Government is encouraging Lagosians to imbibe an energy
conservation culture. The Lagos State Electricity Board (LSEB) is spearheading an initiative
tagged Conserve Energy, Save Money under the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources.
The initiative is designed to sensitize Lagosians around the theme of energy conservation by
connecting with and influencing their behavior through do-it-yourself tips and exciting
interaction with prominent personalities. In September 2013, Governor Babatunde Raji Fashola
of Lagos State and Africas #1 rapper Jude MI Abaga (campaign ambassador)([18]) participated
in the Governors first ever Google+ Hangout on YouTube on the topic of energy conservation.
In addition to the hangout, during the month of October (the official energy conservation month
in the state), LSEB hosted experience centers in malls around Lagos State where members of the
public were encouraged to calculate their current household energy consumption and discover
ways to save money by conserving energy. To get Lagosians started on energy conservation,
Solar Lamps and Phillips Energy-saving bulbs were given out at each experience center. Pictures
from the experience centers: (part of Lagos state government energy initiatives)
Nepal
Until recently, Nepal has been focusing on the exploitation of its huge water resources to produce
hydro power. Demand side management and energy conservation was not in the focus of
government action. In 2009, bilateral Development Cooperation between Nepal and the Federal
Republic of Germany, has agreed upon the joint implementation of Nepal Energy Efficiency
Programme. The lead executing agencies for the implementation are the Water and Energy
Commission Secretariat (WECS). The aim of the programme is the promotion of energy
efficiency in policy making, in rural and urban households as well as in the industry.[19] Due to
the lack of a government organization that promotes energy efficiency in the country, the
Federation of Nepalese Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FNCCI) has established the
Energy Efficiency Centre under his roof to promote energy conservation in the private sector.
The Energy Efficiency Centre is a non-profit initiative that is offering energy auditing services to
the industries. The Centre is also supported by Nepal Energy Efficiency Programme of Deutsche
Gesellschaft fr Internationale Zusammenarbeit.[20] A study conducted in 2012 found out that
Nepalese industries could save 160,000 Megawatt hours of electricity and 8,000 Terajoule of
thermal energy (like diesel, furnace oil and coal) every year. These savings are equivalent to
annual energy cost cut of up to 6.4 Billion Nepalese Rupees.[21][22] As a result of Nepal Economic
Forum 2014,[23] an economic reform agenda in the priority sectors was declared focusing on
energy conservation among others. In the energy reform agenda the government of Nepal gave
the commitment to introduce incentive packages in the budget of the fiscal year 2015/16 for
industries that practices energy efficiency or use efficient technologies (incl. cogeneration).[24]
References
1.
"Energy conservation vs. energy efficiency". Natural Resources Canada.

Retrieved May 13, 2014.
2.
"Unintended Consequences of Green Technologies". University of California,

Berkeley. Retrieved 26 December 2012.
3.
Zehner, Ozzie (2012). Green Illusions. Lincoln and London: University of

Nebraska Press. pp. 179182.
4.
Patrick Leslie, Joshua Pearce, Rob Harrap, Sylvie Daniel, The application of
smartphone technology to economic and environmental analysis of building energy
conservation strategies, International Journal of Sustainable Energy 31(5), pp. 295-311
(2012). open access
5.
July 2009 European Commission's Directorate-General for Energy and Transport

initiative, "Energy Savings from Intelligent Metering and Behavioural Change
(INTELLIGENT METERING) http://www.managenergy.net/products/R1951.htm", 2009
6.
Best Buy Optimas Award Winner for 2007[dead link]
7.
"Energy efficiency: The elusive negawatt". The Economist. 2008-05-08.

Retrieved 2013-08-21.
8.
Breukers, Heiskanen, et al. (2009). Interaction schemes for successful demandside management. Deliverable 5 of the CHANGING BEHAVIOUR project. Funded by
the EC (#213217)
9.
Toolkit for managers of energy conservation projects: How to learn about people's
topical concerns[dead link]
10.
Scott Davis, Dana K. Mirick, Richard G. Stevens (2001). "Night Shift Work,
Light at Night, and Risk of Breast Cancer". Journal of the National Cancer Institute 93
(20): 15571562. doi:10.1093/jnci/93.20.1557. PMID 11604479.
11.
Bain, A (1997). "The Hindenburg Disaster: A Compelling Theory of Probable

Cause and Effect". Procs. NatL Hydr. Assn. 8th Ann. Hydrogen Meeting, Alexandria, Va.,
March 1113,: 125128.
12.
Lumina Technologies Inc., Santa Rosa, Ca., Survey of 156 California commercial
buildings energy use, August, 1996
13.
"Energy: What do we want to achieve ? - European commission". Ec.europa.eu.

14.
For an Energy-Efficient Millennium: SAVE 2000, Directorate-General for Energy
15.
Council Directive 92/42/EEC of 21 May 1992 on efficiency requirements for new

hot-water boilers fired with liquid or gaseous fuels[dead link]
16.
"2013 Pacific Energy Summit Working Papers". Nbr.org. 2013-04-22. Retrieved

2013-08-21.
17.
US Dept. of Energy, "Annual Energy Report" (July 2006), Energy Flow diagram
18.
[1]
19.
"Nepal Energy Efficiency Programme". Water and Energy Commission

Secretariat (WECS). 2011. Retrieved 6 December 2013.
20.
"Introduction". Energy Efficiency Centre. 2013. Retrieved 30 December 2013.
21.
"Baseline Study of Selected Sector Industries to assess The Potentials for more
Efficient use of Energy in Nepal". Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Internationale
Zusammenarbeit (GIZ). 2012. Retrieved 2 January 2014.
22.
"Baseline Study of Selected Sector Industries to assess The Potentials for more
Efficient use of Energy in Nepal". Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Internationale
Zusammenarbeit (GIZ). 2012. Retrieved 2 January 2014.
23.
"Agri, tourism, energy in focus at Nepal Economic Summit". Kantipur

Newspaper. 2014. Retrieved 7 April 2014.
24.
"NEPAL ECONOMIC SUMMIT 2014 DECLARATION A COMMITMENT

TO ECONOMIC REFORM". FNCCI. 2014. Retrieved 7 April 2014.
Efficient energy use

For other uses, see Energy efficiency (disambiguation).
A spiral-type integrated compact fluorescent lamp, which has been in popular use among North
American consumers since its introduction in the mid-1990s.[1]
Sustainable energy
Energy conservation
Cogeneration
Energy efficiency
Heat pump
Green building
Microgeneration
Passive solar
Renewable energy
Anaerobic digestion
Geothermal
Hydroelectricity
Solar
Tidal
Wind
Sustainable transport
Carbon-neutral fuel
Electric vehicle
Green vehicle
Plug-in hybrid
Environment portal
v
t
e
Efficient energy use, sometimes simply called energy efficiency, is the goal to reduce the
amount of energy required to provide products and services. For example, insulating a home
allows a building to use less heating and cooling energy to achieve and maintain a comfortable
temperature. Installing fluorescent lights or natural skylights reduces the amount of energy
required to attain the same level of illumination compared with using traditional incandescent
light bulbs. Compact fluorescent lights use one-third the energy of incandescent lights and may
last 6 to 10 times longer. Improvements in energy efficiency are generally achieved by adopting
a more efficient technology or production processes [2] or by application of commonly accepted
methods to reduce energy losses.
There are many motivations to improve energy efficiency. Reducing energy use reduces energy
costs and may result in a financial cost saving to consumers if the energy savings offset any
additional costs of implementing an energy efficient technology. Reducing energy use is also
seen as a solution to the problem of reducing carbon dioxide emissions. According to the
International Energy Agency, improved energy efficiency in buildings, industrial processes and
transportation could reduce the world's energy needs in 2050 by one third, and help control
global emissions of greenhouse gases.[3]
Energy efficiency and renewable energy are said to be the twin pillars of sustainable energy
policy[4] and are high priorities in the sustainable energy hierarchy. In many countries energy
efficiency is also seen to have a national security benefit because it can be used to reduce the
level of energy imports from foreign countries and may slow down the rate at which domestic
energy resources are depleted.
Contents
1 Overview
2 Appliances
3 Building design
4 Industry
5 Vehicles
6 Alternative fuels
7 Energy conservation
8 Sustainable energy
9 Rebound effect
10 Organisations and programs
11 See also
12 References
Overview
Further information: Domestic energy consumption
Energy efficiency has proved to be a cost-effective strategy for building economies without
necessarily increasing energy consumption. For example, the state of California began
implementing energy-efficiency measures in the mid-1970s, including building code and
appliance standards with strict efficiency requirements. During the following years, California's
energy consumption has remained approximately flat on a per capita basis while national U.S.
consumption doubled.[5] As part of its strategy, California implemented a "loading order" for new
energy resources that puts energy efficiency first, renewable electricity supplies second, and new
fossil-fired power plants last.[6]
Lovins' Rocky Mountain Institute points out that in industrial settings, "there are abundant
opportunities to save 70% to 90% of the energy and cost for lighting, fan, and pump systems;
50% for electric motors; and 60% in areas such as heating, cooling, office equipment, and
appliances."[citation needed] In general, up to 75% of the electricity used in the U.S. today could be
saved with efficiency measures that cost less than the electricity itself. The same holds true for
home-owners, leaky ducts have remained an invisible energy culprit for years. In fact,
researchers at the US Department of Energy and their consortium, Residential Energy Efficient
Distribution Systems (REEDS) have found that duct efficiency may be as low as 50-70%. The
US Department of Energy has stated that there is potential for energy saving in the magnitude of
90 Billion kWh by increasing home energy efficiency.[7]
Other studies have emphasized this. A report published in 2006 by the McKinsey Global
Institute, asserted that "there are sufficient economically viable opportunities for energyproductivity improvements that could keep global energy-demand growth at less than 1 percent
per annum"less than half of the 2.2 percent average growth anticipated through 2020 in a
business-as-usual scenario.[8] Energy productivity, which measures the output and quality of
goods and services per unit of energy input, can come from either reducing the amount of energy
required to produce something, or from increasing the quantity or quality of goods and services
from the same amount of energy.
The Vienna Climate Change Talks 2007 Report, under the auspices of the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), clearly shows "that energy efficiency
can achieve real emission reductions at low cost."[9]
Appliances
See also: green computing, solar lamp, energy saving lamp and power usage effectiveness
Modern appliances, such as, freezers, ovens, stoves, dishwashers, and clothes washers and
dryers, use significantly less energy than older appliances. Installing a clothesline will
significantly reduce your energy consumption as your dryer will be used less. Current energy
efficient refrigerators, for example, use 40 percent less energy than conventional models did in
2001. Following this, if all households in Europe changed their more than ten-year-old
appliances into new ones, 20 billion kWh of electricity would be saved annually, hence reducing
CO2 emissions by almost 18 billion kg.[10] In the US, the corresponding figures would be 17
billion kWh of electricity and 27,000,000,000 lb (1.21010 kg) CO2.[11] According to a 2009 study
from McKinsey & Company the replacement of old appliances is one of the most efficient global
measures to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases.[12] Modern power management systems also
reduce energy usage by idle appliances by turning them off or putting them into a low-energy
mode after a certain time. Many countries identify energy-efficient appliances using energy input
labeling.[13]
The impact of energy efficiency on peak demand depends on when the appliance is used.[14] For
example, an air conditioner uses more energy during the afternoon when it is hot. Therefore, an
energy efficient air conditioner will have a larger impact on peak demand than off-peak demand.
An energy efficient dishwasher, on the other hand, uses more energy during the late evening
when people do their dishes. This appliance may have little to no impact on peak demand.
Building design
See also: Building performance, Energy-efficient landscaping, Window insulation film and
Phase-out of incandescent light bulbs
Receiving a Gold rating for energy and environmental design in September 2011, the Empire
State Building is the tallest and largest LEED certified building in the United States and Western
Hemisphere.[15]
A buildings location and surroundings play a key role in regulating its temperature and
illumination. For example, trees, landscaping, and hills can provide shade and block wind. In
cooler climates, designing northern hemisphere buildings with south facing windows and
southern hemisphere buildings with north facing windows increases the amount of sun
(ultimately heat energy) entering the building, minimizing energy use, by maximizing passive
solar heating. Tight building design, including energy-efficient windows, well-sealed doors, and
additional thermal insulation of walls, basement slabs, and foundations can reduce heat loss by
25 to 50 percent.[13]
Dark roofs may become up to 39 C (70 F) hotter than the most reflective white surfaces, and
they transmit some of this additional heat inside the building. US Studies have shown that lightly
colored roofs use 40 percent less energy for cooling than buildings with darker roofs. White roof
systems save more energy in sunnier climates. Advanced electronic heating and cooling systems
can moderate energy consumption and improve the comfort of people in the building.[13]
Proper placement of windows and skylights as well as the use of architectural features that
reflect light into a building can reduce the need for artificial lighting. Increased use of natural
and task lighting has been shown by one study to increase productivity in schools and offices.[13]
Compact fluorescent lights use two-thirds less energy and may last 6 to 10 times longer than
incandescent light bulbs. Newer fluorescent lights produce a natural light, and in most
applications they are cost effective, despite their higher initial cost, with payback periods as low
as a few months.[16]
Effective energy-efficient building design can include the use of low cost Passive Infra Reds
(PIRs) to switch-off lighting when areas are unnoccupied such as toilets, corridors or even office
areas out-of-hours. In addition, lux levels can be monitored using daylight sensors linked to the
building's lighting scheme to switch on/off or dim the lighting to pre-defined levels to take into
account the natural light and thus reduce consumption. Building Management Systems (BMS)
link all of this together in one centralised computer to control the whole building's lighting and
power requirements.[17]
The choice of which space heating or cooling technology to use in buildings can have a
significant impact on energy use and efficiency. For example, replacing an older 50% efficient
natural gas furnace with a new 95% efficient one will dramatically reduce energy use, carbon
emissions, and winter natural gas bills. Ground source heat pumps can be even more energy
efficient and cost effective. These systems use pumps and compressors to move refrigerant fluid
around a thermodynamic cycle in order to "pump" heat against its natural flow from hot to cold,
for the purpose of transferring heat into a building from the large thermal reservoir contained
within the nearby ground. The end result is that heat pumps typically use four times less
electrical energy to deliver an equivalent amount of heat than a direct electrical heater does.
Another advantage of a ground source heat pump is that it can be reversed in summertime and
operate to cool the air by transferring heat from the building to the ground. The disadvantage of
ground source heat pumps is their high initial capital cost, but this is typically recouped within
five to ten years as a result of lower energy use.
Smart meters are slowly being adopted by the commercial sector to highlight to staff and for
internal monitoring purposes the building's energy usage in a dynamic presentable format. The
use of Power Quality Analysers can be introduced into an existing building to assess usage,
harmonic distortion, peaks, swells and interruptions amongst others to ultimately make the
building more energy-efficient. Often such meters communicate by using wireless sensor
networks.[18]
Green Building XML (gbXML) is an emerging schema, a subset of the Building Information
Modeling efforts, focused on green building design and operation. gbXML is used as input in
several energy simulation engines. But with the development of modern computer technology, a
large number of building energy simulation tools are available on the market. When choosing
which simulation tool to use in a project, the user must consider the tool's accuracy and
reliability, considering the building information they have at hand, which will serve as input for
the tool. Yezioro, Dong and Leite[19] developed an artificial intelligence approach towards
assessing building performance simulation results and found that more detailed simulation tools
have the best simulation performance in terms of heating and cooling electricity consumption
within 3% of mean absolute error.
A deep energy retrofit is a whole-building analysis and construction process that uses to achieve
much larger energy savings than conventional energy retrofits. Deep energy retrofits can be
applied to both residential and non-residential (commercial) buildings. A deep energy retrofit
typically results in energy savings of 30 percent or more, perhaps spread over several years, and
may significantly improve the building value.[20] The Empire State Building has undergone a
deep energy retrofit process that was completeted in 2013. The project team, consisting of
representatives from Johnson Controls, Rocky Mountain Institute, Clinton Climate Initiative, and
Jones Lang LaSalle will have achieved an annual energy use reduction of 38% and $4.4 million.
[21]
For example, the 6,500 windows were remanufactured onsite into superwindows which block
heat but pass light. Air conditioning operating costs on hot days were reduced and this saved $17
million of the project's capital cost immediately, partly funding other retrofitting.[22] Receiving a
gold Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) rating in September 2011, the
Empire State Building is the tallest LEED certified building in the United States.[15] The
Indianapolis City-County Building recently underwent a deep energy retrofit process, which has
achieved an annual energy reduction of 46% and $750,000 annual energy saving.
Industry
Industry uses a large amount of energy to power a diverse range of manufacturing and resource
extraction processes. Many industrial processes require large amounts of heat and mechanical
power, most of which is delivered as natural gas, petroleum fuels and as electricity. In addition
some industries generate fuel from waste products that can be used to provide additional energy.
Because industrial processes are so diverse it is impossible to describe the multitude of possible
opportunities for energy efficiency in industry. Many depend on the specific technologies and
processes in use at each industrial facility. There are, however, a number of processes and energy
services that are widely used in many industries.
Various industries generate steam and electricity for subsequent use within their facilities. When
electricity is generated, the heat that is produced as a by-product can be captured and used for
process steam, heating or other industrial purposes. Conventional electricity generation is about
30% efficient, whereas combined heat and power (also called co-generation) converts up to 90
percent of the fuel into usable energy.[23]
Advanced boilers and furnaces can operate at higher temperatures while burning less fuel. These
technologies are more efficient and produce fewer pollutants.[23]
Over 45 percent of the fuel used by US manufacturers is burnt to make steam. The typical
industrial facility can reduce this energy usage 20 percent (according to the US Department of
Energy) by insulating steam and condensate return lines, stopping steam leakage, and
maintaining steam traps.[23]
Electric motors usually run at a constant speed, but a variable speed drive allows the motors
energy output to match the required load. This achieves energy savings ranging from 3 to 60
percent, depending on how the motor is used. Motor coils made of superconducting materials can
also reduce energy losses.[23] Motors may also benefit from voltage optimisation.[citation needed]
Industry uses a large number of pumps and compressors of all shapes and sizes and in a wide
variety of applications. The efficiency of pumps and compressors depends on many factors but
often improvements can be made by implementing better process control and better maintenance
practices. Compressors are commonly used to provide compressed air which is used for sand
blasting, painting, and other power tools. According to the US Department of Energy, optimizing
compressed air systems by installing variable speed drives, along with preventive maintenance to
detect and fix air leaks, can improve energy efficiency 20 to 50 percent.[23]
Vehicles
Main article: Energy efficiency in transportation
Toyota Prius used by NYPD Traffic Enforcement

The estimated energy efficiency for an automobile is 280 Passenger-Mile/106 Btu.[24] There are
several ways to enhance a vehicle's energy efficiency. Using improved aerodynamics to
minimize drag can increase vehicle fuel efficiency. Reducing vehicle weight can also improve
fuel economy, which is why composite materials are widely used in car bodies.
More advanced tires, with decreased tire to road friction and rolling resistance, can save
gasoline. Fuel economy can be improved by up to 3.3% by keeping tires inflated to the correct
pressure.[25] Replacing a clogged air filter can improve a cars fuel consumption by as much as 10
percent on older vehicles.[26] On newer vehicles (1980s and up) with fuel-injected, computercontrolled engines, a clogged air filter has no effect on mpg but replacing it may improve
acceleration by 6-11 percent.[27]
Typical Brazilian filling station with four alternative fuels for sale: biodiesel (B3), gasohol (E25),
neat ethanol (E100), and compressed natural gas (CNG). Piracicaba, Brazil.
Energy-efficient vehicles may reach twice the fuel efficiency of the average automobile. Cuttingedge designs, such as the diesel Mercedes-Benz Bionic concept vehicle have achieved a fuel
efficiency as high as 84 miles per US gallon (2.8 L/100 km; 101 mpg-imp), four times the current
conventional automotive average.[26]
The mainstream trend in automotive efficiency is the rise of electric vehicles (all@electric or
hybrid electric). Hybrids, like the Toyota Prius, use regenerative braking to recapture energy that
would dissipate in normal cars; the effect is especially pronounced in city driving.[28] Plug-in
hybrids also have increased battery capacity, which makes it possible to drive for limited
distances without burning any gasoline; in this case, energy efficiency is dictated by whatever
process (such as coal-burning, hydroelectric, or renewable source) created the power. Plug-ins
can typically drive for around 40 miles (64 km) purely on electricity without recharging; if the
battery runs low, a gas engine kicks in allowing for extended range. Finally, all-electric cars are
also growing in popularity; the Tesla Roadster sports car is the only high-performance all-electric
car currently on the market, and others are in preproduction.[29]
Alternative fuels
Main article: Alternative fuels
Alternative fuels, known as non-conventional or advanced fuels, are any materials or substances
that can be used as fuels, other than conventional fuels. Some well known alternative fuels
include biodiesel, bioalcohol (methanol, ethanol, butanol), chemically stored electricity (batteries
and fuel cells), hydrogen, non-fossil methane, non-fossil natural gas, vegetable oil, and other
biomass sources.
Energy conservation
Main article: Energy conservation
Elements of passive solar energy design, shown in a direct gain application

Energy conservation is broader than energy efficiency in including active efforts to decrease
energy consumption, for example through behavioural change, in addition to using energy more
efficiently. Examples of conservation without efficiency improvements are heating a room less in
winter, using the car less, air-drying your clothes instead of using the dryer, or enabling energy
saving modes on a computer. As with other definitions, the boundary between efficient energy
use and energy conservation can be fuzzy, but both are important in environmental and economic
terms.[30] This is especially the case when actions are directed at the saving of fossil fuels.[31]
Energy conservation is a challenge requiring policy programmes, technological development and
behavioral change to go hand in hand. Many energy intermediary organisations, for example
governmental or non-governmental organisations on local, regional, or national level, are
working on often publicly funded programmes or projects to meet this challenge.[32]
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory maintains a comprehensive list of apps useful for
energy efficiency.[33]
Commercial property managers that plan and manage energy efficiency projects generally use a
software platform to perform energy audits and to collaborate with contractors to understand
their full range of options. The Department of Energy (DOE) Software Directory describes
EnergyActio software, a cloud based platform designed for this purpose.
Sustainable energy
Main article: Sustainable energy
Energy efficiency and renewable energy are said to be the twin pillars of a sustainable energy
policy. Both strategies must be developed concurrently in order to stabilize and reduce carbon
dioxide emissions. Efficient energy use is essential to slowing the energy demand growth so that
rising clean energy supplies can make deep cuts in fossil fuel use. If energy use grows too
rapidly, renewable energy development will chase a receding target. Likewise, unless clean
energy supplies come online rapidly, slowing demand growth will only begin to reduce total
carbon emissions; a reduction in the carbon content of energy sources is also needed. A
sustainable energy economy thus requires major commitments to both efficiency and renewables.
[34]
Rebound effect
Further information: Rebound effect (conservation) and Jevons' paradox
If the demand for energy services remains constant, improving energy efficiency will reduce
energy consumption and carbon emissions. However, many efficiency improvements do not
reduce energy consumption by the amount predicted by simple engineering models. This is
because they make energy services cheaper, and so consumption of those services increases. For
example, since fuel efficient vehicles make travel cheaper, consumers may choose to drive
farther, thereby offsetting some of the potential energy savings. Similarly, an extensive historical
analysis of technological efficiency improvements has conclusively shown that energy efficiency
improvements were almost always outpaced by economic growth, resulting in a net increase in
resource use and associated pollution.[35] These are examples of the direct rebound effect.[36]
Estimates of the size of the rebound effect range from roughly 5% to 40%.[37][38][39] The rebound
effect is likely to be less than 30% at the household level and may be closer to 10% for transport.
[36]
A rebound effect of 30% implies that improvements in energy efficiency should achieve 70%
of the reduction in energy consumption projected using engineering models. The rebound effect
may be particularly large for lighting, because in contrast to tasks like transport there is
effectively no upper limit on how much light could be considered useful.[40] In fact, it appears
that lighting has accounted for about 0.7% of GDP across many societies and hundreds of years,
implying a rebound effect of 100%.[41]
Organisations and programs

International
80 Plus
2000-watt society
IEA Solar Heating & Cooling Implementing Agreement Task 13
International Institute for Energy Conservation
International Energy Agency (e.g. One Watt initiative)
International Electrotechnical Commission
International Partnership for Energy Efficiency Cooperation
World Sustainable Energy Days
Australia
Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency
Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts
Sustainable House Day
European Union
Building energy rating
Eco-Design of Energy-Using Products Directive
Energy efficiency in Europe
Orgalime, the European engineering industries association
Iceland
Marorka
Africa
India
88888 Lights Out
Bureau of Energy Efficiency
Energy Efficiency Services Limited
Japan
Cool Biz campaign
Lebanon
The Lebanese Center for Energy Conservation
United Kingdom
The Carbon Trust
Energy Saving Trust
National Energy Action
National Energy Foundation
Creative Energy Homes
United States
Alliance to Save Energy
American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy (ACEEE)
Building Codes Assistance Project
Building Energy Codes Program
Consortium for Energy Efficiency
Energy Star, from United States Environmental Protection Agency
Enervee
Industrial Assessment Center
National Electrical Manufacturers Association
Rocky Mountain Institute
Indian energy strategies
See also
Energy portal
Ecology portal
Cogeneration
Data center infrastructure efficiency
Electrical energy efficiency on United States farms
Electric vehicle#Efficiency
Energy audit
Energy Efficiency Implementation
Energy recovery
Energy resilience
Performance per watt
List of energy storage projects
Negawatt power
Passenger miles per gallon
Renewable heat
Standby power
U.S. Department of Energy Solar Decathlon
The Green Deal
World Energy Engineering Congress
Energy Reduction Assets
References
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"Philips Tornado Asian Compact Fluorescent". Philips. Retrieved 2007-12-24.
2.
Diesendorf, Mark (2007). Greenhouse Solutions with Sustainable Energy, UNSW

Press, p. 86.
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Sophie Hebden (2006-06-22). "Invest in clean technology says IEA report".

Scidev.net. Retrieved 2010-07-16.
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"The Twin Pillars of Sustainable Energy: Synergies between Energy Efficiency

and Renewable Energy Technology and Policy". Aceee.org. Archived from the original
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STEVE LOHR (November 29, 2006). "Energy Use Can Be Cut by Efficiency,
Survey Says". the newyork times. Retrieved November 29, 2006.
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of the Global Greenhouse Gas Abatement Cost Curve, p. 7.
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Environmental and Energy Study Institute. "Energy-Efficient Buildings: Using

whole building design to reduce energy consumption in homes and offices". Eesi.org.
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"The impact of energy efficiency on peak demand". Energydsm.com. Retrieved

2010-07-16.
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"Empire State Building Achieves LEED Gold Certification | Inhabitat New York
City". Inhabitat.com. Retrieved October 12, 2011.
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"CFL savings calculator". Green-energy-efficient-homes.com. 2013-08-06.

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towards assessing building performance simulation tools". Energy and Buildings 40 (4):
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"Visit > Sustainability & Energy Efficiency | Empire State Building".
Esbnyc.com. 2011-06-16. Retrieved 2013-08-21.
Amory Lovins (MarchApril 2012). "A Farewell to Fossil Fuels". Foreign Affairs.
Environmental and Energy Study Institute. "Industrial Energy Efficiency: Using
new technologies to reduce energy use in industry and manufacturing". Eesi.org.
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Richard C. Dorf, The Energy Factbook, McGraw-Hill, 1981
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Automotive Efficiency: Using technology to reduce energy use in passenger

vehicles and light trucks[dead link]
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Nom * (2013-06-28). "La Prius de Toyota, une rfrence des voitures hybrides |
L'nergie en questions". Lenergieenquestions.fr. Retrieved 2013-08-21.
"2008 Tesla Roadster - Car News". Car and Driver. Retrieved 2010-07-16.
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Dietz, T. et al. (2009).Household actions can provide a behavioral wedge to

rapidly reduce U.S. carbon emissions. PNAS. 106(44).
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Press, p. 87.
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Breukers, Heiskanen, et al. (2009). Interaction schemes for successful demandside management. Deliverable 5 of the CHANGING BEHAVIOUR project. Funded by
the EC (#213217).
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"National Renewable Energy Laboratory. (2012)". En.openei.org. Retrieved 201308-21.
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The Twin Pillars of Sustainable Energy: Synergies between Energy Efficiency and
Renewable Energy Technology and Policy[dead link] (American Council for an EnergyEfficient Economy)
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Technology Wont Save Us or the Environment, Chapter 5, "In Search of Solutions II:
Efficiency Improvements", New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, Canada.
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savings from improved energy efficiency pp. v-vi.
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Greening, Lorna A.; David L. Greene; Carmen Difiglio (2000). "Energy

efficiency and consumptionthe rebound effecta survey". Energy Policy 28 (67):
389401. doi:10.1016/S0301-4215(00)00021-5.
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Kenneth A. Small and Kurt Van Dender (September 21, 2005). "The Effect of
Improved Fuel Economy on Vehicle Miles Traveled: Estimating the Rebound Effect
Using U.S. State Data, 1966-2001". University of California Energy Institute: Policy &
Economics. Retrieved 2007-11-23.
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"Energy Efficiency and the Rebound Effect: Does Increasing Efficiency Decrease
Demand?". Retrieved 2011-10-01.
40.
Kyba, C. C. M.; Hnel, A.; Hlker, F. "Redefining efficiency for outdoor

lighting". Energy & Environmental Science. doi:10.1039/C4EE00566J.
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Tsao, J Y; Saunders, H D; Creighton, J R; Coltrin, M E; Simmons, J A (8

September 2010). "Solid-state lighting: an energy-economics perspective". Journal of
Physics D: Applied Physics 43 (35): 354001. doi:10.1088/0022-3727/43/35/354001.
2.
Geothermal heat pump
3. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

4. This article is about using heat pumps to heat and cool buildings using the earth as a heat
reservoir. For generation of electricity from genuine geothermal energy from hot rocks,
see geothermal power. For using energy from hot rocks to heat directly, see geothermal
heating.
5.
6.
7. Ground source heating and cooling
8. A geothermal heat pump or ground source heat pump (GSHP) is a central heating
and/or cooling system that transfers heat to or from the ground.
9. It uses the earth as a heat source (in the winter) or a heat sink (in the summer). This
design takes advantage of the moderate temperatures in the ground to boost efficiency
and reduce the operational costs of heating and cooling systems, and may be combined
with solar heating to form a geosolar system with even greater efficiency. Ground source
heat pumps are also known as "geothermal heat pumps" although, strictly, the heat does
not come primarily from the centre of the Earth, but from the Sun. They are also known
by other names, including geoexchange, earth-coupled, earth energy systems. The
engineering and scientific communities prefer the terms "geoexchange" or "ground
source heat pumps" to avoid confusion with traditional geothermal power, which uses a
high temperature heat source to generate electricity.[1] Ground source heat pumps harvest
heat absorbed at the Earth's surface from solar energy. The temperature in the ground
below 6 metres (20 ft) is roughly equal to the mean annual air temperature [2] at that
latitude at the surface.
10. Depending on latitude, the temperature beneath the upper 6 metres (20 ft) of Earth's
surface maintains a nearly constant temperature between 10 and 16 C (50 and 60 F),[3]
if the temperature is undisturbed by the presence of a heat pump. Like a refrigerator or air
conditioner, these systems use a heat pump to force the transfer of heat from the ground.
Heat pumps can transfer heat from a cool space to a warm space, against the natural
direction of flow, or they can enhance the natural flow of heat from a warm area to a cool
one. The core of the heat pump is a loop of refrigerant pumped through a vaporcompression refrigeration cycle that moves heat. Air-source heat pumps are typically
more efficient at heating than pure electric heaters, even when extracting heat from cold
winter air, although efficiencies begin dropping significantly as outside air temperatures
drop below 5 C (41 F). A ground source heat pump exchanges heat with the ground.
This is much more energy-efficient because underground temperatures are more stable
than air temperatures through the year. Seasonal variations drop off with depth and
disappear below 7 metres (23 ft)[4] to 12 metres (39 ft)[5] due to thermal inertia. Like a
cave, the shallow ground temperature is warmer than the air above during the winter and
cooler than the air in the summer. A ground source heat pump extracts ground heat in the
winter (for heating) and transfers heat back into the ground in the summer (for cooling).
Some systems are designed to operate in one mode only, heating or cooling, depending
on climate.
11. Geothermal pump systems reach fairly high Coefficient of performance (CoP), 3 to 6, on
the coldest of winter nights, compared to 1.75-2.5 for air-source heat pumps on cool days.
[6]
Ground source heat pumps (GSHPs) are among the most energy efficient technologies
for providing HVAC and water heating.[7][8]
12. Setup costs are higher than for conventional systems, but the difference is usually
returned in energy savings in 3 to 10 years, and even shorter lengths of time with federal,
state and utility tax credits and incentives. Geothermal heat pump systems are reasonably
warranted by manufacturers, and their working life is estimated at 25 years for inside
components and 50+ years for the ground loop.[9] As of 2004, there are over a million
units installed worldwide providing 12 GW of thermal capacity, with an annual growth
rate of 10%.[10]
Differing terms and definitions
Ground source heating and cooling

This section requires expansion. (February 2010)
Some confusion exists with regard to the terminology of heat pumps and the use of the term
"geothermal". "Geothermal" derives from the Greek and means "Earth heat" - which geologists
and many laymen understand as describing hot rocks, volcanic activity or heat derived from deep
within the earth. Though some confusion arises when the term "geothermal" is also used to apply
to temperatures within the first 100 metres of the surface, this is "Earth heat" all the same, though
it is largely influenced by stored energy from the sun.
History
The heat pump was described by Lord Kelvin in 1853 and developed by Peter Ritter von
Rittinger in 1855. After experimenting with a freezer, Robert C. Webber built the first direct
exchange ground-source heat pump in the late 1940s.[11] The first successful commercial project
was installed in the Commonwealth Building (Portland, Oregon) in 1948, and has been
designated a National Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark by ASME.[12] The technology
became popular in Sweden in the 1970s, and has been growing slowly in worldwide acceptance
since then. Open loop systems dominated the market until the development of polybutylene pipe
in 1979 made closed loop systems economically viable.[12] As of 2004, there are over a million
units installed worldwide providing 12 GW of thermal capacity.[10] Each year, about 80,000 units
are installed in the US (geothermal energy is used in all 50 US states today, with great potential
for near-term market growth and savings)[13] and 27,000 in Sweden.[10] In Finland, a geothermal
heat pump was the most common heating system choice for new detached houses between 2006
and 2011 with market share exceeding 40%.[14]
Ground heat exchanger
See also: Ground-coupled heat exchanger
Loop field for a 12-ton system (unusually large for most residential applications)
Heat pumps provide winter heating by extracting heat from a source and transferring it into a
building. Heat can be extracted from any source, no matter how cold, but a warmer source allows
higher efficiency. A ground source heat pump uses the top layer of the earth's crust as a source of
heat, thus taking advantage of its seasonally moderated temperature.
In the summer, the process can be reversed so the heat pump extracts heat from the building and
transfers it to the ground. Transferring heat to a cooler space takes less energy, so the cooling
efficiency of the heat pump gains benefits from the lower ground temperature.
Ground source heat pumps employ a heat exchanger in contact with the ground or groundwater
to extract or dissipate heat. This component accounts for anywhere from a fifth to half of the
total system cost, and would be the most cumbersome part to repair or replace. Correctly sizing
this component is necessary to assure long-term performance: the energy efficiency of the system
improves with roughly 4% for every degree Celsius that is won through correct sizing, and the
underground temperature balance must be maintained through proper design of the whole
system.
Shallow 38 feet (1 to 3 metres) horizontal heat exchangers experience seasonal temperature
cycles due to solar gains and transmission losses to ambient air at ground level. These
temperature cycles lag behind the seasons because of thermal inertia, so the heat exchanger will
harvest heat deposited by the sun several months earlier, while being weighed down in late
winter and spring, due to accumulated winter cold. Deep vertical systems 100500 feet (33 to
160 metres) rely on migration of heat from surrounding geology, unless they are recharged
annually by solar recharge of the ground or exhaust heat from air conditioning systems.
Several major design options are available for these, which are classified by fluid and layout.
Direct exchange systems circulate refrigerant underground, closed loop systems use a mixture of
anti-freeze and water, and open loop systems use natural groundwater.
Direct exchange
Main article: Direct exchange geothermal heat pump
The Direct exchange geothermal heat pump is the oldest type of geothermal heat pump
technology. The ground-coupling is achieved through a single loop, circulating refrigerant, in
direct thermal contact with the ground (as opposed to a combination of a refrigerant loop and a
water loop). The refrigerant leaves the heat pump cabinet, circulates through a loop of copper
tube buried underground, and exchanges heat with the ground before returning to the pump. The
name "direct exchange" refers to heat transfer between the refrigerant loop and the ground
without the use of an intermediate fluid. There is no direct interaction between the fluid and the
earth; only heat transfer through the pipe wall. Direct exchange heat pumps, which are now
rarely used, are not to be confused with "water-source heat pumps" or "water loop heat pumps"
since there is no water in the ground loop. ASHRAE defines the term ground-coupled heat pump
to encompass closed loop and direct exchange systems, while excluding open loops.
Direct exchange systems are more efficient and have potentially lower installation costs than
closed loop water systems. Copper's high thermal conductivity contributes to the higher
efficiency of the system, but heat flow is predominantly limited by the thermal conductivity of
the ground, not the pipe. The main reasons for the higher efficiency are the elimination of the
water pump (which uses electricity), the elimination of the water-to-refrigerant heat exchanger
(which is a source of heat losses), and most importantly, the latent heat phase change of the
refrigerant in the ground itself.
While they require more refrigerant and their tubing is more expensive per foot, a direct
exchange earth loop is shorter than a closed water loop for a given capacity. A direct exchange
system requires only 15 to 30% of the length of tubing and half the diameter of drilled holes, and
the drilling or excavation costs are therefore lower. Refrigerant loops are less tolerant of leaks
than water loops because gas can leak out through smaller imperfections. This dictates the use of
brazed copper tubing, even though the pressures are similar to water loops. The copper loop must
be protected from corrosion in acidic soil through the use of a sacrificial anode or other cathodic
protection.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency conducted field monitoring of a direct geoexchange
heat pump water heating system in a commercial application. The EPA reported that the system
saved 75% of the electrical energy that would have been required by an electrical resistance
water heating unit. According to the EPA, if the system is operated to capacity, it can avoid the
emission of up to 7,100 pounds of CO2 and 15 pounds of NOx each year per ton of compressor
capacity (or 42,600 lbs. of CO2 and 90 lbs. of NOx for a typical 6 ton system).[15]
In Northern climates, although the earth temperature is cooler, so is the incoming water
temperature, which enables the high efficiency systems to replace more energy that would
otherwise be required of electric or fossil fuel fired systems. Any temperature above -40F is
sufficient to evaporate the refrigerant, and the direct exchange system can harvest energy through
ice.
In extremely hot climates with dry soil, the addition of an auxiliary cooling module as a second
condenser in line between the compressor and the earth loops increases efficiency and can
further reduce the amount of earth loop to be installed.
Closed loop
Most installed systems have two loops on the ground side: the primary refrigerant loop is
contained in the appliance cabinet where it exchanges heat with a secondary water loop that is
buried underground. The secondary loop is typically made of High-density polyethylene pipe and
contains a mixture of water and anti-freeze (propylene glycol, denatured alcohol or methanol).
Monopropylene glycol has the least damaging potential when it might leak into the ground, and
is therefore the only allowed anti-freeze in ground sources in an increasing number of European
countries. After leaving the internal heat exchanger, the water flows through the secondary loop
outside the building to exchange heat with the ground before returning. The secondary loop is
placed below the frost line where the temperature is more stable, or preferably submerged in a
body of water if available. Systems in wet ground or in water are generally more efficient than
drier ground loops since it is less work to move heat in and out of water than solids in sand or
soil. If the ground is naturally dry, soaker hoses may be buried with the ground loop to keep it
wet.
An installed liquid pump pack
Closed loop systems need a heat exchanger between the refrigerant loop and the water loop, and
pumps in both loops. Some manufacturers have a separate ground loop fluid pump pack, while
some integrate the pumping and valving within the heat pump. Expansion tanks and pressure
relief valves may be installed on the heated fluid side. Closed loop systems have lower efficiency
than direct exchange systems, so they require longer and larger pipe to be placed in the ground,
increasing excavation costs.
Closed loop tubing can be installed horizontally as a loop field in trenches or vertically as a
series of long U-shapes in wells (see below). The size of the loop field depends on the soil type
and moisture content, the average ground temperature and the heat loss and or gain
characteristics of the building being conditioned. A rough approximation of the initial soil
temperature is the average daily temperature for the region.
Vertical
A vertical closed loop field is composed of pipes that run vertically in the ground. A hole is bored
in the ground, typically 50 to 400 feet (15122 m) deep. Pipe pairs in the hole are joined with a
U-shaped cross connector at the bottom of the hole. The borehole is commonly filled with a
bentonite grout surrounding the pipe to provide a thermal connection to the surrounding soil or
rock to improve the heat transfer. Thermally enhanced grouts are available to improve this heat
transfer. Grout also protects the ground water from contamination, and prevents artesian wells
from flooding the property. Vertical loop fields are typically used when there is a limited area of
land available. Bore holes are spaced at least 56 m apart and the depth depends on ground and
building characteristics. For illustration, a detached house needing 10 kW (3 ton) of heating
capacity might need three boreholes 80 to 110 m (260 to 360 ft) deep.[16] (A ton of heat is 12,000
British thermal units per hour (BTU/h) or 3.5 kilowatts.) During the cooling season, the local
temperature rise in the bore field is influenced most by the moisture travel in the soil. Reliable
heat transfer models have been developed through sample bore holes as well as other tests.
Horizontal
A 3-ton slinky loop prior to being covered with soil. The three slinky loops are
running out horizontally with three straight lines returning the end of the slinky coil
to the heat pump
A horizontal closed loop field is composed of pipes that run horizontally in the ground. A long
horizontal trench, deeper than the frost line, is dug and U-shaped or slinky coils are placed
horizontally inside the same trench. Excavation for shallow horizontal loop fields is about half
the cost of vertical drilling, so this is the most common layout used wherever there is adequate
land available. For illustration, a detached house needing 10 kW (3 ton) of heating capacity
might need 3 loops 120 to 180 m (390 to 590 ft) long of NPS 3/4 (DN 20) or NPS 1.25 (DN 32)
polyethylene tubing at a depth of 1 to 2 m (3.3 to 6.6 ft).[17]
The depth at which the loops are placed significantly influences the energy consumption of the
heat pump in two opposite ways: shallow loops tend to indirectly absorb more heat from the sun,
which is helpful, especially when the ground is still cold after a long winter. On the other hand,
shallow loops are also cooled down much more readily by weather changes, especially during
long cold winters, when heating demand peaks. Often, the second effect is much greater than the
first one, leading to higher costs of operation for the more shallow ground loops. This problem
can be reduced by increasing both the depth and the length of piping, thereby significantly
increasing costs of installation. However, such expenses might be deemed feasible, as they may
result in lower operating costs. Recent studies show that utilization of a non-homogeneous soil
profile with a layer of low conductive material above the ground pipes can help mitigate the
adverse effects of shallow pipe burial depth. The intermediate blanket with lower conductivity
than the surrounding soil profile demonstrated the potential to increase the energy extraction
rates from the ground to as high as 17% for a cold climate and about 5-6% for a relatively
moderate climate.[18]
A slinky (also called coiled) closed loop field is a type of horizontal closed loop where the pipes
overlay each other (not a recommended method). The easiest way of picturing a slinky field is to
imagine holding a slinky on the top and bottom with your hands and then moving your hands in
opposite directions. A slinky loop field is used if there is not adequate room for a true horizontal
system, but it still allows for an easy installation. Rather than using straight pipe, slinky coils use
overlapped loops of piping laid out horizontally along the bottom of a wide trench. Depending on
soil, climate and the heat pump's run fraction, slinky coil trenches can be up to two thirds shorter
than traditional horizontal loop trenches. Slinky coil ground loops are essentially a more
economical and space efficient version of a horizontal ground loop.[19]
If one wants a single house ground source heat pump system with maximum energy efficiency,
then oversized vertical loops are usually more cost efficient than oversized and extra deep
horizontal loops.
Radial or directional drilling
As an alternative to trenching, loops may be laid by mini horizontal directional drilling (miniHDD). This technique can lay piping under yards, driveways, gardens or other structures without
disturbing them, with a cost between those of trenching and vertical drilling. This system also
differs from horizontal & vertical drilling as the loops are installed from one central chamber,
further reducing the ground space needed. Radial drilling is often installed retroactively (after the
property has been built) due to the small nature of the equipment used and the ability to bore
beneath existing constructions.
Pond
12-ton pond loop system being sunk to the bottom of a pond
A closed pond loop is not common because it depends on proximity to a body of water, where an
open loop system is usually preferable. A pond loop may be advantageous where poor water
quality precludes an open loop, or where the system heat load is small. A pond loop consists of
coils of pipe similar to a slinky loop attached to a frame and located at the bottom of an
appropriately sized pond or water source.
Open loop
In an open loop system (also called a groundwater heat pump), the secondary loop pumps natural
water from a well or body of water into a heat exchanger inside the heat pump. ASHRAE calls
open loop systems groundwater heat pumps or surface water heat pumps, depending on the
source. Heat is either extracted or added by the primary refrigerant loop, and the water is
returned to a separate injection well, irrigation trench, tile field or body of water. The supply and
return lines must be placed far enough apart to ensure thermal recharge of the source. Since the
water chemistry is not controlled, the appliance may need to be protected from corrosion by
using different metals in the heat exchanger and pump. Limescale may foul the system over time
and require periodic acid cleaning. This is much more of a problem with cooling systems than
heating systems.[20] Also, as fouling decreases the flow of natural water, it becomes difficult for
the heat pump to exchange building heat with the groundwater. If the water contains high levels
of salt, minerals, iron bacteria or hydrogen sulfide, a closed loop system is usually preferable.
Deep lake water cooling uses a similar process with an open loop for air conditioning and
cooling. Open loop systems using ground water are usually more efficient than closed systems
because they are better coupled with ground temperatures. Closed loop systems, in comparison,
have to transfer heat across extra layers of pipe wall and dirt.
A growing number of jurisdictions have outlawed open-loop systems that drain to the surface
because these may drain aquifers or contaminate wells. This forces the use of more
environmentally sound injection wells or a closed loop system.
Standing column well
A standing column well system is a specialized type of open loop system. Water is drawn from
the bottom of a deep rock well, passed through a heat pump, and returned to the top of the well,
where traveling downwards it exchanges heat with the surrounding bedrock.[21] The choice of a
standing column well system is often dictated where there is near-surface bedrock and limited
surface area is available. A standing column is typically not suitable in locations where the
geology is mostly clay, silt, or sand. If bedrock is deeper than 200 feet (61 m) from the surface,
the cost of casing to seal off the overburden may become prohibitive.
A multiple standing column well system can support a large structure in an urban or rural
application. The standing column well method is also popular in residential and small
commercial applications. There are many successful applications of varying sizes and well
quantities in the many boroughs of New York City, and is also the most common application in
the New England states. This type of ground source system has some heat storage benefits,
where heat is rejected from the building and the temperature of the well is raised, within reason,
during the Summer cooling months which can then be harvested for heating in the Winter
months, thereby increasing the efficiency of the heat pump system. As with closed loop systems,
sizing of the standing column system is critical in reference to the heat loss and gain of the
existing building. As the heat exchange is actually with the bedrock, using water as the transfer
medium, a large amount of production capacity (water flow from the well) is not required for a
standing column system to work. However, if there is adequate water production, then the
thermal capacity of the well system can be enhanced by discharging a small percentage of system
flow during the peak Summer and Winter months.
Since this is essentially a water pumping system, standing column well design requires critical
considerations to obtain peak operating efficiency. Should a standing column well design be
misapplied, leaving out critical shut-off valves for example, the result could be an extreme loss in
efficiency and thereby cause operational cost to be higher than anticipated.
Building distribution
Liquid-to-air heat pump
The heat pump is the central unit that becomes the heating and cooling plant for the building.
Some models may cover space heating, space cooling, (space heating via conditioned air,
hydronic systems and / or radiant heating systems), domestic or pool water preheat (via the
desuperheater function), demand hot water, and driveway ice melting all within one appliance
with a variety of options with respect to controls, staging and zone control. The heat may be
carried to its end use by circulating water or forced air. Almost all types of heat pumps are
produced for commercial and residential applications.
Liquid-to-air heat pumps (also called water-to-air) output forced air, and are most commonly
used to replace legacy forced air furnaces and central air conditioning systems. There are
variations that allow for split systems, high-velocity systems, and ductless systems. Heat pumps
cannot achieve as high a fluid temperature as a conventional furnace, so they require a higher
volume flow rate of air to compensate. When retrofitting a residence, the existing duct work may
have to be enlarged to reduce the noise from the higher air flow.
Liquid-to-water heat pump
Liquid-to-water heat pumps (also called water-to-water) are hydronic systems that use water to
carry heating or cooling through the building. Systems such as radiant underfloor heating,
baseboard radiators, conventional cast iron radiators would use a liquid-to-water heat pump.
These heat pumps are preferred for pool heating or domestic hot water pre-heat. Heat pumps can
only heat water to about 50 C (122 F) efficiently, whereas a boiler normally reaches 6595 C
(149203 F). Legacy radiators designed for these higher temperatures may have to be doubled
in numbers when retrofitting a home. A hot water tank will still be needed to raise water
temperatures above the heat pump's maximum, but pre-heating will save 25-50% of hot water
costs.
Ground source heat pumps are especially well matched to underfloor heating and baseboard
radiator systems which only require warm temperatures 40 C (104 F) to work well. Thus they
are ideal for open plan offices. Using large surfaces such as floors, as opposed to radiators,
distributes the heat more uniformly and allows for a lower water temperature. Wood or carpet
floor coverings dampen this effect because the thermal transfer efficiency of these materials is
lower than that of masonry floors (tile, concrete). Underfloor piping, ceiling or wall radiators can
also be used for cooling in dry climates, although the temperature of the circulating water must
be above the dew point to ensure that atmospheric humidity does not condense on the radiator.
Combination heat pumps are available that can produce forced air and circulating water
simultaneously and individually. These systems are largely being used for houses that have a
combination of air and liquid conditioning needs, for example central air conditioning and pool
heating.
Seasonal thermal storage
A heat pump in combination with heat and cold storage

Main article: Seasonal thermal energy storage
The efficiency of ground source heat pumps can be greatly improved by using seasonal thermal
energy storage and interseasonal heat transfer.[22] Heat captured and stored in thermal banks in
the summer can be retrieved efficiently in the winter. Heat storage efficiency increases with
scale, so this advantage is most significant in commercial or district heating systems.
Geosolar combisystems have been used to heat and cool a greenhouse using an aquifer for
thermal storage.[23] In summer, the greenhouse is cooled with cold ground water. This heats the
water in the aquifer which can become a warm source for heating in winter.[23][24] The
combination of cold and heat storage with heat pumps can be combined with water/humidity
regulation. These principles are used to provide renewable heat and renewable cooling[25] to all
kinds of buildings.
Also the efficiency of existing small heat pump installations can be improved by adding large,
cheap, water filled solar collectors. These may be integrated into a to-be-overhauled parking lot,
or in walls or roof constructions by installing one inch PE pipes into the outer layer.
Thermal efficiency
Main article: thermal efficiency
The net thermal efficiency of a heat pump should take into account the efficiency of electricity
generation and transmission, typically about 30%.[10] Since a heat pump moves 3 to 5 times more
heat energy than the electric energy it consumes, the total energy output is much greater than the
input. This results in net thermal efficiencies greater than 300% as compared to radiant electric
heat being 100% efficient. Traditional combustion furnaces and electric heaters can never exceed
100% efficiency.
Geothermal heat pumps can reduce energy consumption and corresponding air pollution
emissionsup to 44% compared to air source heat pumps and up to 72% compared to electric
resistance heating with standard air-conditioning equipment.[26]
The dependence of net thermal efficiency on the electricity infrastructure tends to be an
unnecessary complication for consumers and is not applicable to hydroelectric power, so
performance of heat pumps is usually expressed as the ratio of heating output or heat removal to
electricity input. Cooling performance is typically expressed in units of BTU/hr/watt as the
Energy Efficiency Ratio, (EER) while heating performance is typically reduced to dimensionless
units as the Coefficient of Performance. (COP) The conversion factor is 3.41 BTU/hr/watt.
Performance is influenced by all components of the installed system, including the soil
conditions, the ground-coupled heat exchanger, the heat pump appliance, and the building
distribution, but is largely determined by the "lift" between the input temperature and the output
temperature.
For the sake of comparing heat pump appliances to each other, independently from other system
components, a few standard test conditions have been established by the American Refrigerant
Institute (ARI) and more recently by the International Organization for Standardization. Standard
ARI 330 ratings were intended for closed loop ground-source heat pumps, and assumes
secondary loop water temperatures of 77 F (25 C) for air conditioning and 32 F (0 C) for
heating. These temperatures are typical of installations in the northern US. Standard ARI 325
ratings were intended for open loop ground-source heat pumps, and include two sets of ratings
for groundwater temperatures of 50 F (10 C) and 70 F (21 C). ARI 325 budgets more
electricity for water pumping than ARI 330. Neither of these standards attempt to account for
seasonal variations. Standard ARI 870 ratings are intended for direct exchange ground-source
heat pumps. ASHRAE transitioned to ISO 13256-1 in 2001, which replaces ARI 320, 325 and
330. The new ISO standard produces slightly higher ratings because it no longer budgets any
electricity for water pumps.[1]
Efficient compressors, variable speed compressors and larger heat exchangers all contribute to
heat pump efficiency. Residential ground source heat pumps on the market today have standard
COPs ranging from 2.4 to 5.0 and EERs ranging from 10.6 to 30.[1][27] To qualify for an Energy
Star label, heat pumps must meet certain minimum COP and EER ratings which depend on the
ground heat exchanger type. For closed loop systems, the ISO 13256-1 heating COP must be 3.3
or greater and the cooling EER must be 14.1 or greater.[28]
Actual installation conditions may produce better or worse efficiency than the standard test
conditions. COP improves with a lower temperature difference between the input and output of
the heat pump, so the stability of ground temperatures is important. If the loop field or water
pump is undersized, the addition or removal of heat may push the ground temperature beyond
standard test conditions, and performance will be degraded. Similarly, an undersized blower may
allow the plenum coil to overheat and degrade performance.
Soil without artificial heat addition or subtraction and at depths of several metres or more
remains at a relatively constant temperature year round. This temperature equates roughly to the
average annual air-temperature of the chosen location, usually 712 C (4554 F) at a depth of
6 metres (20 ft) in the northern US. Because this temperature remains more constant than the air
temperature throughout the seasons, geothermal heat pumps perform with far greater efficiency
during extreme air temperatures than air conditioners and air-source heat pumps.
Standards ARI 210 and 240 define Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER) and Heating
Seasonal Performance Factors (HSPF) to account for the impact of seasonal variations on air
source heat pumps. These numbers are normally not applicable and should not be compared to
ground source heat pump ratings. However, Natural Resources Canada has adapted this approach
to calculate typical seasonally adjusted HSPFs for ground-source heat pumps in Canada.[16] The
NRC HSPFs ranged from 8.7 to 12.8 BTU/hr/watt (2.6 to 3.8 in nondimensional factors, or
255% to 375% seasonal average electricity utilization efficiency) for the most populated regions
of Canada. When combined with the thermal efficiency of electricity, this corresponds to net
average thermal efficiencies of 100% to 150%.
Environmental impact
The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has called ground source heat pumps the most
energy-efficient, environmentally clean, and cost-effective space conditioning systems available.
[29]
Heat pumps offer significant emission reductions potential, particularly where they are used
for both heating and cooling and where the electricity is produced from renewable resources.
Ground-source heat pumps have unsurpassed thermal efficiencies and produce zero emissions
locally, but their electricity supply includes components with high greenhouse gas emissions,
unless the owner has opted for a 100% renewable energy supply. Their environmental impact
therefore depends on the characteristics of the electricity supply and the available alternatives.
Annual greenhouse gas savings from using a ground source heat pump instead of a
high-efficiency furnace in a detached residence (assuming no specific supply of
renewable energy)
Country
Electricity CO2
Emissions Intensity
GHG savings relative to

natural gas heating oil electric heating
Canada
223 ton/GWh[30][31][32]
2.7 ton/yr
5.3 ton/yr
3.4 ton/yr
Russia
351 ton/GWh[30][31]
1.8 ton/yr
4.4 ton/yr
5.4 ton/yr
US
676 ton/GWh[31]
-0.5 ton/yr
2.2 ton/yr
10.3 ton/yr
China
839 ton/GWh[30][31]
-1.6 ton/yr
1.0 ton/yr
12.8 ton/yr
The GHG emissions savings from a heat pump over a conventional furnace can be calculated
based on the following formula:[4]
HL = seasonal heat load 80 GJ/yr for a modern detached house in the

northern US
FI = emissions intensity of fuel = 50 kg(CO2)/GJ for natural gas, 73 for heating

oil, 0 for 100% renewable energy such as wind, hydro, photovoltaic or solar
thermal
AFUE = furnace efficiency 95% for a modern condensing furnace
COP = heat pump coefficient of performance 3.2 seasonally adjusted for

northern US heat pump
EI = emissions intensity of electricity 200-800 ton(CO 2)/GWh, depending on

region
Ground-source heat pumps always produce fewer greenhouse gases than air conditioners, oil
furnaces, and electric heating, but natural gas furnaces may be competitive depending on the
greenhouse gas intensity of the local electricity supply. In countries like Canada and Russia with
low emitting electricity infrastructure, a residential heat pump may save 5 tons of carbon dioxide
per year relative to an oil furnace, or about as much as taking an average passenger car off the
road. But in cities like Beijing or Pittsburgh that are highly reliant on coal for electricity
production, a heat pump may result in 1 or 2 tons more carbon dioxide emissions than a natural
gas furnace. For areas not served by utility natural gas infrastructure, however, no better
alternative exists.
The fluids used in closed loops may be designed to be biodegradable and non-toxic, but the
refrigerant used in the heat pump cabinet and in direct exchange loops was, until recently,
chlorodifluoromethane, which is an ozone depleting substance.[1] Although harmless while
contained, leaks and improper end-of-life disposal contribute to enlarging the ozone hole. For
new construction, this refrigerant is being phased out in favor of the ozone-friendly but potent
greenhouse gas R410A. The EcoCute water heater is an air-source heat pump that uses Carbon
Dioxide as its working fluid instead of Chlorofluorocarbons.[citation needed]
Open loop systems (i.e. those that draw ground water as opposed to closed loop systems using a
borehole heat exchanger) need to be balanced by reinjecting the spent water. This prevents
aquifer depletion and the contamination of soil or surface water with brine or other compounds
from underground.[citation needed]
Before drilling the underground geology needs to be understood, and drillers need to be prepared
to seal the borehole, including preventing penetration of water between strata. The unfortunate
example is a geothermal heating project in Staufen im Breisgau, Germany which seems the cause
of considerable damage to historical buildings there. In 2008, the city centre was reported to
have risen 12 cm,[33] after initially sinking a few millimeters.[34] The boring tapped a naturally
pressurized aquifer, and via the borehole this water entered a layer of anhydrite, which expands
when wet as it forms gypsum. The swelling will stop when the anhydrite is fully reacted, and
reconstruction of the city center "is not expedient until the uplift ceases." By 2010 sealing of the
borehole had not been accomplished.[35][36][37] By 2010, some sections of town had risen by 30 cm.
[38]
Ground-source heat pump technology, like building orientation, is a natural building technique
(bioclimatic building).
Economics
Ground source heat pumps are characterized by high capital costs and low operational costs
compared to other HVAC systems. Their overall economic benefit depends primarily on the
relative costs of electricity and fuels, which are highly variable over time and across the world.
Based on recent prices, ground-source heat pumps currently have lower operational costs than
any other conventional heating source almost everywhere in the world. Natural gas is the only
fuel with competitive operational costs, and only in a handful of countries where it is
exceptionally cheap, or where electricity is exceptionally expensive.[4] In general, a homeowner
may save anywhere from 20% to 60% annually on utilities by switching from an ordinary system
to a ground-source system.[39][40]
Capital costs and system lifespan have received much less study until recently, and the return on
investment is highly variable. The most recent data from an analysis of 2011-2012 incentive
payments in the state of Maryland showed an average cost of residential systems of $1.90 per
Watt, or about $26,700 for a typical (4 ton) home system.[41] An older study found the total
installed cost for a system with 10 kW (3 ton) thermal capacity for a detached rural residence in
the US averaged $8000$9000 in 1995 US dollars.[42] More recent studies found an average cost
of $14,000 in 2008 US dollars for the same size system.[43][44] The US Department of Energy
estimates a price of $7500 on its website, last updated in 2008.[45] Prices over $20,000 are quoted
in Canada,[46] with one source placing them in the range of $30,000-$34,000 Canadian dollars.[47]
The rapid escalation in system price has been accompanied by rapid improvements in efficiency
and reliability. Capital costs are known to benefit from economies of scale, particularly for open
loop systems, so they are more cost-effective for larger commercial buildings and harsher
climates. The initial cost can be two to five times that of a conventional heating system in most
residential applications, new construction or existing. In retrofits, the cost of installation is
affected by the size of living area, the home's age, insulation characteristics, the geology of the
area, and location of the property. Proper duct system design and mechanical air exchange should
be considered in the initial system cost.
Payback period for installing a ground source heat pump in a detached residence
Payback period for replacing
Country
natural gas
heating oil
electric heating
Canada
13 years
3 years
6 years
US
12 years
5 years
4 years
Germany
net loss
8 years
2 years
Notes:
Highly variable with energy prices.
Government subsidies not included.
Climate differences not evaluated.
Capital costs may be offset by government subsidies, for example, Ontario offered $7000 for
residential systems installed in the 2009 fiscal year. Some electric companies offer special rates
to customers who install a ground-source heat pump for heating or cooling their building.[48]
Where electrical plants have larger loads during summer months and idle capacity in the winter,
this increases electrical sales during the winter months. Heat pumps also lower the load peak
during the summer due to the increased efficiency of heat pumps, thereby avoiding costly
construction of new power plants. For the same reasons, other utility companies have started to
pay for the installation of ground-source heat pumps at customer residences. They lease the
systems to their customers for a monthly fee, at a net overall saving to the customer.
The lifespan of the system is longer than conventional heating and cooling systems. Good data
on system lifespan is not yet available because the technology is too recent, but many early
systems are still operational today after 2530 years with routine maintenance. Most loop fields
have warranties for 25 to 50 years and are expected to last at least 50 to 200 years.[39][49] Groundsource heat pumps use electricity for heating the house. The higher investment above
conventional oil, propane or electric systems may be returned in energy savings in 210 years for
residential systems in the US.[9][40][49] If compared to natural gas systems, the payback period can
be much longer or non-existent. The payback period for larger commercial systems in the US is
15 years, even when compared to natural gas.[40] Additionally, because geothermal heat pumps
usually have no outdoor compressors or cooling towers, the risk of vandalism is reduced or
eliminated, potentially extending a system's lifespan.[50]
Ground source heat pumps are recognized as one of the most efficient heating and cooling
systems on the market. They are often the second-most cost effective solution in extreme
climates, (after co-generation), despite reductions in thermal efficiency due to ground
temperature. (The ground source is warmer in climates that need strong air conditioning, and
cooler in climates that need strong heating.)
Commercial systems maintenance costs in the US have historically been between $0.11 to $0.22
per m2 per year in 1996 dollars, much less than the average $0.54 per m2 per year for
conventional HVAC systems.[12]
Governments that promote renewable energy will likely offer incentives for the consumer
(residential), or industrial markets. For example, in the United States, incentives are offered both
on the state and federal levels of government.[51] In the United Kingdom the Renewable Heat
Incentive provides a financial incentive for generation of renewable heat based on metered
readings on an annual basis for 20 years for commercial buildings. The domestic Renewable
Heat Incentive is due to be introduced in Spring 2014[52] for seven years and be based on deemed
heat.
Installation
Because of the technical knowledge and equipment needed to design and size the system
properly (and install the piping if heat fusion is required), a GSHP system installation requires a
professional's services. Several installers have published real-time views of system performance
in an online community of recent residential installations. The International Ground Source Heat
Pump Association (IGSHPA), Geothermal Exchange Organization (GEO), the Canadian
GeoExchange Coalition and the Ground Source Heat Pump Association maintain listings of
qualified installers in the US, Canada and the UK.[53]
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Rafferty, Kevin (April 1997). "An Information Survival Kit for the Prospective
Residential Geothermal Heat Pump Owner". Geo-Heat Centre Quarterly Bulletin 18 (2)
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2001.
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Ground Temperature and Geothermal Gradient on the Sizing of Borehole Heat
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"COLORADO RENEWABLE ENERGY SOCIETY - Geothermal Energy". Cresenergy.org. 2001-10-25. Retrieved 2011-03-30.
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10.
Lund, J.; Sanner, B.; Rybach, L.; Curtis, R.; Hellstrm, G. (September 2004).
"Geothermal (Ground Source) Heat Pumps, A World Overview". Geo-Heat Centre
Quarterly Bulletin 25 (3) (Klmath Falls, Oregon: Oregon Institute of Technology). pp. 1
10. ISSN 0276-1084. Retrieved 2009-03-21.
11.
"History". About Us. International Ground Source Heat Pump Association.

12.
Bloomquist, R. Gordon (December 1999). "Geothermal Heat Pumps, Four Plus

Decades of Experience". Geo-Heat Centre Quarterly Bulletin 20 (4) (Klmath Falls,
Oregon: Oregon Institute of Technology). pp. 1318. ISSN 0276-1084. Retrieved 200903-21.
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"Geothermal -- The Energy Under Our Feet: Geothermal Resources Estimates for
the United States" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-03-30.
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"Choosing a heating system".
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"Ground Source Heat Pumps (Earth Energy Systems)". Heating and Cooling with
a Heat Pump. Natural Resources Canada, Office of Energy Efficiency. Retrieved 200903-24. Note: contrary to air-source conventions, the NRC's HSPF numbers are in units of
BTU/hr/watt. Divide these numbers by 3.41 BTU/hr/watt to arrive at non-dimensional
units comparable to ground-source COPs and air-source HSPF.
17.
Chiasson, A.D. (1999). Advances in modeling of ground source heat pump

systems. Oklahoma State University. Retrieved 2009-04-23.
18.
Rezaei B., Amir, Kolahdouz, E. M., Dargush, G. F., & Weber, A. S. (2012a).
Ground source heat pump pipe performance with Tire Derived Aggregate. International
Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 55(11-12), 2844-2853.
doi:10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2012.02.004
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0017931012000671
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"Geothermal Ground Loops". Informed Building. Retrieved 2009-06-08.
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Hard water#Indices
21.
Orio, Carl D.; Johnson, Carl N.; Rees, Simon J.; Chiasson, A.; Deng, Zheng;
Spitler, Jeffrey D. (2004). "A Survey of Standing Column Well Installations in North
America". ASHRAE Transactions 11 (4) (ASHRAE). pp. 637655. Retrieved 2009-0325.
22.
"Interseasonal Heat Transfer". Icax.co.uk. Retrieved 2011-09-16.
23.
Van Passel, Willy; Sourbron, Maarten; Verplaetsen, Filip; Leroy, Luc; Somers,
Yvan; Verheyden, Johan; Coup, Koen. Organisatie voor Duurzame Energie Vlaanderen,
ed. Warmtepompen voor woningverwarming (PDF). p. 28. Retrieved 2009-03-23.
24.
"Schematic of similar system of aquifers with fans-regulation". Zonneterp.nl.

2005-11-11. Retrieved 2011-03-30.
25.
"Capture, storage and release of Renewable Cooling". Icax.co.uk. Retrieved 201103-30.
26.
Geothermal Heat Pumps. National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
27.
"AHRI Directory of water-to-air geothermal heat pumps".
28.
"Energy Star Program Requirements for Geothermal Heat PUmps". Partner

Commitments. Energy Star. Retrieved 2009-03-24.
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- Report 430-R-93-004. EPA.
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Communities. p. p83. doi:10.2800/10548. ISBN 978-92-9167-980-5. ISSN 1725-9177.
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Reporting of Greenhouse Gases, Electricity Emission Factors". Retrieved 2009-03-22.
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Sinks in Canada. Government of Canada. May 2008. ISBN 978-1-100-11176-6.
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34.
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35.
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(GERMANY) CAUSED By GEOTHERMAL DRILLING THROUGH ANHYDRITEBEARING FORMATIONS". Acta Carsologica 39 (2): 233.
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Dominik (2010). "Risikoorientierte Bewilligung von Erdwrmesonden". Grundwasser
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Goldscheider, Nico; Bechtel, Timothy D. (2009). "Editors' message: The housing

crisis from undergrounddamage to a historic town by geothermal drillings through
anhydrite, Staufen, Germany". Hydrogeology Journal 17 (3): 491.
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Heat Pump Case Studies and Utility Programs. Klamath Falls, OR: Geo-Heat Center,
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payments in the state of Maryland.
42.
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ed. Cost Containment for Ground-Source Heat Pumps (PDF) (final report ed.). Retrieved
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43.
Cummings, Paul (June 2008). Indiana Residential Geothermal Heat Pump

Rebate, Program Review (PDF). Indiana Office of Energy and Defense Development.
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Barriers to Adoption, and Actions to Overcome Barriers. Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
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50.
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Apps1.eere.energy.gov. 2008-12-30. Retrieved 2009-06-08.
Green building
This article is about sustainable construction principles. For the building on the MIT campus, see
Green Building (MIT). For the building in Louisville, see The Green Building (Louisville,
Kentucky).
US EPA Kansas City Science & Technology Center This facility features the following green
attributes:
*LEED 2.0 Gold certified
*Green Power
*Native Landscaping
Green building (also known as green construction or sustainable building) refers to a
structure and using process that is environmentally responsible and resource-efficient throughout
a building's life-cycle: from siting to design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation,
and demolition. This requires close cooperation of the design team, the architects, the engineers,
and the client at all project stages.[1] The Green Building practice expands and complements the
classical building design concerns of economy, utility, durability, and comfort.[2]
Although new technologies are constantly being developed to complement current practices in
creating greener structures, the common objective is that green buildings are designed to reduce
the overall impact of the built environment on human health and the natural environment by:
Efficiently using energy, water, and other resources
Protecting occupant health and improving employee productivity
Reducing waste, pollution and environmental degradation[2]
A similar concept is natural building, which is usually on a smaller scale and tends to focus on
the use of natural materials that are available locally.[3] Other related topics include sustainable
design and green architecture. Sustainability may be defined as meeting the needs of present
generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.[4]
Although some green building programs don't address the issue of the retrofitting existing
homes, others do. Green construction principles can easily be applied to retrofit work as well as
new construction.
A 2009 report by the U.S. General Services Administration found 12 sustainably designed
buildings cost less to operate and have excellent energy performance. In addition, occupants
were more satisfied with the overall building than those in typical commercial buildings.[5]
Reducing environmental impact

Green building practices aim to reduce the environmental impact of building. The first rule[according
to whom?]
is that the greenest building is the building that doesn't get built. Since construction almost
always degrades a building site, not building at all is preferable to green building, in terms of
reducing environmental impact. The second rule is that every building should be as small as
possible. The third rule is not to contribute to sprawl, even if the most energy-efficient,
environmentally sound methods are used in design and construction. Urban infill sites are
preferable to suburban "greenfield" sites.[citation needed]
Buildings account for a large amount of land. According to the National Resources Inventory,
approximately 107 million acres (430,000 km2) of land in the United States are developed. The
International Energy Agency released a publication that estimated that existing buildings are
responsible for more than 40% of the worlds total primary energy consumption and for 24% of
global carbon dioxide emissions.[6]
Goals of green building
Blu Homes mkSolaire, a green building designed by Michelle Kaufmann.
Taipei 101, the tallest and largest green building of LEED Platinum certification in the world
since 2011.
The concept of sustainable development can be traced to the energy (especially fossil oil) crisis
and environmental pollution concerns of the 1960s and 1970s.[7] The Rachel Carson book,
Silent Spring,[8] published in 1962, is considered to be one of the first initial efforts to describe
sustainable development as related to green building.[9] The green building movement in the U.S.
originated from the need and desire for more energy efficient and environmentally friendly
construction practices. There are a number of motives for building green, including
environmental, economic, and social benefits. However, modern sustainability initiatives call for
an integrated and synergistic design to both new construction and in the retrofitting of existing
structures. Also known as sustainable design, this approach integrates the building life-cycle with
each green practice employed with a design-purpose to create a synergy among the practices
used.
Green building brings together a vast array of practices, techniques, and skills to reduce and
ultimately eliminate the impacts of buildings on the environment and human health. It often
emphasizes taking advantage of renewable resources, e.g., using sunlight through passive solar,
active solar, and photovoltaic equipment, and using plants and trees through green roofs, rain
gardens, and reduction of rainwater run-off. Many other techniques are used, such as using lowimpact building materials or using packed gravel or permeable concrete instead of conventional
concrete or asphalt to enhance replenishment of ground water.
While the practices or technologies employed in green building are constantly evolving and may
differ from region to region, fundamental principles persist from which the method is derived:
Siting and Structure Design Efficiency, Energy Efficiency, Water Efficiency, Materials
Efficiency, Indoor Environmental Quality Enhancement, Operations and Maintenance
Optimization, and Waste and Toxics Reduction.[10][11] The essence of green building is an
optimization of one or more of these principles. Also, with the proper synergistic design,
individual green building technologies may work together to produce a greater cumulative effect.
On the aesthetic side of green architecture or sustainable design is the philosophy of designing a
building that is in harmony with the natural features and resources surrounding the site. There are
several key steps in designing sustainable buildings: specify 'green' building materials from local
sources, reduce loads, optimize systems, and generate on-site renewable energy.
Life cycle assessment (LCA)

A life cycle assessment (LCA) can help avoid a narrow outlook on environmental, social and
economic concerns[12] by assessing a full range of impacts associated with all cradle-to-grave
stages of a process: from extraction of raw materials through materials processing, manufacture,
distribution, use, repair and maintenance, and disposal or recycling. Impacts taken into account
include (among others) embodied energy, global warming potential, resource use, air pollution,
water pollution, and waste.
In terms of green building, the last few years have seen a shift away from a prescriptive
approach, which assumes that certain prescribed practices are better for the environment, toward
the scientific evaluation of actual performance through LCA.
Although LCA is widely recognized as the best way to evaluate the environmental impacts of
buildings (ISO 14040 provides a recognized LCA methodology), it is not yet a consistent
requirement of green building rating systems and codes, despite the fact that embodied energy
and other life cycle impacts are critical to the design of environmentally responsible buildings.
In North America, LCA is rewarded to some extent in the Green Globes rating system, and is
part of the new American National Standard based on Green Globes, ANSI/GBI 01-2010: Green
Building Protocol for Commercial Buildings. LCA is also included as a pilot credit in the LEED
system, though a decision has not been made as to whether it will be incorporated fully into the
next major revision. The state of California also included LCA as a voluntary measure in its 2010
draft Green Building Standards Code.
Although LCA is often perceived as overly complex and time consuming for regular use by
design professionals, research organizations such as BRE in the UK and the Athena Sustainable
Materials Institute in North America are working to make it more accessible.
In the UK, the BRE Green Guide to Specifications offers ratings for 1,500 building materials
based on LCA.
In North America, the ATHENA EcoCalculator for Assemblies provides LCA results for
several hundred common building assembles based on data generated by its more complex
parent software, the ATHENA Impact Estimator for Buildings. (The EcoCalculator is available
free at www.athenasmi.org.) Athena software tools are especially useful early in the design
process when material choices have far-reaching implications for overall environmental impact.
They allow designers to experiment with different material mixes to achieve the most effective
combination.
Siting and structure design efficiency

See also: Sustainable design
The foundation of any construction project is rooted in the concept and design stages. The
concept stage, in fact, is one of the major steps in a project life cycle, as it has the largest impact
on cost and performance.[13] In designing environmentally optimal buildings, the objective is to
minimize the total environmental impact associated with all life-cycle stages of the building
project. However, building as a process is not as streamlined as an industrial process, and varies
from one building to the other, never repeating itself identically. In addition, buildings are much
more complex products, composed of a multitude of materials and components each constituting
various design variables to be decided at the design stage. A variation of every design variable
may affect the environment during all the building's relevant life-cycle stages.[14]
Energy efficiency
Main articles: Low-energy house and Zero-energy building
An eco-house at Findhorn Ecovillage with a turf roof and solar panels

Green buildings often include measures to reduce energy consumption both the embodied
energy required to extract, process, transport and install building materials and operating energy
to provide services such as heating and power for equipment.
As high-performance buildings use less operating energy, embodied energy has assumed much
greater importance and may make up as much as 30% of the overall life cycle energy
consumption. Studies such as the U.S. LCI Database Project[15] show buildings built primarily
with wood will have a lower embodied energy than those built primarily with brick, concrete, or
steel.[16]
To reduce operating energy use, designers use details that reduce air leakage through the building
envelope (the barrier between conditioned and unconditioned space). They also specify highperformance windows and extra insulation in walls, ceilings, and floors. Another strategy,
passive solar building design, is often implemented in low-energy homes. Designers orient
windows and walls and place awnings, porches, and trees[17] to shade windows and roofs during
the summer while maximizing solar gain in the winter. In addition, effective window placement
(daylighting) can provide more natural light and lessen the need for electric lighting during the
day. Solar water heating further reduces energy costs.
Onsite generation of renewable energy through solar power, wind power, hydro power, or
biomass can significantly reduce the environmental impact of the building. Power generation is
generally the most expensive feature to add to a building.
Water efficiency
See also: Water conservation
Reducing water consumption and protecting water quality are key objectives in sustainable
building. One critical issue of water consumption is that in many areas, the demands on the
supplying aquifer exceed its ability to replenish itself. To the maximum extent feasible, facilities
should increase their dependence on water that is collected, used, purified, and reused on-site.
The protection and conservation of water throughout the life of a building may be accomplished
by designing for dual plumbing that recycles water in toilet flushing or by using water for
washing of the cars. Waste-water may be minimized by utilizing water conserving fixtures such
as ultra-low flush toilets and low-flow shower heads. Bidets help eliminate the use of toilet
paper, reducing sewer traffic and increasing possibilities of re-using water on-site. Point of use
water treatment and heating improves both water quality and energy efficiency while reducing
the amount of water in circulation. The use of non-sewage and greywater for on-site use such as
site-irrigation will minimize demands on the local aquifer.[18]
Large commercial buildings with water and energy efficiency can qualify for an LEED
Certification. Philadelphia's Comcast Center is the tallest building in Philadelphia. It's also one of
the tallest buildings in the USA that is LEED Certified. Their environmental engineering consists
of a hybrid central chilled water system which cools floor-by-floor with steam instead of water.
Burn's Mechanical set-up the entire renovation of the 58 story, 1.4 million square foot sky
scraper. It's the pride of Philadelphia's eco-movement.
Materials efficiency
See also: Sustainable architecture
Building materials typically considered to be 'green' include lumber from forests that have been
certified to a third-party forest standard, rapidly renewable plant materials like bamboo and
straw, dimension stone, recycled stone, recycled metal (see: copper sustainability and
recyclability), and other products that are non-toxic, reusable, renewable, and/or recyclable (e.g.,
Trass, Linoleum, sheep wool, panels made from paper flakes, compressed earth block, adobe,
baked earth, rammed earth, clay, vermiculite, flax linen, sisal, seagrass, cork, expanded clay
grains, coconut, wood fibre plates, calcium sand stone, concrete (high and ultra high
performance, roman self-healing concrete[19]), etc.[20][21]) The EPA (Environmental Protection
Agency) also suggests using recycled industrial goods, such as coal combustion products,
foundry sand, and demolition debris in construction projects[22] Building materials should be
extracted and manufactured locally to the building site to minimize the energy embedded in their
transportation. Where possible, building elements should be manufactured off-site and delivered
to site, to maximise benefits of off-site manufacture including minimising waste, maximising
recycling (because manufacture is in one location), high quality elements, better OHS
management, less noise and dust. Energy efficient building materials and appliances are
promoted in the United States through energy rebate programs, which are increasingly
communicated to consumers through energy rebate database services such as GreenOhm.[23]
Indoor environmental quality enhancement

See also: Indoor Air Quality
The Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) category in LEED standards, one of the five
environmental categories, was created to provide comfort, well-being, and productivity of
occupants. The LEED IEQ category addresses design and construction guidelines especially:
indoor air quality (IAQ), thermal quality, and lighting quality.[24][25]
Indoor Air Quality seeks to reduce volatile organic compounds, or VOCs, and other air
impurities such as microbial contaminants. Buildings rely on a properly designed ventilation
system (passively/naturally or mechanically powered) to provide adequate ventilation of cleaner
air from outdoors or recirculated, filtered air as well as isolated operations (kitchens, dry
cleaners, etc.) from other occupancies. During the design and construction process choosing
construction materials and interior finish products with zero or low VOC emissions will improve
IAQ. Most building materials and cleaning/maintenance products emit gases, some of them
toxic, such as many VOCs including formaldehyde. These gases can have a detrimental impact
on occupants' health, comfort, and productivity. Avoiding these products will increase a
building's IEQ. LEED,[26] HQE[27] and Green Star contain specifications on use of low-emitting
interior. Draft LEED 2012[28] is about to expand the scope of the involved products. BREEAM[29]
limits formaldehyde emissions, no other VOCs. MAS Certified Green is a registered trademark
to delineate low VOC-emitting products in the marketplace.[30] The MAS Certified Green
Program ensures that any potentially hazardous chemicals released from manufactured products
have been thoroughly tested and meet rigorous standards established by independent
toxicologists to address recognized long term health concerns. These IAQ standards have been
adopted by and incorporated into the following programs: (1) The United States Green Building
Council (USGBC) in their LEED rating system[31] (2) The California Department of Public
Health (CDPH) in their section 01350 standards[32] (3) The Collaborative for High Performing
Schools (CHPS) in their Best Practices Manual[33] and (4) The Business and Institutional
Furniture Manufacturers Association (BIFMA) in their level sustainability standard.[34]
Also important to indoor air quality is the control of moisture accumulation (dampness) leading
to mold growth and the presence of bacteria and viruses as well as dust mites and other
organisms and microbiological concerns. Water intrusion through a building's envelope or water
condensing on cold surfaces on the building's interior can enhance and sustain microbial growth.
A well-insulated and tightly sealed envelope will reduce moisture problems but adequate
ventilation is also necessary to eliminate moisture from sources indoors including human
metabolic processes, cooking, bathing, cleaning, and other activities.
Personal temperature and airflow control over the HVAC system coupled with a properly
designed building envelope will also aid in increasing a building's thermal quality. Creating a
high performance luminous environment through the careful integration of daylight and
electrical light sources will improve on the lighting quality and energy performance of a
structure.[18][35]
Solid wood products, particularly flooring, are often specified in environments where occupants
are known to have allergies to dust or other particulates. Wood itself is considered to be hypoallergenic and its smooth surfaces prevent the buildup of particles common in soft finishes like
carpet. The Asthma and Allergy Foundation of American recommends hardwood, vinyl, linoleum
tile or slate flooring instead of carpet.[36] The use of wood products can also improve air quality
by absorbing or releasing moisture in the air to moderate humidity.[37]
Interactions among all the indoor components and the occupants together form the processes that
determine the indoor air quality. Extensive investigation of such processes is the subject of
indoor air scientific research and is well documented in the journal Indoor Air, available at
http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/journal.asp?ref=0905-6947. An extensive set of resources

on indoor air quality is available at http://www.buildingecology.com/iaq.[38]
Operations and maintenance optimization

No matter how sustainable a building may have been in its design and construction, it can only
remain so if it is operated responsibly and maintained properly. Ensuring operations and
maintenance(O&M) personnel are part of the project's planning and development process will
help retain the green criteria designed at the onset of the project.[39] Every aspect of green
building is integrated into the O&M phase of a building's life. The addition of new green
technologies also falls on the O&M staff. Although the goal of waste reduction may be applied
during the design, construction and demolition phases of a building's life-cycle, it is in the O&M
phase that green practices such as recycling and air quality enhancement take place.
Waste reduction
Green architecture also seeks to reduce waste of energy, water and materials used during
construction. For example, in California nearly 60% of the state's waste comes from commercial
buildings[40] During the construction phase, one goal should be to reduce the amount of material
going to landfills. Well-designed buildings also help reduce the amount of waste generated by the
occupants as well, by providing on-site solutions such as compost bins to reduce matter going to
landfills.
To reduce the amount of wood that goes to landfill, Neutral Alliance (a coalition of government,
NGOs and the forest industry) created the website dontwastewood.com. The site includes a
variety of resources for regulators, municipalities, developers, contractors, owner/operators and
individuals/homeowners looking for information on wood recycling.
When buildings reach the end of their useful life, they are typically demolished and hauled to
landfills. Deconstruction is a method of harvesting what is commonly considered "waste" and
reclaiming it into useful building material.[41] Extending the useful life of a structure also reduces
waste building materials such as wood that are light and easy to work with make renovations
easier.[42]
To reduce the impact on wells or water treatment plants, several options exist. "Greywater",
wastewater from sources such as dishwashing or washing machines, can be used for subsurface
irrigation, or if treated, for non-potable purposes, e.g., to flush toilets and wash cars. Rainwater
collectors are used for similar purposes.
Centralized wastewater treatment systems can be costly and use a lot of energy. An alternative to
this process is converting waste and wastewater into fertilizer, which avoids these costs and
shows other benefits. By collecting human waste at the source and running it to a semicentralized biogas plant with other biological waste, liquid fertilizer can be produced. This
concept was demonstrated by a settlement in Lubeck Germany in the late 1990s. Practices like
these provide soil with organic nutrients and create carbon sinks that remove carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere, offsetting greenhouse gas emission. Producing artificial fertilizer is also
more costly in energy than this process.[43]
Cost and payoff

The most criticized issue about constructing environmentally friendly buildings is the price.
Photo-voltaics, new appliances, and modern technologies tend to cost more money. Most green
buildings cost a premium of <2%, but yield 10 times as much over the entire life of the building.
[44]
In regards to the financial benefits of green building, Over 20 years, the financial payback
typically exceeds the additional cost of greening by a factor of 4-6 times. And broader benefits,
such as reductions in greenhouse gases (GHGs) and other pollutants have large positive impacts
on surrounding communities and on the planet.[45][46] The stigma is between the knowledge of
up-front cost[47] vs. life-cycle cost. The savings in money come from more efficient use of
utilities which result in decreased energy bills. It is projected that different sectors could save
$130 Billion on energy bills.[48] Also, higher worker or student productivity can be factored into
savings and cost deductions.
Numerous studies have shown the measurable benefit of green building initiatives on worker
productivity. In general it has been found that, "there is a direct correlation between increased
productivity and employees who love being in their work space.[49] Specifically, worker
productivity can be significantly impacted by certain aspects of green building design such as
improved lighting, reduction of pollutants, advanced ventilation systems and the use of non-toxic
building materials.[50] In The Business Case for Green Building, the U.S. Green Building
Council gives another specific example of how commercial energy retrofits increase worker
health and thus productivity, People in the U.S. spend about 90% of their time indoors. EPA
studies indicate indoor levels of pollutants may be up to ten times higher than outdoor levels.
LEED-certified buildings are designed to have healthier, cleaner indoor environmental quality,
which means health benefits for occupants."[51]
Studies have shown over a 20 year life period, some green buildings have yielded $53 to $71 per
square foot back on investment.[52] Confirming the rentability of green building investments,
further studies of the commercial real estate market have found that LEED and Energy Star
certified buildings achieve significantly higher rents, sale prices and occupancy rates as well as
lower capitalization rates potentially reflecting lower investment risk.[53][54][55]
Regulation and operation

As a result of the increased interest in green building concepts and practices, a number of
organizations have developed standards, codes and rating systems that let government regulators,
building professionals and consumers embrace green building with confidence. In some cases,
codes are written so local governments can adopt them as bylaws to reduce the local
environmental impact of buildings.
Green building rating systems such as BREEAM (United Kingdom), LEED (United States and
Canada), DGNB (Germany) and CASBEE (Japan) help consumers determine a structures level
of environmental performance. They award credits for optional building features that support
green design in categories such as location and maintenance of building site, conservation of
water, energy, and building materials, and occupant comfort and health. The number of credits
generally determines the level of achievement.[56]
Green building codes and standards, such as the International Code Councils draft International
Green Construction Code,[57] are sets of rules created by standards development organizations
that establish minimum requirements for elements of green building such as materials or heating
and cooling.
Some of the major building environmental assessment tools currently in use include:
Australia: Nabers / Green Star / BASIX (in NSW only)
Brazil: AQUA / LEED Brasil
Canada: LEED Canada / Green Globes / Built Green Canada
China: GBAS
Finland: PromisE
France: HQE
Germany: DGNB / CEPHEUS
Hong Kong: BEAM Plus
India: Indian Green Building Council (IGBC)/ GBCIndia (Green Building Construction
India)/ GRIHA
Indonesia: Green Building Council Indonesia (GBCI) / Greenship
Italy: Protocollo Itaca / Green Building Council Italia
Japan: CASBEE
Jordan: Jordan Green Building Council
Korea, Republic of: Green Building Certification Criteria / Korea Green Building
Council
Malaysia: GBI Malaysia
Mexico: LEED Mexico
Netherlands: BREEAM Netherlands
New Zealand: Green Star NZ
Pakistan: Pakistan Green Building Council
Philippines: BERDE / Philippine Green Building Council
Portugal: Lider A / SBToolPT
Qatar: Qatar Sustainability Assessment System (QSAS)
Republic of China (Taiwan): Green Building Label
Saudi Arabia: Saudi Arabia Accredited Fronds (Sa'af)
Singapore: Green Mark
South Africa: Green Star SA
Spain: VERDE
Switzerland: Minergie
United States: LEED / Living Building Challenge / Green Globes / Build it Green /
NAHB NGBS / International Green Construction Code (IGCC) / ENERGY STAR
United Kingdom: BREEAM
United Arab Emirates: Estidama
Turkey : CEDBK
Thailand : TREES
Vietnam: LOTUS Rating Tools
Czech Republic: SBToolCZ
International frameworks and assessment tools
IPCC Fourth Assessment Report

Climate Change 2007, the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of the United Nations
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), is the fourth in a series of such reports. The
IPCC was established by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) to assess scientific, technical and socio-economic information
concerning climate change, its potential effects and options for adaptation and mitigation.[58]
UNEP and Climate change [7]
United Nations Environment Program UNEP works to facilitate the transition to low-carbon
societies, support climate proofing efforts, improve understanding of climate change science, and
raise public awareness about this global challenge.
GHG Indicator[8]
The Greenhouse Gas Indicator: UNEP Guidelines for Calculating Greenhouse Gas Emissions for
Businesses and Non-Commercial Organizations
Agenda 21[9]
Agenda 21 is a programme run by the United Nations (UN) related to sustainable development.
It is a comprehensive blueprint of action to be taken globally, nationally and locally by
organizations of the UN, governments, and major groups in every area in which humans impact
on the environment. The number 21 refers to the 21st century.
FIDIC's PSM[10]
The International Federation of Consulting Engineers (FIDIC) Project Sustainability
Management Guidelines were created in order to assist project engineers and other stakeholders
in setting sustainable development goals for their projects that are recognized and accepted by as
being in the interests of society as a whole. The process is also intended to allow the alignment of
project goals with local conditions and priorities and to assist those involved in managing
projects to measure and verify their progress.
The Project Sustainability Management Guidelines are structured with Themes and Sub-Themes
under the three main sustainability headings of Social, Environmental and Economic. For each
individual Sub-Theme a core project indicator is defined along with guidance as to the relevance
of that issue in the context of an individual project.
The Sustainability Reporting Framework provides guidance for organizations to use as the basis
for disclosure about their sustainability performance, and also provides stakeholders a
universally applicable, comparable framework in which to understand disclosed information.
The Reporting Framework contains the core product of the Sustainability Reporting Guidelines,
as well as Protocols and Sector Supplements. The Guidelines are used as the basis for all
reporting. They are the foundation upon which all other reporting guidance is based, and outline
core content for reporting that is broadly relevant to all organizations regardless of size, sector, or
location. The Guidelines contain principles and guidance as well as standard disclosures
including indicators to outline a disclosure framework that organizations can voluntarily,
exibly, and incrementally, adopt.
Protocols underpin each indicator in the Guidelines and include definitions for key terms in the
indicator, compilation methodologies, intended scope of the indicator, and other technical
references.
Sector Supplements respond to the limits of a one-size-ts-all approach. Sector Supplements
complement the use of the core Guidelines by capturing the unique set of sustainability issues
faced by different sectors such as mining, automotive, banking, public agencies and others.
IPD Environment Code
The IPD Environment Code[59] was launched in February 2008. The Code is intended as a good
practice global standard for measuring the environmental performance of corporate buildings. Its
aim is to accurately measure and manage the environmental impacts of corporate buildings and
enable property executives to generate high quality, comparable performance information about
their buildings anywhere in the world. The Code covers a wide range of building types (from
ofces to airports) and aims to inform and support the following;
Creating an environmental strategy
Inputting to real estate strategy
Communicating a commitment to environmental improvement
Creating performance targets
Environmental improvement plans
Performance assessment and measurement
Life cycle assessments
Acquisition and disposal of buildings
Supplier management
Information systems and data population
Compliance with regulations
Team and personal objectives
IPD estimate that it will take approximately three years to gather significant data to develop a
robust set of baseline data that could be used across a typical corporate estate.
ISO 21931
ISO/TS 21931:2006, Sustainability in building constructionFramework for methods of
assessment for environmental performance of construction worksPart 1: Buildings, is intended
to provide a general framework for improving the quality and comparability of methods for
assessing the environmental performance of buildings. It identifies and describes issues to be
taken into account when using methods for the assessment of environmental performance for
new or existing building properties in the design, construction, operation, refurbishment and
deconstruction stages. It is not an assessment system in itself but is intended be used in
conjunction with, and following the principles set out in, the ISO 14000 series of standards.
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Cogeneration

Main article: Electricity generation
See also: Electrification
Trigeneration cycle
Cogeneration or combined heat and power (CHP) is the use of a heat engine[1] or power
station to simultaneously generate electricity and useful heat. Trigeneration or combined
cooling, heat and power (CCHP) refers to the simultaneous generation of electricity and useful
heating and cooling from the combustion of a fuel or a solar heat collector. A plant producing
electricity, heat and cold is called a trigeneration[2] or polygeneration plant.
Cogeneration is a thermodynamically efficient use of fuel. In separate production of electricity,
some energy must be discarded as waste heat, but in cogeneration this thermal energy is put to
use. All thermal power plants emit heat during electricity generation, which can be released into
the natural environment through cooling towers, flue gas, or by other means. In contrast, CHP
captures some or all of the by-product for heating, either very close to the plant, orespecially
in Scandinavia and Eastern Europeas hot water for district heating with temperatures ranging
from approximately 80 to 130 C. This is also called combined heat and power district heating
(CHPDH). Small CHP plants are an example of decentralized energy.[3] By-product heat at
moderate temperatures (100180 C, 212356 F) can also be used in absorption refrigerators for
cooling.
The supply of high-temperature heat first drives a gas or steam turbine-powered generator and
the resulting low-temperature waste heat is then used for water or space heating as described in
cogeneration. At smaller scales (typically below 1 MW) a gas engine or diesel engine may be
used. Trigeneration differs from cogeneration in that the waste heat is used for both heating and
cooling, typically in an absorption refrigerator. CCHP systems can attain higher overall
efficiencies than cogeneration or traditional power plants. In the United States, the application of
trigeneration in buildings is called building cooling, heating and power (BCHP). Heating and
cooling output may operate concurrently or alternately depending on need and system
construction.
Cogeneration was practised in some of the earliest installations of electrical generation. Before
central stations distributed power, industries generating their own power used exhaust steam for
process heating. Large office and apartment buildings, hotels and stores commonly generated
their own power and used waste steam for building heat. Due to the high cost of early purchased
power, these CHP operations continued for many years after utility electricity became available.
[4]
Cogeneration is still common in pulp and paper mills, refineries and chemical plants. In this
"industrial cogeneration/CHP", the heat is typically recovered at higher temperatures (above 100
deg C) and used for process steam or drying duties. This is more valuable and flexible than lowgrade waste heat, but there is a slight loss of power generation. The increased focus on
sustainability has made industrial CHP more attractive, as it substantially reduces carbon
footprint compared to generating steam or burning fuel on-site and importing electric power
from the grid.
In the United States, Consolidated Edison distributes 66 billion kilograms of 350 F (180 C)
steam each year through its seven cogeneration plants to 100,000 buildings in Manhattanthe
biggest steam district in the United States. The peak delivery is 10 million pounds per hour (or
approximately 2.5 GW).[5][6] Other major cogeneration companies in the United States include
Recycled Energy Development,[7] and leading advocates include Tom Casten and Amory Lovins.
Contents
1 Overview
o 1.1 Utility pressures versus self generating industrial
o 1.2 Comparison with a heat pump
o 1.3 Thermal efficiency
o 1.4 Distributed generation
2 Types of plants
o 2.1 Heat recovery steam generators
o 2.2 MicroCHP
o 2.3 Refrigeration
3 Costs
4 History
o 4.1 Cogeneration in Europe

o 4.2 Cogeneration in the United States
4.2.1 Diffusion
5 Applications in power generation systems

o 5.1 Non-renewable
o 5.2 Renewable
6 See also
7 Further reading
8 References
Overview
Masned CHP power station in Denmark. This station burns straw as fuel. The adjacent
greenhouses are heated by district heating from the plant.
Thermal power plants (including those that use fissile elements or burn coal, petroleum, or
natural gas), and heat engines in general, do not convert all of their thermal energy into
electricity. In most heat engines, a bit more than half is lost as excess heat (see: Second law of
thermodynamics and Carnot's theorem). By capturing the excess heat, CHP uses heat that would
be wasted in a conventional power plant, potentially reaching an efficiency of up to 80%,[8] for
the best conventional plants. This means that less fuel needs to be consumed to produce the same
amount of useful energy.
Steam turbines for cogeneration are designed for extraction of steam at lower pressures after it
has passed through a number of turbine stages, or they may be designed for final exhaust at back
pressure (non-condensing), or both.[9] A typical power generation turbine in a paper mill may
have extraction pressures of 160 psig (1.103 MPa) and 60 psig (0.41 MPa). A typical back
pressure may be 60 psig (0.41 MPa). In practice these pressures are custom designed for each
facility. The extracted or exhaust steam is used for process heating, such as drying paper,
evaporation, heat for chemical reactions or distillation. Steam at ordinary process heating
conditions still has a considerable amount of enthalpy that could be used for power generation,
so cogeneration has lost opportunity cost. Conversely, simply generating steam at process
pressure instead of high enough pressure to generate power at the top end also has lost
opportunity cost. (See: Steam turbine#Steam supply and exhaust conditions) The capital and
operating cost of high pressure boilers, turbines and generators are substantial, and this
equipment is normally operated continuously, which usually limits self generated power to large
scale operations.
A cogeneration plant in Metz, France. The 45MW boiler uses waste wood biomass as energy
source, and provides electricity and heat for 30,000 dwellings.
Some tri-cycle plants have used a combined cycle in which several thermodynamic cycles
produced electricity, then a heating system was used as a condenser of the power plant's
bottoming cycle. For example, the RU-25 MHD generator in Moscow heated a boiler for a
conventional steam powerplant, whose condensate was then used for space heat. A more modern
system might use a gas turbine powered by natural gas, whose exhaust powers a steam plant,
whose condensate provides heat. Tri-cycle plants can have thermal efficiencies above 80%.
The viability of CHP (sometimes termed utilisation factor), especially in smaller CHP
installations, depends on a good baseload of operation, both in terms of an on-site (or near site)
electrical demand and heat demand. In practice, an exact match between the heat and electricity
needs rarely exists. A CHP plant can either meet the need for heat (heat driven operation) or be
run as a power plant with some use of its waste heat, the latter being less advantageous in terms
of its utilisation factor and thus its overall efficiency. The viability can be greatly increased
where opportunities for Trigeneration exist. In such cases, the heat from the CHP plant is also
used as a primary energy source to deliver cooling by means of an absorption chiller.
CHP is most efficient when heat can be used on-site or very close to it. Overall efficiency is
reduced when the heat must be transported over longer distances. This requires heavily insulated
pipes, which are expensive and inefficient; whereas electricity can be transmitted along a
comparatively simple wire, and over much longer distances for the same energy loss.
A car engine becomes a CHP plant in winter when the reject heat is useful for warming the
interior of the vehicle. The example illustrates the point that deployment of CHP depends on heat
uses in the vicinity of the heat engine.
Thermally enhanced oil recovery (TEOR) plants often produce a substantial amount of excess
electricity. After generating electricity, these plants pump leftover steam into heavy oil wells so
that the oil will flow more easily, increasing production. TEOR cogeneration plants in Kern
County, California produce so much electricity that it cannot all be used locally and is
transmitted to Los Angeles[citation needed].
CHP is one of the most cost-efficient methods of reducing carbon emissions from heating
systems in cold climates [10] and is recognized to be the most energy efficient method of
transforming energy from fossil fuels or biomass into electric power.[11] Cogeneration plants are
commonly found in district heating systems of cities, central heating systems from buildings,
hospitals, prisons and are commonly used in the industry in thermal production processes for
process water, cooling, steam production or CO2 fertilization.
Utility pressures versus self generating industrial

Industrial cogeneration plants normally operate at much lower boiler pressures than utilities.
Among the reasons are: 1) Cogeneration plants face possible contamination of returned
condensate. Because boiler feed water from cogeneration plants has much lower return rates than
100% condensing power plants, industries usually have to treat proportionately more boiler make
up water. Boiler feed water must be completely oxygen free and de-mineralized, and the higher
the pressure the more critical the level of purity of the feed water.[9] 2) Utilities are typically
larger scale power than industry, which helps offset the higher capital costs of high pressure. 3)
Utilities are less likely to have sharp load swings than industrial operations, which deal with
shutting down or starting up units that may represent a significant percent of either steam or
power demand.
Comparison with a heat pump

A heat pump may be compared with a CHP unit, in that for a condensing steam plant, as it
switches to produced heat, then electrical power is lost or becomes unavailable, just as the power
used in a heat pump becomes unavailable. Typically for every unit of power lost, then about 6
units of heat are made available at about 90 C. Thus CHP has an effective Coefficient of
Performance (COP) compared to a heat pump of 6.[12] It is noteworthy that the unit for the CHP is
lost at the high voltage network and therefore incurs no losses, whereas the heat pump unit is lost
at the low voltage part of the network and incurs on average a 6% loss. Because the losses are
proportional to the square of the current, during peak periods losses are much higher than this
and it is likely that widespread i.e. city wide application of heat pumps would cause overloading
of the distribution and transmission grids unless they are substantially reinforced.
It is also possible to run a heat driven operation combined with a heat pump, where the excess
electricity (as heat demand is the defining factor on utilization) is used to drive a heat pump. As
heat demand increases, more electricity is generated to drive the heat pump, with the waste heat
also heating the heating fluid.
Thermal efficiency
Every heat engine is subject to the theoretical efficiency limits of the Carnot cycle. When the fuel
is natural gas, a gas turbine following the Rankine cycle is typically used.[13] Mechanical energy
from the turbine drives an electric generator. The low-grade (i.e. low temperature) waste heat
rejected by the turbine is then applied to space heating or cooling or to industrial processes.
Cooling is achieved by passing the waste heat to an absorption chiller.
Thermal efficiency in a trigeneration system is defined as:
Where:
= Thermal efficiency
= Total work output by all systems
= Total heat input into the system
Typical trigeneration models have losses as in any system. The energy distribution below is
represented as a percent of total input energy:[14]
Electricity = 45%
Heat + Cooling = 40%
Heat Losses = 13%
Line Losses = 2%
Conventional central coal- or nuclear-powered power stations convert only about 33% of their
input heat to electricity. The remaining 67% emerges from the turbines as low-grade waste heat
with no significant local uses so it is usually rejected to the environment. These low conversion
efficiencies strongly suggest that productive uses be found for this waste heat, and in some
countries these plants do produce byproduct steam that can be sold to customers.
But if no practical uses can be found for the waste heat from a central power station, e.g., due to
distance from potential customers, then moving generation to where the waste heat can find uses
may be of great benefit. Even though the efficiency of a small distributed electrical generator
may be lower than a large central power plant, the use of its waste heat for local heating and
cooling can result in an overall use of the primary fuel supply as great as 80%. This provides
substantial financial and environmental benefits.
Distributed generation
Trigeneration has its greatest benefits when scaled to fit buildings or complexes of buildings
where electricity, heating and cooling are perpetually needed. Such installations include but are
not limited to: data centers, manufacturing facilities, universities, hospitals, military complexes
and colleges. Localized trigeneration has addition benefits as described by distributed generation.
Redundancy of power in mission critical applications, lower power usage costs and the ability to
sell electrical power back to the local utility are a few of the major benefits. Even for small
buildings such as individual family homes trigeneration systems provide benefits over
cogeneration because of increased energy utilization.[15]
Most industrial countries generate the majority of their electrical power needs in large centralized
facilities with capacity for large electrical power output. These plants have excellent economies
of scale, but usually transmit electricity long distances resulting in sizable losses, negatively
affect the environment. Large power plants can use cogeneration or trigeneration systems only
when sufficient need exists in immediate geographic vicinity for an industrial complex,
additional power plant or a city. An example of cogeneration with trigeneration applications in a
major city is the New York City steam system.
Types of plants
Topping cycle plants primarily produce electricity from a steam turbine. The exhausted steam is
then condensed and the low temperature heat released from this condensation is utilized for e.g.
district heating or water desalination.
Bottoming cycle plants produce high temperature heat for industrial processes, then a waste heat
recovery boiler feeds an electrical plant. Bottoming cycle plants are only used when the
industrial process requires very high temperatures such as furnaces for glass and metal
manufacturing, so they are less common.
Large cogeneration systems provide heating water and power for an industrial site or an entire
town. Common CHP plant types are:
Gas turbine CHP plants using the waste heat in the flue gas of gas turbines. The fuel used
is typically natural gas
Gas engine CHP plants use a reciprocating gas engine which is generally more
competitive than a gas turbine up to about 5 MW. The gaseous fuel used is normally
natural gas. These plants are generally manufactured as fully packaged units that can be
installed within a plantroom or external plant compound with simple connections to the
site's gas supply and electrical distribution and heating systems. Typical outputs and
efficiences see [16] Typical large example see [17]
Biofuel engine CHP plants use an adapted reciprocating gas engine or diesel engine,
depending upon which biofuel is being used, and are otherwise very similar in design to a
Gas engine CHP plant. The advantage of using a biofuel is one of reduced hydrocarbon
fuel consumption and thus reduced carbon emissions. These plants are generally
manufactured as fully packaged units that can be installed within a plantroom or external
plant compound with simple connections to the site's electrical distribution and heating
systems. Another variant is the wood gasifier CHP plant whereby a wood pellet or wood
chip biofuel is gasified in a zero oxygen high temperature environment; the resulting gas
is then used to power the gas engine. Typical smaller size biogas plant see [18]
Combined cycle power plants adapted for CHP
Steam turbine CHP plants that use the heating system as the steam condenser for the
steam turbine.
Molten-carbonate fuel cells and solid oxide fuel cells have a hot exhaust, very suitable for
heating.
Nuclear power plants can be fitted with taps after the turbines to provide steam to a
heating system. With a heating system temperature of 95 C it is possible to extract about
10 MW heat for every MW electricity lost. With a temperature of 130 C the gain is
slightly smaller, about 7 MW for every MWe lost.[19]
Smaller cogeneration units may use a reciprocating engine or Stirling engine. The heat is
removed from the exhaust and radiator. The systems are popular in small sizes because small gas
and diesel engines are less expensive than small gas- or oil-fired steam-electric plants.
Some cogeneration plants are fired by biomass,[20] or industrial and municipal waste (see
incineration).
Some cogeneration plants combine gas and solar photovoltaic generation to further improve
technical and environmental performance.[21]
Heat recovery steam generators

A heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) is a steam boiler that uses hot exhaust gases from the
gas turbines or reciprocating engines in a CHP plant to heat up water and generate steam. The
steam, in turn, drives a steam turbine or is used in industrial processes that require heat.
HRSGs used in the CHP industry are distinguished from conventional steam generators by the
following main features:
The HRSG is designed based upon the specific features of the gas turbine or
reciprocating engine that it will be coupled to.
Since the exhaust gas temperature is relatively low, heat transmission is accomplished
mainly through convection.
The exhaust gas velocity is limited by the need to keep head losses down. Thus, the
transmission coefficient is low, which calls for a large heating surface area.
Since the temperature difference between the hot gases and the fluid to be heated (steam
or water) is low, and with the heat transmission coefficient being low as well, the
evaporator and economizer are designed with plate fin heat exchangers.
MicroCHP
Micro combined heat and power or 'Micro cogeneration" is a so-called distributed energy
resource (DER). The installation is usually less than 5 kWe in a house or small business. Instead
of burning fuel to merely heat space or water, some of the energy is converted to electricity in
addition to heat. This electricity can be used within the home or business or, if permitted by the
grid management, sold back into the electric power grid.
Delta-ee consultants stated in 2013 that with 64% of global sales the fuel cell micro-combined
heat and power passed the conventional systems in sales in 2012.[22] 20.000 units where sold in
Japan in 2012 overall within the Ene Farm project. With a Lifetime of around 60,000 hours. For
PEM fuel cell units, which shut down at night, this equates to an estimated lifetime of between
ten and fifteen years.[23] For a price of $22,600 before installation.[24] For 2013 a state subsidy for
50,000 units is in place.[23]
The development of small scale CHP systems has provided the opportunity for in-house power
backup of residential-scale photovoltaic (PV) arrays.[25] The results of a 2011 study show that a
PV+CHP hybrid system not only has the potential to radically reduce energy waste in the status
quo electrical and heating systems, but it also enables the share of solar PV to be expanded by
about a factor of five.[25] In some regions, in order to reduce waste from excess heat, an
absorption chiller has been proposed to utilize the CHP-produced thermal energy for cooling of
PV-CHP system. [26] These trigeneration+photovoltaic systems have the potential to save even
more energy and further reduce emissions compared to conventional sources of power, heating
and cooling.[27]
MicroCHP installations use five different technologies: microturbines, internal combustion
engines, stirling engines, closed cycle steam engines and fuel cells. One author indicated in 2008
that MicroCHP based on Stirling engines is the most cost effective of the so-called
microgeneration technologies in abating carbon emissions;[28] A 2013 UK report from Ecuity
Consulting stated that MCHP is the most cost-effective method of utilising gas to generate
energy at the domestic level.[29][30] however, advances in reciprocation engine technology are
adding efficiency to CHP plant, particularly in the biogas field.[31] As both MiniCHP and CHP
have been shown to reduce emissions [32] they could play a large role in the field of CO2
reduction from buildings, where more than 14% of emissions can be saved using CHP in
buildings.[33]
Refrigeration
Cogeneration systems linked to absorption chillers use waste heat for refrigeration.[34]
Costs
Typically, for a gas-fired plant the fully installed cost per kW electrical is around 400/kW,
which is comparable with large central power stations.[18]
See also Cost of electricity by source
History
Cogeneration in Europe
A cogeneration thermal power plant in Ferrera Erbognone (PV), Italy

The EU has actively incorporated cogeneration into its energy policy via the CHP Directive. In
September 2008 at a hearing of the European Parliaments Urban Lodgment Intergroup, Energy
Commissioner Andris Piebalgs is quoted as saying, security of supply really starts with energy
efficiency.[35] Energy efficiency and cogeneration are recognized in the opening paragraphs of
the European Unions Cogeneration Directive 2004/08/EC. This directive intends to support
cogeneration and establish a method for calculating cogeneration abilities per country. The
development of cogeneration has been very uneven over the years and has been dominated
throughout the last decades by national circumstances.
As a whole, the European Union generates 11% of its electricity using cogeneration, saving
Europe an estimated 35 Mtoe per annum a day.[36] However, there is large difference between
Member States with variations of the energy savings between 2% and 60%. Europe has the three
countries with the worlds most intensive cogeneration economies: Denmark, the Netherlands
and Finland.[37] Of the 28.46 TWh of electrical power generated by conventional thermal power
plants in Finland in 2012, 81.80% was cogeneration.[38]
Other European countries are also making great efforts to increase efficiency. Germany reported
that at present, over 50% of the countrys total electricity demand could be provided through
cogeneration. So far, Germany has set the target to double its electricity cogeneration from
12.5% of the countrys electricity to 25% of the countrys electricity by 2020 and has passed
supporting legislation accordingly.[39] The UK is also actively supporting combined heat and
power. In light of UKs goal to achieve a 60% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions by 2050,
the government has set the target to source at least 15% of its government electricity use from
CHP by 2010.[40] Other UK measures to encourage CHP growth are financial incentives, grant
support, a greater regulatory framework, and government leadership and partnership.
According to the IEA 2008 modeling of cogeneration expansion for the G8 countries, the
expansion of cogeneration in France, Germany, Italy and the UK alone would effectively double
the existing primary fuel savings by 2030. This would increase Europes savings from todays
155.69 Twh to 465 Twh in 2030. It would also result in a 16% to 29% increase in each countrys
total cogenerated electricity by 2030.
Governments are being assisted in their CHP endeavors by organizations like COGEN Europe
who serve as an information hub for the most recent updates within Europes energy policy.
COGEN is Europes umbrella organization representing the interests of the cogeneration
industry.
The European publicprivate partnership Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking Seventh
Framework Programme project ene.field deploys in 2017[41] up 1,000 residential fuel cell
Combined Heat and Power (micro-CHP) installations in 12 states. Per 2012 the first 2
installations have taken place.[42][43][44]
Cogeneration in the United States
A 250 MW cogeneration plant in Cambridge, Massachusetts

Perhaps the first modern use of energy recycling was done by Thomas Edison. His 1882 Pearl
Street Station, the worlds first commercial power plant, was a combined heat and power plant,
producing both electricity and thermal energy while using waste heat to warm neighboring
buildings.[45] Recycling allowed Edisons plant to achieve approximately 50 percent efficiency.
By the early 1900s, regulations emerged to promote rural electrification through the construction
of centralized plants managed by regional utilities. These regulations not only promoted
electrification throughout the countryside, but they also discouraged decentralized power
generation, such as cogeneration. As Recycled Energy Development CEO Sean Casten testified
to Congress, they even went so far as to make it illegal for non-utilities to sell power.[46]
By 1978, Congress recognized that efficiency at central power plants had stagnated and sought to
encourage improved efficiency with the Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA), which
encouraged utilities to buy power from other energy producers.
Diffusion
Cogeneration plants proliferated, soon producing about 8% of all energy in the United States.[47]
However, the bill left implementation and enforcement up to individual states, resulting in little
or nothing being done in many parts of the country.[citation needed]
In 2008 Tom Casten, chairman of Recycled Energy Development, said that "We think we could
make about 19 to 20 percent of U.S. electricity with heat that is currently thrown away by
industry."[48]
The United States Department of Energy has an aggressive goal of having CHP constitute 20%
of generation capacity by the year 2030. Eight Clean Energy Application Centers[49] have been
established across the nation whose mission is to develop the required technology application
knowledge and educational infrastructure necessary to lead "clean energy" (combined heat and
power, waste heat recovery and district energy) technologies as viable energy options and reduce
any perceived risks associated with their implementation. The focus of the Application Centers is
to provide an outreach and technology deployment program for end users, policy makers,
utilities, and industry stakeholders.
Outside of the United States, energy recycling is more common. Denmark is probably the most
active energy recycler, obtaining about 55% of its energy from cogeneration and waste heat
recovery.[citation needed] Other large countries, including Germany, Russia, and India, also obtain a
much higher share of their energy from decentralized sources.[47][48]
Applications in power generation systems

Non-renewable
Any of the following conventional power plants may be converted to a CCHP system:[50]
Coal
Microturbine
Natural gas
Nuclear power
Oil
Small gas turbine
Renewable
Solar powerboth solar thermal and photovoltaic
Biomass
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32.
Pehnt, M. (2008). Environmental impacts of distributed energy systemsThe

case of micro cogeneration. Environmental science & policy, 11(1), 25-37.
33.
http://alfagy.com/what-is-chp/133-kaarsberg-t-rfiskum-jromm-a-rosenfeld-jkoomey-and-wpteagan-1998-qcombined-heat-and-power-chp-or-cogeneration-forsaving-energy-and-carbon-in-commercial-buildingsq.html "Combined Heat and Power

(CHP or Cogeneration) for Saving Energy and Carbon in Commercial Buildings."
34.
35.
36.
37.
Fuel Cells and CHP

"Energy Efficiency Industrial Forum Position Paper: energy efficiency a vital
component of energy security".
"COGEN Europe News".
"COGEN Europe: Cogeneration in the European Unions Energy Supply
Security".
38.
"Electricity Generation by Energy Source".
39.
"KWKG 2002".
40.
"DEFRA Action in the UK - Combined Heat and Power".
41.
5th stakeholders general assembly of the FCH JU
42.
ene.field
43.
European-wide field trials for residential fuel cell micro-CHP
44.
ene.field Grant No 303462
45.
"Worlds First Commercial Power Plant Was a Cogeneration Plant".

Cogeneration Technologies.
46.
"Testimony of Sean Casten before Senate subcommittee on Energy, Natural

Resources, and Infrastructure, 5/24/07".
47.
48.
"World Survey of Decentralized Energy". May 2006.

'Recycling' Energy Seen Saving Companies Money. By David Schaper. May 22,
2008. Morning Edition. National Public Radio.
49.
50.
Eight Clean Energy Application Centers

Masters, Gilbert (2004). Renewable and efficient electric power systems. New
York: Wiley-IEEE Press.
Microgeneration
Microgeneration is the small-scale generation of heat and electric power by individuals, small
businesses and communities to meet their own needs, as alternatives or supplements to
traditional centralized grid-connected power. Although this may be motivated by practical
considerations, such as unreliable grid power or long distance from the electrical grid, the term is
mainly used currently for environmentally conscious approaches that aspire to zero or lowcarbon footprints or cost reduction. It differs from micropower in that it is principally concerned
with fixed power plants rather than for use with mobile devices.
Contents
1 Technologies and set-up

o
1.1 The power plant
1.2 Extra equipment needed besides the power plant
1.2.1 Energy storage apparatus
1.2.2 Safety equipment
1.2.3 Wind turbine specific
1.2.3.1 Vibro-wind power
1.3 Possible set-ups
2 Costs
o
2.1 Grid parity
3 Comparison with large-scale generation
4 Domestic self-sufficiency
o
4.1 Fuel
5 Government policy
5.1 Alberta, Canada
5.2 United States
5.3 United Kingdom
6 In popular culture
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
o
9.1 Systems' self-sufficiency parts
9.2 UK-related
9.3 Academic paper focusing on India
Technologies and set-up
Microgeneration technologies include small-scale wind turbines, Micro hydro, photovoltaic solar
systems, Plant Microbial Fuel Cells, ground source heat pumps, and Micro Combined Heat and
Power (MicroCHP) installations.[1]
The power plant
In addition to the electricity production plant (e.g. wind turbine, solar panel, ...), infrastructure
for energy storage and power conversion and a hook-up to the regular electricity grid is usually
needed and/or foreseen. Although a hookup to the regular electricity grid is not essential, it helps
to decrease costs by allowing financial recompensation schemes. In the developing world
however, the start-up cost for this equipment is generally too high, thus leaving no choice but to
opt for alternative set-ups.[2]
Extra equipment needed besides the power plant
A complete PV-solar system
The whole of the equipment required to set up a working system and for an off-the-grid
generation and/or a hook up to the electricity grid herefore is termed a balance of system[3] and is
composed of the following parts with PV-systems:
Energy storage apparatus
A major issue with off-grid solar and wind systems is that the power is often needed when the
sun is not shining or when the wind is calm, this is generally not required for purely gridconnected systems:
a series of deep cycle, stationary or sealed maintenance free batteries (the

most common solution) [4]
or other means of energy storage (e.g. hydrogen fuel cells, Flywheel energy storage, pumpedstorage hydroelectricity, compressed air tanks, ...)[5]
a charge controller for charging the batteries or other energy storage
For converting DC battery power into AC as required for many appliances, or for feeding excess
power into a commercial power grid:
an inverter or grid-interactive inverter. The whole is also sometimes referred

to as "power conditioning equipment"
Safety equipment
groundings, transfer switches or isolator switches and surge protector. The

whole is also sometimes referred to as "safety equipment"
Usually, in microgeneration for homes in the developing world, a prefabricated house-wiring

systems (as wiring harnesses or prefabricated distribution units) is used instead .[6] Simplified
house-wiring boxes, known as wiring harnesses can be simply bought and drilled in the wall
without requiring much knowledge on the wiring itself. As such, even people without technical
expertise are able to install them. In addition, they are also comparatively cheap and offer safety
advantages.[7]
battery meters (for charging rate and voltage), and meters for power
consumption and electricity provision to the regular power grid
Small-scale (DIY) generation system

Wind turbine specific
With wind turbines, hydroelectric plants, ... the extra equipment needed [8][9][10][11] is more or less
the same as with PV-systems (depending on the type of wind turbine used,[12] yet also include:
a manual disconnect switch
foundation for the tower
grounding system
shutoff and/or dummy-load devices for use in high wind when power
generated exceeds current needs and storage system capacity.
Vibro-wind power
A new wind energy technology is being developed that converts energy from wind energy
vibrations to electricity. This energy, called Vibro-Wind technology, can use winds of less
strength than normal wind turbines, and can be placed in almost any location. The vibro-wind
setup is also more economically viable.
A prototype consisted of a panel mounted with oscillators made out of pieces of foam. The
conversion from mechanical to electrical energy is done using a piezoelectric transducer, a
device made of a ceramic or polymer that emits electrons when stressed. The building of this
prototype was led by Francis Moon, professor of mechanical and aerospace engineering at
Cornell University. Moon's work in Vibro-Wind Technology was funded by the Atkinson Center
for a Sustainable Future at Cornell.[13]
Possible set-ups
Several microgeneration set-ups are possible. These are:
Off-the-grid set-ups which include:

o
Off-the grid set-ups without energy storage (e.g., battery, ...)
Off-the grid set-ups with energy storage (e.g., battery, ...)
Battery charging stations
[14]
Grid-connected set-ups which include:

o
Grid connected with backup to power critical loads
Grid-connected set-ups without financial recompensation scheme
Grid-connected set-ups with net metering
Grid connected set-ups with net purchase and sale
[15]
All set-ups mentioned can work either on a single power plant or a combination of power plants
(in which case it is called a hybrid power system).
Note: For safety reasons, there are legal requirements[clarification needed (in what jurisdiction?)] that all domestic
grid-connected set-ups must automatically switch off when there is a failure of the mains power
supply. This means that they can NOT supply electricity during power cuts. The appropriate
supply regulations should be consulted when planning a system. For more about this, see the
article on the condition of islanding.
Costs
Depending on the set-up chosen (financial recompensation scheme, power plant, extra
equipment), prices may vary. According to Practical Action, microgeneration at home which uses
the latest in cost saving-technology (wiring harnesses, ready boards, cheap DIY-power plants
(e.g. DIY wind turbines), ...) the household expenditure can be extremely low-cost. In fact,
Practical Action mentions that many households in farming communities in the developing world
spend less than $1 for electricity per month. .[16] However, if matters are handled less
economically (using more commercial systems/approaches), costs will be dramatically higher. In
most cases however, financial advantage will still be done using microgeneration on renewable
power plants; often in the range of 50-90% [17] as local production has no electricity
transportation losses on long distance power lines or energy losses from the Joule effect in
transformers where in general 8-15% of the energy is lost.[18]
In the UK, the government offers both grants and feedback payments to help businesses,
communities and private homes to install these technologies. Businesses can write the full cost of
installation off against taxable profits whilst homeowners receive a flat rate grant or payments
per kW h of electricity generated and paid back into the national grid. Community organisations
can also receive up to 200,000 in grant funding.[19]
In the UK, the Microgeneration Certification Scheme provides approval for Microgeneration
Installers and Products which is a mandatory requirement of funding schemes such as the Feed in
Tariffs and Renewable Heat Incentive.
Grid parity
Grid parity(or 'socket parity') occurs when an alternative energy source can generate electricity at
a levelized cost (LCoE) that is less than or equal to the price of purchasing power from the
electricity grid. Reaching grid parity is considered to be the point at which an energy source
becomes a contender for widespread development without subsidies or government support. It is
widely believed that a wholesale shift in generation to these forms of energy will take place
when they reach grid parity.
Grid parity has been reached in some locations with on-shore wind power around 2000, and with
solar power it was achieved for the first time in Spain in 2013.[20][21][22]
Comparison with large-scale generation
microgeneration
Other
names
Distributed generation
Waste Can be used for heating

Heat by- purposes, thus greatly
product increasing efficiency and
large-scale generation
Centralized generation
It is used in some privately

owned industrial combined heat
and power (CHP) installations.
offsetting energy total costs.
It's also use in large-scale
This method is known as micro applications where it's called
combined heat and power
district heating and uses the
Notes
(microCHP).
heat that is normally exhausted

by inefficient powerplants.[23]
Transmissi Proximity to end user

A significant proportion of
on losses typically closer resulting in electrical power is lost
potentially fewer losses.
during transmission
(approximately 8% in the
United Kingdom according
to BBC Radio 4 Today
programme in March 2006).
Changes reduces the transmission
increases the power
to Grid load, and thus reduces the transmitted, and thus
need for grid upgrades
increases the need for grid
upgrades
Grid
failure
event
Electricity may still be

available to local area in
many circumstances
Consumer May choose to purchase

choices any legal system
Electricity may be not

available due to grid
May choose to purchase
offerings of the power
company
Reliability photovoltaics, Stirling

Managed by power
and
engines, and certain other company. Grid reliability
Maintena systems, are usually
varies with location.
nce
extremely reliable, and can
requireme generate electric power
nts
continuously for many
thousands of hours with
little or no maintenance.
However, unreliable
systems will incur
additional maintenance
labor and costs.
sales- Focused on the "greenpitch
ness" of energy [24]
exaggerat
ions
Ability to
meet
needs
For wind and solar

energy, the actual
production is only a
Focused on the energy

crisis
Commentators claim
that householders
who buy their
Both produce
electricity. Both
are subject to
misinformation.
fraction of
nameplate capacity.
electricity with green

energy tariffs can
reduce their carbon
usage further than
with microgeneration
and at a lower cost.
[25]
Fuel based systems

are fully dispatchable
Some solar panels

are simple to install
and will provide
green energy
regardless of
fluctuations in
electricity markets,
according to Jeremy
Leggett.
Economy Necessitates mass

of scale production of generators
which will create an
associated environmental
impact. Systems are less
expensive when produced
in quantity.
More economical given the

larger scale of the
generators.
Microgeneration can dynamically balance the supply and demand for electric power, by
producing more power during periods of high demand and high grid prices, and less power
during periods of low demand and low grid prices. This "hybridized grid" allows both
microgeneration systems and large power plants to operate with greater energy efficiency and
cost effectiveness than either could alone.
Domestic self-sufficiency
Further information: Autonomous building
See also: Earthship and Off-the-grid
Horizontal Axis Micro-Windmill in Lahore, 1000Watt Rated Output
Microgeneration can be integrated as part of a self-sufficient house and is typically

complemented with other technologies such as domestic food production systems (permaculture
and agroecosystem), hydrogen or other extra electricity generation systems for self-sufficient
transport, rainwater harvesting, composting toilets or even complete greywater treatment
systems. Domestic microgeneration technologies include: photovoltaic solar systems, small-scale
wind turbines, ground source heat pumps, micro combined heat and power installations,
biodiesel and biogas.
A small Quietrevolution QR5 Gorlov type vertical axis wind turbine in Bristol,
England. Measuring 3 m in diameter and 5 m high, it has a nameplate rating of 6.5
kW to the grid.
Private generation decentralizes the generation of electricity and may also centralize the pooling
of surplus energy. While they have to be purchased, solar shingles and panels are both available.
Capital cost is high, but saves in the long run. With appropriate power conversion, solar PV
panels can run the same electric appliances as electricity from other sources.[26]
Passive solar water heating is another effective method of utilizing solar power. The simplest
method is the solar (or a black plastic) bag. Set between 1 and 5 gallons out in the sun and allow
to heat. Perfect for a quick warm shower.[27]
The breadbox heater can be constructed easily with recycled materials and basic building
experience. Consisting of a single or array of black tanks mounted inside a sturdy box insulated
on the bottom and sides. The lid, either horizontal or angled to catch the most sun, should be well
sealed and of a transparent glazing material (glass, fiberglass, or high temp resistant molded
plastic). Cold water enters the tank near the bottom, heats and rises to the top where it is piped
back into the home.[27]
Ground source heat pumps exploit stable ground temperatures by benefiting from the thermal
energy storage capacity of the ground. Typically ground source heat pumps have a high initial
cost and are difficult to install by the average homeowner. They use electric motors to transfer
heat from the ground with a high level of efficiency. The electricity may come from renewable
sources or from external non-renewable sources.
Fuel
Biodiesel is an alternative fuel that can power diesel engines and can be used for domestic
heating. Numerous forms of biomass, including soybeans, peanuts, and algae (which has the
highest yield), can be used to make biodiesel. Recycled vegetable oil (from restaurants) can also
be converted into biodiesel.
Biogas is another alternative fuel, created from the waste product of animals. Though less
practical for most homes, a farm environment provides a perfect place to implement the process.
By mixing the waste and water in a tank with space left for air, methane produces naturally in the
airspace. This methane can be piped out and burned, and used for a cookfire.
The biogaspro digester provides an easily installed digester suitable for small farms or even large
homes. Groups of homes can possible group together to use a digester [28]
Government policy
Policymakers were accustomed to an energy system based on big, centralised projects like
nuclear or gas-fired power stations. A change of mindsets and incentives are bringing
microgeneration into the mainstream. Planning regulations may also require streamlining to
facilitate the retrofitting of microgenerating facilities onto homes and buildings.
Most of developed countries, including Canada (Alberta), the United Kingdom, Germany,
Israel[29] and USA have laws allowing microgenerated electricity to be sold into the national grid.
Alberta, Canada
In January 2009, the Government of Albertas Micro-Generation Regulation came into effect,
setting rules that allow Albertans to generate their own environmentally friendly electricity and
receive credit for any power they send into the electricity grid.
United States
The United States has inconsistent energy generation policies across its 50 states. State energy
policies and laws may vary significantly with location. Some states have imposed requirements
on utilities that a certain percentage of total power generation be from renewable sources. For
this purpose, renewable sources include wind, hydroelectric, and solar power whether from large
or microgeneration projects. Further, in some areas transferrable "renewable source energy"
credits are needed by power companies to meet these mandates. As a result, in some portions of
the United States, power companies will pay a portion of the cost of renewable source
microgeneration projects in their service areas. These rebates are in addition to any Federal or
State renewable-energy income-tax credits that may be applicable. In other areas, such rebates
may differ or may not be available.
United Kingdom
The UK Government published its Microgeneration Strategy[30] in March 2006, although it was
seen as a disappointment by many commentators.[31] In contrast, the Climate Change and
Sustainable Energy Act 2006 has been viewed as a positive step.[32] To replace earlier schemes,
the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) launched the Low Carbon Buildings Programme in
April 2006, which provided grants to individuals, communities and businesses wishing to invest
in microgenerating technologies. These schemes have been replaced in turn by new proposals
from the Department for Energy and Climate Change (DECC) for clean energy cashback via
Feed-In Tariffs [33] for generating electricity from April 2010 and the Renewable Heat Incentive
[34]
for generating renewable heat from 28 November 2011.
Feed-In Tariffs are intended to incentivise small-scale (less than 5MW), low-carbon electricity
generation. These feed-in tariffs work alongside the Renewables Obligation (RO), which will
remain the primary mechanism to incentivise deployment of large-scale renewable electricity
generation. The Renewable Heat Incentive (RHI) in intended to incentivise the generation of heat
from renewable sources. They also currently offer up to 21p per kWh from December 2011 in the
Tariff for photovoltaics plus another 3p for the Export Tariff - an overall figure which could see a
household earning back double what they currently pay for their electricity.[35]
On 31 October 2011, the government announced a sudden cut in the feed-in tariff from
43.3p/kWh to 21p/kWh with the new tariff to apply to all new solar PV installations with an
eligibility date on or after 12 December 2011.[36]
Prominent British politicians who have announced they are fitting microgenerating facilities to
their homes include the Conservative party leader, David Cameron, and the Labour Science
Minister, Malcolm Wicks. These plans included small domestic sized wind turbines. Cameron,
before becoming Prime Minister in the 2010 general elections, had been asked during an
interview on BBC Ones The Politics Show on October 29, 2006, if he would do the same should
he get to 10 Downing Street. If theyd let me, yes, he replied.[37]
In the December 2006 Pre-Budget Report[38] the government announced that the sale of surplus
electricity from installations designed for personal use, would not be subject to Income Tax.
Legislation to this effect has been included in the Finance Bill 2007.[39]
In popular culture
Microgeneration has been popularised by several movies, TV-shows, and magazines. Movies
such as The Mosquito Coast, Jericho, The Time Machine, and Beverly Hills Family Robinson
have done a great deal in raising interest to the general public. More specialised magazines such
as OtherPower and Home Power give more practical advice and guidance.[40] Websites such as
Instructables and Practical Action are increasing the popularity of microgeneration by proposing
DIY-solutions which can decrease the cost of microgeneration.
References
1.
Microgeneration technology options
2.
Practical Action - Energy for rural communities
3.
Equipment required for off-grid-operation
4.
Practical Action - Energy for rural communities (includes short description

batteries)
5.
Hydrogen fuel cells for domestic energy generation
6.
Mentioning of prefabricated house-wiring and its systems
7.
Benefits of wiring harnasses
8.
Balance-of-system for wind turbines
9.
Extra equipment needed with wind turbines (Gaiam)
10.
Extra equipment needed with wind turbines (EnergyAlternatives)
11.
System layout + schematic of diy wind turbine
12.
Schematic showing certain components as controllers built into the wind turbine
itself
13.
Ju, Anne (25 May 2010). "Students harness vibrations from wind for electricity".
Cornell Chronicle. Retrieved 20 July 2011.
14.
Battery charging stations explained
15.
Net purchase and sale explained
16.
Households reducing their energy ependitures to $1 a month using renewable

microgeneration
17.
EERE mentioning 50-90% financial advantage using microgeneration
18.
How big are Power line losses?
19.
UK Grant Funding information
20.
http://www.forbes.com/sites/peterdetwiler/2012/12/26/solar-grid-parity-comes-tospain/
21.
http://oilprice.com/Latest-Energy-News/World-News/Spain-Achieves-GridParity-for-Solar-Power.html
22.
http://www.conergy.com/desktopdefault.aspx/tabid-136/281_read-831/
23.
Milieu Centraal, 29 April 2009 -- Stadsverwarming en blokverwarming
24.
Low wattage thinking, New Scientist, 30 September 2006, page 24 -- preview of

part of article
25.
26.
Green building magazine - the No.1 sustainable building magazine

Fritsch, Al, and Paul Gallimore. Healing Appalachia: Sustainable Living Through
Appropriate Technology. Lexington, KY. The UP of Kentucky, 2007.
27.
http://www.motherearthnews.com/Green-Homes/2007-10-01/Build-Your-OwnSolar-Water-Heater.aspx
28.
[1]
29.
[2] State of Israel Public Utilities Authority Decision #216 (Hebrew)
30.
UK Department of Trade and Industry Microgeneration Strategy
31.
Home power plan 'disappointment' BBC News report on the UK Department of

Trade and Industry Microgeneration Strategy
32.
Sustainable energy groups welcome parliamentary initiative to reduce climate

change emissions, article by micropower on the Climate Change and Sustainable Energy
Act 2006
33.
Clean energy cashback from Feed-In Tariffs
34.
Renewable Heat Incentive
35.
[3]
36.
Department of Energy and Climate Change press release (31 October 2011).[4]
37.
38.
39.
40.
The Times (October 30, 2006). Cameron: I'd have a No 10 wind turbine.
[5] Pre-Budget Report 2006, Section 7.31.
Office of Public Sector Information; Finance Act 2007 Chapter 11, Part 2,
Environment. Retrieved 2010-05-14.
OtherPower and Home Power as popular diy microgeneration magazines
Passive solar building design

Elements of passive solar design, shown in a direct gain application
Active and passive solar systems are used in the Solar Umbrella house to achieve nearly 100%
energy neutrality.
In passive solar building design, windows, walls, and floors are made to collect, store, and
distribute solar energy in the form of heat in the winter and reject solar heat in the summer. This
is called passive solar design or climatic design because, unlike active solar heating systems, it
doesn't involve the use of mechanical and electrical devices.[1]
The key to designing a passive solar building is to best take advantage of the local climate.
Elements to be considered include window placement and glazing type, thermal insulation,
thermal mass, and shading.[2] Passive solar design techniques can be applied most easily to new
buildings, but existing buildings can be adapted or "retrofitted".
Contents
1 Passive energy gain
2 As a science
3 The solar path in passive design
4 Passive solar thermodynamic principles

o 4.1 Convective heat transfer
o 4.2 Radiative heat transfer
5 Site specific considerations during design
6 Design elements for residential buildings in temperate climates
7 Efficiency and economics of passive solar heating
8 Key passive solar building design concepts

o 8.1 Direct solar gain
o 8.2 Indirect solar gain
o 8.3 Isolated solar gain
o 8.4 Heat storage
o 8.5 Insulation
o 8.6 Special glazing systems and window coverings
o 8.7 Glazing selection
8.7.1 Equator-facing glass
8.7.2 Roof-angle glass / Skylights
8.7.3 Angle of incident radiation
o 8.8 Operable shading and insulation devices
o 8.9 Exterior colors reflecting - absorbing
9 Landscaping and gardens
10 Other passive solar principles

o 10.1 Passive solar lighting
10.1.1 Interior reflecting
o 10.2 Passive solar water heating
11 Comparison to the Passive House standard in Europe
12 Design tools
13 Levels of application
o 13.1 Pragmatic
o 13.2 Annualised
o 13.3 Minimum machinery
o 13.4 Zero Energy Building
14 See also
15 References
16 External links
Passive energy gain

Passive solar technologies use sunlight without active mechanical systems (as contrasted to
active solar). Such technologies convert sunlight into usable heat (water, air, thermal mass),
cause air-movement for ventilating, or future use, with little use of other energy sources. A
common example is a solarium on the equator-side of a building. Passive cooling is the use of
the same design principles to reduce summer cooling requirements.
Some passive systems use a small amount of conventional energy to control dampers, shutters,
night insulation, and other devices that enhance solar energy collection, storage, and use, and
reduce undesirable heat transfer.
Passive solar technologies include direct and indirect solar gain for space heating, solar water
heating systems based on the thermosiphon or geyser pump, use of thermal mass and phasechange materials for slowing indoor air temperature swings, solar cookers, the solar chimney for
enhancing natural ventilation, and earth sheltering.
More widely, passive solar technologies include the solar furnace and solar forge, but these
typically require some external energy for aligning their concentrating mirrors or receivers, and
historically have not proven to be practical or cost effective for widespread use. 'Low-grade'
energy needs, such as space and water heating, have proven, over time, to be better applications
for passive use of solar energy.
As a science
The scientific basis for Passive Solar Building Design[3] has been developed from a combination
of climatology, thermodynamics ( particularly heat transfer: conduction (heat), convection, and
electromagnetic radiation ), fluid mechanics / natural convection (passive movement of air and
water without the use of electricity, fans or pumps), and human thermal comfort based on heat
index, psychrometrics and enthalpy control for buildings to be inhabited by humans or animals,
sunrooms, solariums, and greenhouses for raising plants.
Specific attention is divided into: the site, location and solar orientation of the building, local sun
path, the prevailing level of insolation ( latitude / sunshine / clouds / precipitation
(meteorology) ), design and construction quality / materials, placement / size / type of windows
and walls, and incorporation of solar-energy-storing thermal mass with heat capacity.
While these considerations may be directed toward any building, achieving an ideal optimized
cost / performance solution requires careful, holistic, system integration engineering of these
scientific principles. Modern refinements through computer modeling (such as the
comprehensive U.S. Department of Energy "Energy Plus"[4] energy simulation software), and
application of decades of lessons learned (since the 1970s energy crisis) can achieve significant
energy savings and reduction of environmental damage, without sacrificing functionality or
aesthetics.[5] In fact, passive-solar design features such as a greenhouse / sunroom / solarium can
greatly enhance the livability, daylight, views, and value of a home, at a low cost per unit of
space.
Much has been learned about passive solar building design since the 1970s energy crisis. Many
unscientific, intuition-based expensive construction experiments have attempted and failed to
achieve zero energy - the total elimination of heating-and-cooling energy bills.
Passive solar building construction may not be difficult or expensive (using off-the-shelf existing
materials and technology), but the scientific passive solar building design is a non-trivial
engineering effort that requires significant study of previous counter-intuitive lessons learned,
and time to enter, evaluate, and iteratively refine the computer simulation input and output.
One of the most useful post-construction evaluation tools has been the use of thermography
using digital thermal imaging cameras for a formal quantitative scientific energy audit. Thermal
imaging can be used to document areas of poor thermal performance such as the negative
thermal impact of roof-angled glass or a skylight on a cold winter night or hot summer day.
The scientific lessons learned over the last three decades have been captured in sophisticated
comprehensive energy simulation computer software systems (like U.S. DOE Energy Plus, et
al.).
Scientific passive solar building design with quantitative cost benefit product optimization is not
easy for a novice. The level of complexity has resulted in ongoing bad-architecture, and many
intuition-based, unscientific construction experiments that disappoint their designers and waste a
significant portion of their construction budget on inappropriate ideas.
The economic motivation for scientific design and engineering is significant. If it had been
applied comprehensively to new building construction beginning in 1980 (based on 1970's
lessons learned), America could be saving over $250,000,000 per year on expensive energy and
related pollution today.[citation needed]
Since 1979, Passive Solar Building Design has been a critical element of achieving zero energy
by educational institution experiments, and governments around the world, including the U.S.
Department of Energy, and the energy research scientists that they have supported for decades.
The cost effective proof of concept was established decades ago, but cultural assimilation into
architecture, construction trades, and building-owner decision making has been very slow and
difficult to change.[citation needed]
The new terms "Architectural Science" and "Architectural Technology" are being added to some
schools of Architecture, with a future goal of teaching the above scientific and energyengineering principles.[citation needed]
The solar path in passive design
Solar altitude over a year; latitude based on New York, New York
Main articles: Sun path and Position of the Sun
The ability to achieve these goals simultaneously is fundamentally dependent on the seasonal
variations in the sun's path throughout the day.
This occurs as a result of the inclination of the Earth's axis of rotation in relation to its orbit. The
sun path is unique for any given latitude.
In Northern Hemisphere non-tropical latitudes farther than 23.5 degrees from the equator:
The sun will reach its highest point toward the South in the Northern Hemisphere and the
North in the Southern Hemisphere (in the direction of the equator)
As winter solstice approaches, the angle at which the sun rises and sets progressively
moves further toward the South and the daylight hours will become shorter
The opposite is noted in summer where the sun will rise and set further toward the North
and the daylight hours will lengthen[6]
The converse is observed in the Southern Hemisphere, but the sun rises to the east and sets
toward the west regardless of which hemisphere you are in.
In equatorial regions at less than 23.5 degrees, the position of the sun at solar noon will oscillate
from north to south and back again during the year.[7]
In regions closer than 23.5 degrees from either north-or-south pole, during summer the sun will
trace a complete circle in the sky without setting whilst it will never appear above the horizon six
months later, during the height of winter.[8]
The 47-degree difference in the altitude of the sun at solar noon between winter and summer
forms the basis of passive solar design. This information is combined with local climatic data
(degree day) heating and cooling requirements to determine at what time of the year solar gain
will be beneficial for thermal comfort, and when it should be blocked with shading. By strategic
placement of items such as glazing and shading devices, the percent of solar gain entering a
building can be controlled throughout the year.
One passive solar sun path design problem is that although the sun is in the same relative
position six weeks before, and six weeks after, the solstice, due to "thermal lag" from the thermal
mass of the Earth, the temperature and solar gain requirements are quite different before and
after the summer or winter solstice. Movable shutters, shades, shade screens, or window quilts
can accommodate day-to-day and hour-to-hour solar gain and insulation requirements.
Careful arrangement of rooms completes the passive solar design. A common recommendation
for residential dwellings is to place living areas facing solar noon and sleeping quarters on the
opposite side.[9] A heliodon is a traditional movable light device used by architects and designers
to help model sun path effects. In modern times, 3D computer graphics can visually simulate this
data, and calculate performance predictions.[5]
Passive solar thermodynamic principles

Personal thermal comfort is a function of personal health factors (medical, psychological,
sociological and situational), ambient air temperature, mean radiant temperature, air movement
(wind chill, turbulence) and relative humidity (affecting human evaporative cooling). Heat
transfer in buildings occurs through convection, conduction, and thermal radiation through roof,
walls, floor and windows.[10]
Convective heat transfer

Convective heat transfer can be beneficial or detrimental. Uncontrolled air infiltration from poor
weatherization / weatherstripping / draft-proofing can contribute up to 40% of heat loss during
winter;[11] however, strategic placement of operable windows or vents can enhance convection,
cross-ventilation, and summer cooling when the outside air is of a comfortable temperature and
relative humidity.[12] Filtered energy recovery ventilation systems may be useful to eliminate
undesirable humidity, dust, pollen, and microorganisms in unfiltered ventilation air.
Natural convection causing rising warm air and falling cooler air can result in an uneven
stratification of heat. This may cause uncomfortable variations in temperature in the upper and
lower conditioned space, serve as a method of venting hot air, or be designed in as a naturalconvection air-flow loop for passive solar heat distribution and temperature equalization. Natural
human cooling by perspiration and evaporation may be facilitated through natural or forced
convective air movement by fans, but ceiling fans can disturb the stratified insulating air layers at
the top of a room, and accelerate heat transfer from a hot attic, or through nearby windows. In
addition, high relative humidity inhibits evaporative cooling by humans.
Radiative heat transfer

The main source of heat transfer is radiant energy, and the primary source is the sun. Solar
radiation occurs predominantly through the roof and windows (but also through walls). Thermal
radiation moves from a warmer surface to a cooler one. Roofs receive the majority of the solar
radiation delivered to a house. A cool roof, or green roof in addition to a radiant barrier can help
prevent your attic from becoming hotter than the peak summer outdoor air temperature[13] (see
albedo, absorptivity, emissivity, and reflectivity).
Windows are a ready and predictable site for thermal radiation.[14] Energy from radiation can
move into a window in the day time, and out of the same window at night. Radiation uses
photons to transmit electromagnetic waves through a vacuum, or translucent medium. Solar heat
gain can be significant even on cold clear days. Solar heat gain through windows can be reduced
by insulated glazing, shading, and orientation. Windows are particularly difficult to insulate
compared to roof and walls. Convective heat transfer through and around window coverings also
degrade its insulation properties.[14] When shading windows, external shading is more effective at
reducing heat gain than internal window coverings.[14]
Western and eastern sun can provide warmth and lighting, but are vulnerable to overheating in
summer if not shaded. In contrast, the low midday sun readily admits light and warmth during
the winter, but can be easily shaded with appropriate length overhangs or angled louvres during
summer and leaf bearing summer shade trees which shed their leaves in the fall. The amount of
radiant heat received is related to the location latitude, altitude, cloud cover, and seasonal /
hourly angle of incidence (see Sun path and Lambert's cosine law).
Another passive solar design principle is that thermal energy can be stored in certain building
materials and released again when heat gain eases to stabilize diurnal (day/night) temperature
variations. The complex interaction of thermodynamic principles can be counterintuitive for
first-time designers. Precise computer modeling can help avoid costly construction experiments.
Site specific considerations during design
Latitude, sun path, and insolation (sunshine)
Seasonal variations in solar gain e.g. cooling or heating degree days, solar insolation,
humidity
Diurnal variations in temperature
Micro-climate details related to breezes, humidity, vegetation and land contour
Obstructions / Over-shadowing - to solar gain or local cross-winds
Design elements for residential buildings in temperate

climates
Placement of room-types, internal doors & walls, & equipment in the house.
Orienting the building to face the equator (or a few degrees to the East to capture the
morning sun)[9]
Extending the building dimension along the east/west axis
Adequately sizing windows to face the midday sun in the winter, and be shaded in the
summer.
Minimising windows on other sides, especially western windows[14]
Erecting correctly sized, latitude-specific roof overhangs,[15] or shading elements

(shrubbery, trees, trellises, fences, shutters, etc.)[16]
Using the appropriate amount and type of insulation including radiant barriers and bulk
insulation to minimise seasonal excessive heat gain or loss
Using thermal mass to store excess solar energy during the winter day (which is then reradiated during the night)[17]
The precise amount of equator-facing glass and thermal mass should be based on careful
consideration of latitude, altitude, climatic conditions, and heating/cooling degree day
requirements.
Factors that can degrade thermal performance:
Deviation from ideal orientation and north/south/east/west aspect ratio
Excessive glass area ('over-glazing') resulting in overheating (also resulting in glare and
fading of soft furnishings) and heat loss when ambient air temperatures fall
Installing glazing where solar gain during the day and thermal losses during the night
cannot be controlled easily e.g. West-facing, angled glazing, skylights[18]
Thermal losses through non-insulated or unprotected glazing
Lack of adequate shading during seasonal periods of high solar gain (especially on the
West wall)
Incorrect application of thermal mass to modulate daily temperature variations
Open staircases leading to unequal distribution of warm air between upper and lower
floors as warm air rises
High building surface area to volume - Too many corners
Inadequate weatherization leading to high air infiltration
Lack of, or incorrectly installed, radiant barriers during the hot season. (See also cool
roof and green roof)
Insulation materials that are not matched to the main mode of heat transfer (e.g.
undesirable convective/conductive/radiant heat transfer)
Efficiency and economics of passive solar heating

Technically, PSH is highly efficient. Direct-gain systems can utilize (i.e. convert into "useful"
heat) 65-70% of the energy of solar radiation that strikes the aperture or collector.
Passive solar fraction (PSF) is the percentage of the required heat load met by PSH and hence
represents potential reduction in heating costs. RETScreen International has reported a PSF of
20-50%. Within the field of sustainability, energy conservation even of the order of 15% is
considered substantial.
Other sources report the following PSFs:
5-25% for modest systems
40% for "highly optimized" systems
Up to 75% for "very intense" systems
In favorable climates such as the southwest United States, highly optimized systems can exceed
75% PSF.[19]
For more information see Solar Air Heat
Key passive solar building design concepts

There are six primary passive solar energy configurations:[20]
direct solar gain
indirect solar gain
isolated solar gain
heat storage
insulation and glazing
passive cooling
Direct solar gain

Direct gain attempts to control the amount of direct solar radiation reaching the living space.
This direct solar gain is a critical part of passive solar house designation as it imparts to a direct
gain.
The cost effectiveness of these configurations are currently being investigated in great detail and
are demonstrating promising results.[21]
Indirect solar gain
Indirect gain attempts to control solar radiation reaching an area adjacent but not part of the
living space. Heat enters the building through windows and is captured and stored in thermal
mass (e.g. water tank, masonry wall) and slowly transmitted indirectly to the building through
conduction and convection. Efficiency can suffer from slow response (thermal lag) and heat
losses at night. Other issues include the cost of insulated glazing and developing effective
systems to redistribute heat throughout the living area.
Isolated solar gain

Isolated gain involves utilizing solar energy to passively move heat from or to the living space
using a fluid, such as water or air by natural convection or forced convection. Heat gain can
occur through a sunspace, solarium or solar closet. These areas may also be employed usefully as
a greenhouse or drying cabinet. An equator-side sun room may have its exterior windows higher
than the windows between the sun room and the interior living space, to allow the low winter sun
to penetrate to the cold side of adjacent rooms. Glass placement and overhangs prevent solar gain
during the summer. Earth cooling tubes or other passive cooling techniques can keep a solarium
cool in the summer.
Measures should be taken to reduce heat loss at night e.g. window coverings or movable window
insulation
Examples:
Thermosiphon
Barra system
Double envelope house
Thermal buffer zone[22]
Solar space heating system
Solar chimney
Heat storage
The sun doesn't shine all the time. Heat storage, or thermal mass, keeps the building warm when
the sun can't heat it.
In diurnal solar houses, the storage is designed for one or a few days. The usual method is a
custom-constructed thermal mass. This includes a Trombe wall, a ventilated concrete floor, a
cistern, water wall or roof pond. It is also feasible to use the thermal mass of the earth itself,
either as-is or by incorporation into the structure by banking or using rammed earth as a
structural medium.[23]
In subarctic areas, or areas that have long terms without solar gain (e.g. weeks of freezing fog),
purpose-built thermal mass is very expensive. Don Stephens pioneered an experimental
technique to use the ground as thermal mass large enough for annualized heat storage. His
designs run an isolated thermosiphon 3 m under a house, and insulate the ground with a 6 m
waterproof skirt.[24]
Insulation
Main article: Building insulation
Thermal insulation or superinsulation (type, placement and amount) reduces unwanted leakage
of heat.[10] Some passive buildings are actually constructed of insulation.
Special glazing systems and window coverings

Main articles: Insulated glazing and Window covering
The effectiveness of direct solar gain systems is significantly enhanced by insulative (e.g. double
glazing), spectrally selective glazing (low-e), or movable window insulation (window quilts,
bifold interior insulation shutters, shades, etc.).[25]
Generally, Equator-facing windows should not employ glazing coatings that inhibit solar gain.
There is extensive use of super-insulated windows in the German Passive House standard.
Selection of different spectrally selective window coating depends on the ratio of heating versus
cooling degree days for the design location.
Glazing selection
Equator-facing glass
The requirement for vertical equator-facing glass is different from the other three sides of a
building. Reflective window coatings and multiple panes of glass can reduce useful solar gain.
However, direct-gain systems are more dependent on double or triple glazing to reduce heat loss.
Indirect-gain and isolated-gain configurations may still be able to function effectively with only
single-pane glazing. Nevertheless, the optimal cost-effective solution is both location and system
dependent.
Roof-angle glass / Skylights
Skylights admit harsh direct overhead sunlight and glare[26] either horizontally (a flat roof) or
pitched at the same angle as the roof slope. In some cases, horizontal skylights are used with
reflectors to increase the intensity of solar radiation (and harsh glare), depending on the roof
angle of incidence. When the winter sun is low on the horizon, most solar radiation reflects off of
roof angled glass ( the angle of incidence is nearly parallel to roof-angled glass morning and
afternoon ). When the summer sun is high, it is nearly perpendicular to roof-angled glass, which
maximizes solar gain at the wrong time of year, and acts like a solar furnace. Skylights should be
covered and well-insulated to reduce natural convection ( warm air rising ) heat loss on cold
winter nights, and intense solar heat gain during hot spring/summer/fall days.
The equator-facing side of a building is south in the northern hemisphere, and north in the
southern hemisphere. Skylights on roofs that face away from the equator provide mostly indirect
illumination, except for summer days when the sun rises on the non-equator side of the building
(depending on latitude). Skylights on east-facing roofs provide maximum direct light and solar
heat gain in the summer morning. West-facing skylights provide afternoon sunlight and heat gain
during the hottest part of the day.
Some skylights have expensive glazing that partially reduces summer solar heat gain, while still
allowing some visible light transmission. However, if visible light can pass through it, so can
some radiant heat gain (they are both electromagnetic radiation waves).
You can partially reduce some of the unwanted roof-angled-glazing summer solar heat gain by
installing a skylight in the shade of deciduous (leaf-shedding) trees, or by adding a movable
insulated opaque window covering on the inside or outside of the skylight. This would eliminate
the daylight benefit in the summer. If tree limbs hang over a roof, they will increase problems
with leaves in rain gutters, possibly cause roof-damaging ice dams, shorten roof life, and provide
an easier path for pests to enter your attic. Leaves and twigs on skylights are unappealing,
difficult to clean, and can increase the glazing breakage risk in wind storms.
"Sawtooth roof glazing" with vertical-glass-only can bring some of the passive solar building
design benefits into the core of a commercial or industrial building, without the need for any
roof-angled glass or skylights.
Skylights provide daylight. The only view they provide is essentially straight up in most
applications. Well-insulated light tubes can bring daylight into northern rooms, without using a
skylight. A passive-solar greenhouse provides abundant daylight for the equator-side of the
building.
Infrared thermography color thermal imaging cameras ( used in formal energy audits ) can
quickly document the negative thermal impact of roof-angled glass or a skylight on a cold winter
night or hot summer day.
The U.S. Department of Energy states: "vertical glazing is the overall best option for
sunspaces."[27] Roof-angled glass and sidewall glass are not recommended for passive solar
sunspaces.
The U.S. DOE explains drawbacks to roof-angled glazing: Glass and plastic have little structural
strength. When installed vertically, glass (or plastic) bears its own weight because only a small
area (the top edge of the glazing) is subject to gravity. As the glass tilts off the vertical axis,
however, an increased area (now the sloped cross-section) of the glazing has to bear the force of
gravity. Glass is also brittle; it does not flex much before breaking. To counteract this, you
usually must increase the thickness of the glazing or increase the number of structural supports to
hold the glazing. Both increase overall cost, and the latter will reduce the amount of solar gain
into the sunspace.
Another common problem with sloped glazing is its increased exposure to the weather. It is
difficult to maintain a good seal on roof-angled glass in intense sunlight. Hail, sleet, snow, and
wind may cause material failure. For occupant safety, regulatory agencies usually require sloped
glass to be made of safety glass, laminated, or a combination thereof, which reduce solar gain
potential. Most of the roof-angled glass on the Crowne Plaza Hotel Orlando Airport sunspace
was destroyed in a single windstorm. Roof-angled glass increases construction cost, and can
increase insurance premiums. Vertical glass is less susceptible to weather damage than roofangled glass.
It is difficult to control solar heat gain in a sunspace with sloped glazing during the summer and
even during the middle of a mild and sunny winter day. Skylights are the antithesis of zero
energy building Passive Solar Cooling in climates with an air conditioning requirement.
Angle of incident radiation
The amount of solar gain transmitted through glass is also affected by the angle of the incident
solar radiation. Sunlight striking glass within 20 degrees of perpendicular is mostly transmitted
through the glass, whereas sunlight at more than 35 degrees from perpendicular is mostly
reflected[28]
All of these factors can be modeled more precisely with a photographic light meter and a
heliodon or optical bench, which can quantify the ratio of reflectivity to transmissivity, based on
angle of incidence.
Alternatively, passive solar computer software can determine the impact of sun path, and
cooling-and-heating degree days on energy performance. Regional climatic conditions are often
available from local weather services.
Operable shading and insulation devices

A design with too much equator-facing glass can result in excessive winter, spring, or fall day
heating, uncomfortably bright living spaces at certain times of the year, and excessive heat
transfer on winter nights and summer days.
Although the sun is at the same altitude 6-weeks before and after the solstice, the heating and
cooling requirements before and after the solstice are significantly different. Heat storage on the
Earth's surface causes "thermal lag." Variable cloud cover influences solar gain potential. This
means that latitude-specific fixed window overhangs, while important, are not a complete
seasonal solar gain control solution.
Control mechanisms (such as manual-or-motorized interior insulated drapes, shutters, exterior
roll-down shade screens, or retractable awnings) can compensate for differences caused by
thermal lag or cloud cover, and help control daily / hourly solar gain requirement variations.
Home automation systems that monitor temperature, sunlight, time of day, and room occupancy
can precisely control motorized window-shading-and-insulation devices.
Exterior colors reflecting - absorbing

Materials and colors can be chosen to reflect or absorb solar thermal energy. Using information
on a Color for electromagnetic radiation to determine its thermal radiation properties of
reflection or absorption can assist the choices.
See Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and Oak Ridge National Laboratory: "Cool
Colors"
Landscaping and gardens

Main article: Energy-efficient landscaping
Energy-efficient landscaping materials for careful passive solar choices include hardscape
building material and "softscape" plants. The use of landscape design principles for selection of
trees, hedges, and trellis-pergola features with vines; all can be used to create summer shading.
For winter solar gain it is desirable to use deciduous plants that drop their leaves in the autumn
gives year round passive solar benefits. Non-deciduous evergreen shrubs and trees can be
windbreaks, at variable heights and distances, to create protection and shelter from winter wind
chill. Xeriscaping with 'mature size appropriate' native species of-and drought tolerant plants,
drip irrigation, mulching, and organic gardening practices reduce or eliminate the need for
energy-and-water-intensive irrigation, gas powered garden equipment, and reduces the landfill
waste footprint. Solar powered landscape lighting and fountain pumps, and covered swimming
pools and plunge pools with solar water heaters can reduce the impact of such amenities.
Sustainable gardening
Sustainable landscaping
Sustainable landscape architecture
Other passive solar principles

Passive solar lighting
Main article: Passive solar lighting
Passive solar lighting techniques enhance taking advantage of natural illumination for interiors,
and so reduce reliance on artificial lighting systems.
This can be achieved by careful building design, orientation, and placement of window sections
to collect light. Other creative solutions involve the use of reflecting surfaces to admit daylight
into the interior of a building. Window sections should be adequately sized, and to avoid over-
illumination can be shielded with a Brise soleil, awnings, well placed trees, glass coatings, and
other passive and active devices.[20]
Another major issue for many window systems is that they can be potentially vulnerable sites of
excessive thermal gain or heat loss. Whilst high mounted clerestory window and traditional
skylights can introduce daylight in poorly oriented sections of a building, unwanted heat transfer
may be hard to control.[29][30] Thus, energy that is saved by reducing artificial lighting is often
more than offset by the energy required for operating HVAC systems to maintain thermal
comfort.
Various methods can be employed to address this including but not limited to window coverings,
insulated glazing and novel materials such as aerogel semi-transparent insulation, optical fiber
embedded in walls or roof, or hybrid solar lighting at Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
Interior reflecting
Reflecting elements, from active and passive daylighting collectors, such as light shelves, lighter
wall and floor colors, mirrored wall sections, interior walls with upper glass panels, and clear or
translucent glassed hinged doors and sliding glass doors take the captured light and passively
reflect it further inside. The light can be from passive windows or skylights and solar light tubes
or from active daylighting sources. In traditional Japanese architecture the Shji sliding panel
doors, with translucent Washi screens, are an original precedent. International style, Modernist
and Mid-century modern architecture were earlier innovators of this passive penetration and
reflection in industrial, commercial, and residential applications.
Passive solar water heating

Main article: Solar hot water
There are many ways to use solar thermal energy to heat water for domestic use. Different
active-and-passive solar hot water technologies have different location-specific economic cost
benefit analysis implications.
Fundamental passive solar hot water heating involves no pumps or anything electrical. It is very
cost effective in climates that do not have lengthy sub-freezing, or very-cloudy, weather
conditions.[31] Other active solar water heating technologies, etc. may be more appropriate for
some locations.
It is possible to have active solar hot water which is also capable of being "off grid" and qualifies
as sustainable. This is done by the use of a photovoltaic cell which uses energy from the sun to
power the pumps.[citation needed]
Comparison to the Passive House standard in Europe

Main article: Passive house
There is growing momentum in Europe for the approach espoused by the Passive House
(Passivhaus in German) Institute in Germany. Rather than relying solely on traditional passive
solar design techniques, this approach seeks to make use of all passive sources of heat,
minimises energy usage, and emphasises the need for high levels of insulation reinforced by
meticulous attention to detail in order to address thermal bridging and cold air infiltration. Most
of the buildings built to the Passive House standard also incorporate an active heat recovery
ventilation unit with or without a small (typically 1 kW) incorporated heating component.
The energy design of Passive House buildings is developed using a spreadsheet-based modeling
tool called the Passive House Planning Package (PHPP) which is updated periodically. The
current version is PHPP2007, where 2007 is the year of issue. A building may be certified as a
'Passive House' when it can be shown that it meets certain criteria, the most important being that
the annual specific heat demand for the house should not exceed 15kWh/m2a.
Design tools
Traditionally a heliodon was used to simulate the altitude and azimuth of the sun shining on a
model building at any time of any day of the year.[32] In modern times, computer programs can
model this phenomenon and integrate local climate data (including site impacts such as
overshadowing and physical obstructions) to predict the solar gain potential for a particular
building design over the course of a year. GPS-based smartphone applications can now do this
inexpensively on a hand held device. These design tools provide the passive solar designer the
ability to evaluate local conditions, design elements and orientation prior to construction. Energy
performance optimization normally requires an iterative-refinement design-and-evaluate process.
There is no such thing as a "one-size-fits-all" universal passive solar building design that would
work well in all locations.
Levels of application
Pragmatic
Many detached suburban houses can achieve reductions in heating expense without obvious
changes to their appearance, comfort or usability.[33] This is done using good siting and window
positioning, small amounts of thermal mass, with good-but-conventional insulation,
weatherization, and an occasional supplementary heat source, such as a central radiator
connected to a (solar) water heater. Sunrays may fall on a wall during the daytime and raise the
temperature of its thermal mass. This will then radiate heat into the building in the evening.
External shading, or a radiant barrier plus air gap, may be used to reduce undesirable summer
solar gain.
Annualised
An extension of the "passive solar" approach to seasonal solar capture and storage of heat and
cooling. These designs attempt to capture warm-season solar heat, and convey it to a seasonal
thermal store for use months later during the cold season ("annualised passive solar.") Increased
storage is achieved by employing large amounts of thermal mass or earth coupling. Anecdotal
reports suggest they can be effective but no formal study has been conducted to demonstrate their
superiority. The approach also can move cooling into the warm season.
Examples:
Passive Annual Heat Storage (PAHS) - by John Hait
Annualized Geothermal Solar (AGS) heating - by Don Stephen
Earthed-roof
Minimum machinery
A "purely passive" solar-heated house would have no mechanical furnace unit, relying instead on
energy captured from sunshine, only supplemented by "incidental" heat energy given off by
lights, computers, and other task-specific appliances (such as those for cooking, entertainment,
etc.), showering, people and pets. The use of natural convection air currents (rather than
mechanical devices such as fans) to circulate air is related, though not strictly solar design.
Passive solar building design sometimes uses limited electrical and mechanical controls to
operate dampers, insulating shutters, shades, awnings, or reflectors. Some systems enlist small
fans or solar-heated chimneys to improve convective air-flow. A reasonable way to analyse these
systems is by measuring their coefficient of performance. A heat pump might use 1 J for every 4
J it delivers giving a COP of 4. A system that only uses a 30 W fan to more-evenly distribute
10 kW of solar heat through an entire house would have a COP of 300.
Zero Energy Building

Passive solar building design is often a foundational element of a cost-effective zero energy
building.[34][35] Although a ZEB uses multiple passive solar building design concepts, a ZEB is
usually not purely passive, having active mechanical renewable energy generation systems such
as: wind turbine, photovoltaics, micro hydro, geothermal, and other emerging alternative energy
sources.
References
1.
Doerr, Thomas (2012). Passive Solar Simplified (1st ed.). Retrieved October 24,
2012.
2.
Norton, Brian (2014). Harnessing Solar Heat. Springer. ISBN 978-94-007-72755.
3.
"U.S. Department of Energy - Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy - Passive

Solar Building Design". Retrieved 2011-03-27.
4.
"U.S. Department of Energy - Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy - Energy

Plus Energy Simulation Software". Retrieved 2011-03-27.
5.
"Rating tools". Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. Retrieved
2011-11-03.
6.
http://www.srrb.noaa.gov/highlights/sunrise/fig5_40n.gif
7.
8.
9.
Your Home - Orientation
10.
Your Home - Insulation
11.
"BERC - Airtightness". Ornl.gov. 2004-05-26. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
12.
Your Home - Passive Cooling
13.
"EERE Radiant Barriers". Eere.energy.gov. 2009-05-28. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
14.
"Glazing". Archived from the original on December 15, 2007. Retrieved 2011-1103.
15.
Springer, John L. (December 1954). "The 'Big Piece' Way to Build". Popular
Science 165 (6): 157.
16.
Your Home - Shading
17.
Your Home - Thermal Mass
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
"Introductory Passive Solar Energy Technology Overview". U.S. DOE - ORNL

Passive Solar Workshop. Retrieved 2007-12-23.
"Passive Solar Design". New Mexico Solar Association.
Chiras, D. The Solar House: Passive Heating and Cooling. Chelsea Green
Publishing Company; 2002.
"Zero Energy Buildings". Fsec.ucf.edu. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
"Two Small Delta Ts Are Better Than One Large Delta T". Zero Energy Design.
Earthships
24.
Annualized Geo-Solar Heating, Don Stephens- Accessed 2009-02-05
25.
Shurcliff, William A.. Thermal Shutters & Shades - Over 100 Schemes for
Reducing Heat Loss through Windows 1980. ISBN 0-931790-14-X.
26.
"Florida Solar Energy Center - Skylights". Retrieved 2011-03-29.
27.
"U.S. Department of Energy - Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Sunspace Orientation and Glazing Angles". Retrieved 2011-03-28.
28.
"Solar Heat Gain Through Glass". Irc.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca. 2010-03-08. Retrieved

2010-03-16.
29.
"[ARCHIVED CONTENT] Insulating and heating your home efficiently :

Directgov - Environment and greener living". Direct.gov.uk. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
30.
"Reduce Your Heating Bills This Winter - Overlooked Sources of Heat Loss in the
Home". Allwoodwork.com. 2003-02-14. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
31.
Brian Norton (2011) Solar Water Heaters: A Review of Systems Research and
Design Innovation, Green. 1, 189207, ISSN (Online) 1869-8778
32.
[1][dead link]
33.
"Industrial Technologies Program: Industrial Distributed Energy".

Eere.energy.gov. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
34.
"Cold-Climate Case Study for Affordable Zero Energy Homes: Preprint" (PDF).
35.
"Zero Energy Homes: A Brief Primer" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-03-16.
Renewable energy
The wind, sun, and biomass are three renewable energy sources.
Burbo Bank Offshore Wind Farm, at the entrance to the River Mersey in North West England.
The 150 MW Andasol Solar Power Station is a commercial parabolic trough solar thermal power
plant, located in Spain. The Andasol plant uses tanks of molten salt to store solar energy so that it
can continue generating electricity even when the sun isn't shining.[1]
Renewable energy
Biofuel
Biomass
Geothermal
Hydropower
Solar energy
Tidal power
Wave power
Wind power
Topics by country
v
t
e
Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that comes from resources which are naturally
replenished on a human timescale such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves and geothermal heat.
[2]
Renewable energy replaces conventional fuels in four distinct areas: electricity generation, hot
water/space heating, motor fuels, and rural (off-grid) energy services.[3]
About 16% of global final energy consumption presently comes from renewable resources, with
10% [4] of all energy from traditional biomass, mainly used for heating, and 3.4% from
hydroelectricity. New renewables (small hydro, modern biomass, wind, solar, geothermal, and
biofuels) account for another 3% and are growing rapidly.[5] At the national level, at least 30
nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of energy
supply. National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the
coming decade and beyond.[6] Wind power, for example, is growing at the rate of 30% annually,
with a worldwide installed capacity of 282,482 megawatts (MW) at the end of 2012.
Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy
sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of
renewable energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security, climate change
mitigation, and economic benefits.[7] In international public opinion surveys there is strong
support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power.[8]
While many renewable energy projects are large-scale, renewable technologies are also suited to
rural and remote areas and developing countries, where energy is often crucial in human
development.[9] United Nations' Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy
has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity.[10]
Contents
1 Overview
2 History
3 Mainstream renewable technologies

o 3.1 Wind power
o 3.2 Hydropower
o 3.3 Solar energy
o 3.4 Biomass
o 3.5 Biofuel
o 3.6 Geothermal energy
4 Renewable energy commercialization

o 4.1 Growth of renewables
o 4.2 Economic trends
o 4.3 Hydroelectricity
o 4.4 Wind power development
o 4.5 Solar thermal
o 4.6 Photovoltaic power stations
o 4.7 Biofuel development
o 4.8 Geothermal development
o 4.9 Developing countries
o 4.10 Industry and policy trends

o 4.11 100% renewable energy
5 Emerging technologies
o 5.1 Cellulosic ethanol
o 5.2 Marine energy
o 5.3 Enhanced geothermal systems
o 5.4 Experimental solar power
o 5.5 Artificial photosynthesis
6 Renewable energy debate
7 References
8 Bibliography
9 External links
Overview
See also: Outline of solar energy, Lists about renewable energy and Sustainable energy
In 2010 renewable energy accounted for 17% of total energy consumption. Biomass heat
accounted for 11%, and hydropower 3%
Global renewable power capacity excluding hydro[11]
Global public support for energy sources, based on a survey by Ipsos (2011).[12]
Renewable energy flows involve natural phenomena such as sunlight, wind, tides, plant growth,
and geothermal heat, as the International Energy Agency explains:[13]
Renewable energy is derived from natural processes that are replenished constantly. In its various
forms, it derives directly from the sun, or from heat generated deep within the earth. Included in
the definition is electricity and heat generated from solar, wind, ocean, hydropower, biomass,
geothermal resources, and biofuels and hydrogen derived from renewable resources.
Wind power is growing at the rate of 30% annually, with a worldwide installed capacity of
282,482 megawatts (MW) at the end of 2012, and is widely used in Europe, Asia, and the United
States. At the end of 2012 the photovoltaic (PV) capacity worldwide was 100,000 MW, and PV
power stations are popular in Germany and Italy. Solar thermal power stations operate in the
USA and Spain, and the largest of these is the 354 MW SEGS power plant in the Mojave Desert.
The world's largest geothermal power installation is The Geysers in California, with a rated
capacity of 750 MW. Brazil has one of the largest renewable energy programs in the world,
involving production of ethanol fuel from sugar cane, and ethanol now provides 18% of the
country's automotive fuel. Ethanol fuel is also widely available in the USA.
As of 2011, small solar PV systems provide electricity to a few million households, and microhydro configured into mini-grids serves many more. Over 44 million households use biogas
made in household-scale digesters for lighting and/or cooking, and more than 166 million
households rely on a new generation of more-efficient biomass cookstoves.[14] United Nations'
Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest
nations to new levels of prosperity.[10]
Renewable energy resources and significant opportunities for energy efficiency exist over wide
geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited
number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency, and
technological diversification of energy sources, would result in significant energy security and
economic benefits.[7]
Renewable energy replaces conventional fuels in four distinct areas: electricity generation, hot
water/space heating, motor fuels, and rural (off-grid) energy services:[3]
Power generation. Renewable energy provides 19% of electricity generation worldwide.

Renewable power generators are spread across many countries, and wind power alone
already provides a significant share of electricity in some areas: for example, 14% in the
U.S. state of Iowa, 40% in the northern German state of Schleswig-Holstein, and 49% in
Denmark. Some countries get most of their power from renewables, including Iceland
(100%), Norway (98%), Brazil (86%), Austria (62%), New Zealand (65%), and Sweden
(54%).[15]
Heating. Solar hot water makes an important contribution to renewable heat in many
countries, most notably in China, which now has 70% of the global total (180 GWth).
Most of these systems are installed on multi-family apartment buildings and meet a
portion of the hot water needs of an estimated 5060 million households in China.
Worldwide, total installed solar water heating systems meet a portion of the water heating
needs of over 70 million households. The use of biomass for heating continues to grow as
well. In Sweden, national use of biomass energy has surpassed that of oil. Direct
geothermal for heating is also growing rapidly.[15]
Transport fuels. Renewable biofuels have contributed to a significant decline in oil

consumption in the United States since 2006.[15] The 93 billion liters of biofuels produced
worldwide in 2009 displaced the equivalent of an estimated 68 billion liters of gasoline,
equal to about 5% of world gasoline production.[15]
At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy
contributing more than 20% of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are projected
to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond, and some 120 countries have
various policy targets for longer-term shares of renewable energy, including a 20% target of all
electricity generated for the European Union by 2020. Some countries have much higher longterm policy targets of up to 100% renewables. Outside Europe, a diverse group of 20 or more
other countries target renewable energy shares in the 20202030 time frame that range from 10%
to 50%.[6]
In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources
such as solar power and wind power, requiring utilities to use more renewable energy (even if
this increases the cost), and providing tax incentives to encourage the development and use of
such technologies. There is substantial optimism that renewable energy investments will pay off
economically in the long term.[16]
Climate change and global warming concerns, coupled with high oil prices, peak oil, and
increasing government support, are driving increasing renewable energy legislation, incentives
and commercialization.[8] New government spending, regulation and policies helped the industry
weather the global financial crisis better than many other sectors.[17] According to a 2011
projection by the International Energy Agency, solar power generators may produce most of the
worlds electricity within 50 years, dramatically reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases that
harm the environment.[18]
Renewable energy sources, that derive their energy from the sun, either directly or indirectly,
such as Hydro and wind, are expected to be capable of supplying humanity energy for almost
another 1 billion years, at which point the predicted increase in heat from the sun is expected to
make the surface of the Earth too hot for liquid water to exist.[19][20]
History
Prior to the development of coal in the mid 19th century, nearly all energy used was renewable.
Almost without a doubt the oldest known use of renewable energy, in the form of traditional
biomass to fuel fires, dates from 790,000 years ago. Use of biomass for fire did not become
commonplace until many hundreds of thousands of years later, sometime between 200,000 and
400,000 years ago.[21]
Probably the second oldest usage of renewable energy is harnessing the wind in order to drive
ships over water. This practice can be traced back some 7000 years, to ships on the Nile.[22]
Moving into the time of recorded history, the primary sources of traditional renewable energy
were human labor, animal power, water power, wind, in grain crushing windmills, and firewood,
a traditional biomass. A graph of energy use in the United States up until 1900 shows oil and
natural gas with about the same importance in 1900 as wind and solar played in 2010.
By 1873, concerns of running out of coal prompted experiments with using solar energy.[23]
Development of solar engines continued until the outbreak of World War I. The importance of
solar energy was recognized in a 1911 Scientific American article: "in the far distant future,
natural fuels having been exhausted [solar power] will remain as the only means of existence of
the human race".[24]
The theory of peak oil was published in 1956.[25] In the 1970s environmentalists promoted the
development of renewable energy both as a replacement for the eventual depletion of oil, as well
as for an escape from dependence on oil, and the first electricity generating wind turbines
appeared. Solar had long been used for heating and cooling, but solar panels were too costly to
build solar farms until 1980.[26]
Mainstream renewable technologies

Wind power
Main article: Wind power
The Shepherds Flat Wind Farm is an 845 megawatt (MW) wind farm in the U.S. state of Oregon.
Airflows can be used to run wind turbines. Modern utility-scale wind turbines range from around
600 kW to 5 MW of rated power, although turbines with rated output of 1.53 MW have become
the most common for commercial use; the power available from the wind is a function of the
cube of the wind speed, so as wind speed increases, power output increases dramatically up to
the maximum output for the particular turbine.[27] Areas where winds are stronger and more
constant, such as offshore and high altitude sites, are preferred locations for wind farms. Typical
capacity factors are 20-40%, with values at the upper end of the range in particularly favourable
sites.[28][29]
Globally, the long-term technical potential of wind energy is believed to be five times total
current global energy production, or 40 times current electricity demand, assuming all practical
barriers needed were overcome. This would require wind turbines to be installed over large
areas, particularly in areas of higher wind resources, such as offshore. As offshore wind speeds
average ~90% greater than that of land, so offshore resources can contribute substantially more
energy than land stationed turbines.[30]
Hydropower
See also: Hydroelectricity and Hydropower
Energy in water can be harnessed and used. Since water is about 800 times denser than air, even
a slow flowing stream of water, or moderate sea swell, can yield considerable amounts of energy.
There are many forms of water energy:
Hydroelectric energy is a term usually reserved for large-scale hydroelectric dams. The
largest of which is the Three Gorges Dam in China and a smaller example is the
Akosombo Dam in Ghana.
Micro hydro systems are hydroelectric power installations that typically produce up to
100 kW of power. They are often used in water rich areas as a remote-area power supply
(RAPS).
Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity systems derive kinetic energy from rivers and oceans
without the creation of a large reservoir.
Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region generating 32 percent of
global hydropower in 2010. China is the largest hydroelectricity producer, with 721 terawatthours of production in 2010, representing around 17 percent of domestic electricity use. There
are now three hydroelectricity plants larger than 10 GW: the Three Gorges Dam in China, Itaipu
Dam across the Brazil/Paraguay border, and Guri Dam in Venezuela.[31]
Solar energy
See also: Solar energy, Solar power and Solar thermal energy
Part of the 354 MW SEGS solar complex in northern San Bernardino County, California.
The Copper Mountain Solar Facility is a 150 MW solar photovoltaic power plant in Boulder
City, Nevada.
Photovoltaic SUDI shade is an autonomous and mobile station in France that provides energy for
electric vehicles using solar energy.
Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, is harnessed using a range of ever-evolving
technologies such as solar heating, solar photovoltaics, solar thermal electricity, solar
architecture and artificial photosynthesis.[32][33]
Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on
the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active solar techniques include the use
of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors to harness the energy. Passive solar
techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal
mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air.
Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics
(PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). Concentrated solar power systems use
lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam.
Commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the 1980s. Photovoltaics
convert light into electric current using the photoelectric effect.[34] Photovoltaics are an important
and relatively inexpensive source of electrical energy where grid power is inconvenient,
unreasonably expensive to connect, or simply unavailable. However, as the cost of solar
electricity is falling, solar power is also increasingly being used even in grid-connected situations
as a way to feed low-carbon energy into the grid.
In 2011, the International Energy Agency said that "the development of affordable, inexhaustible
and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits. It will increase
countries energy security through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly importindependent resource, enhance sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the costs of mitigating
climate change, and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise. These advantages are global.
Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning
investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared".[32]
Biomass
Main article: Biomass
Rotor stump remover recover a tree roots for a biomass central, this is an example for ecosostenible managing of forest.
Sugarcane plantation in Brazil (State of So Paulo), cane remains used to production of biomass
energy.
A cogeneration plant in Metz, France. The station uses waste wood biomass as energy source,
and provides electricity and heat for 30,000 dwellings.
Biomass is biological material derived from living, or recently living organisms. It most often
refers to plants or plant-derived materials which are specifically called lignocellulosic biomass.
[35]
As an energy source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat, or
indirectly after converting it to various forms of biofuel. Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be
achieved by different methods which are broadly classified into: thermal, chemical, and
biochemical methods.
Wood remains the largest biomass energy source today;[36] examples include forest residues (such
as dead trees, branches and tree stumps), yard clippings, wood chips and even municipal solid
waste. In the second sense, biomass includes plant or animal matter that can be converted into
fibers or other industrial chemicals, including biofuels. Industrial biomass can be grown from
numerous types of plants, including miscanthus, switchgrass, hemp, corn, poplar, willow,
sorghum, sugarcane, bamboo,[37] and a variety of tree species, ranging from eucalyptus to oil
palm (palm oil).
Plant energy is produced by crops specifically grown for use as fuel that offer high biomass
output per hectare with low input energy. Some examples of these plants are wheat, which
typically yield 7.58 tons (tonnes?) of grain per hectare, and straw, which typically yield 3.55
tons (tonnes?) per hectare in the UK.[38] The grain can be used for liquid transportation fuels
while the straw can be burned to produce heat or electricity. Plant biomass can also be degraded
from cellulose to glucose through a series of chemical treatments, and the resulting sugar can
then be used as a first generation biofuel.
Biomass can be converted to other usable forms of energy like methane gas or transportation
fuels like ethanol and biodiesel. Rotting garbage, and agricultural and human waste, all release
methane gasalso called "landfill gas" or "biogas." Crops, such as corn and sugar cane, can be
fermented to produce the transportation fuel, ethanol. Biodiesel, another transportation fuel, can
be produced from left-over food products like vegetable oils and animal fats.[39] Also, biomass to
liquids (BTLs) and cellulosic ethanol are still under research.[40][41]
There is a great deal of research involving algal, or algae-derived, biomass due to the fact that
its a non-food resource and can be produced at rates 5 to 10 times those of other types of landbased agriculture, such as corn and soy. Once harvested, it can be fermented to produce biofuels
such as ethanol, butanol, and methane, as well as biodiesel and hydrogen.
The biomass used for electricity generation varies by region. Forest by-products, such as wood
residues, are common in the United States. Agricultural waste is common in Mauritius (sugar
cane residue) and Southeast Asia (rice husks). Animal husbandry residues, such as poultry litter,
are common in the UK.[42]
Biofuel
See also: Biofuel and Sustainable biofuel
Biofuels include a wide range of fuels which are derived from biomass. The term covers solid
biofuels, liquid biofuels, and gaseous biofuels.[43] Liquid biofuels include bioalcohols, such as
bioethanol, and oils, such as biodiesel. Gaseous biofuels include biogas, landfill gas and
synthetic gas.
Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermenting the sugar components of plant materials and it is
made mostly from sugar and starch crops. These include maize, sugar cane and, more recently,
sweet sorghum. The latter crop is particularly suitable for growing in dryland conditions, and is
being investigated by ICRISAT for its potential to provide fuel, along with food and animal feed,
in arid parts of Asia and Africa.[44]
With advanced technology being developed, cellulosic biomass, such as trees and grasses, are
also used as feedstocks for ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its
pure form, but it is usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane and improve vehicle
emissions. Bioethanol is widely used in the USA and in Brazil. The energy costs for producing
bio-ethanol are almost equal to, the energy yields from bio-ethanol. However, according to the
European Environment Agency, biofuels do not address global warming concerns.[45]
Biodiesel is made from vegetable oils, animal fats or recycled greases. Biodiesel can be used as a
fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a diesel additive to reduce levels of
particulates, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons from diesel-powered vehicles. Biodiesel is
produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is the most common biofuel in Europe.
Biofuels provided 2.7% of the world's transport fuel in 2010.[46]
Geothermal energy
Main article: Geothermal energy
Steam rising from the Nesjavellir Geothermal Power Station in Iceland.

Geothermal energy is from thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. Thermal energy is
the energy that determines the temperature of matter. Earth's geothermal energy originates from
the original formation of the planet (20%) and from radioactive decay of minerals (80%).[47] The
geothermal gradient, which is the difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its
surface, drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to
the surface. The adjective geothermal originates from the Greek roots geo, meaning earth, and
thermos, meaning heat.
The heat that is used for geothermal energy can be from deep within the Earth, all the way down
to Earths core 4,000 miles (6,400 km) down. At the core, temperatures may reach over
9,000 F (5,000 C). Heat conducts from the core to surrounding rock. Extremely high
temperature and pressure cause some rock to melt, which is commonly known as magma.
Magma convects upward since it is lighter than the solid rock. This magma then heats rock and
water in the crust, sometimes up to 700 F (371 C).[48]
From hot springs, geothermal energy has been used for bathing since Paleolithic times and for
space heating since ancient Roman times, but it is now better known for electricity generation.
Renewable energy commercialization

Main article: Renewable energy commercialization
Growth of renewables
Renewable power generation and capacity as a proportion of change in global power supply[49]
Growth of wind power and photovoltaics

From the end of 2004, worldwide renewable energy capacity grew at rates of 1060% annually
for many technologies. For wind power and many other renewable technologies, growth
accelerated in 2009 relative to the previous four years.[3] More wind power capacity was added
during 2009 than any other renewable technology. However, grid-connected PV increased the
fastest of all renewables technologies, with a 60% annual average growth rate.[3] In 2010,
renewable power constituted about a third of the newly built power generation capacities.[49] By
2014 the installed capacity of photovoltaics will likely exceed that of wind, but due to the lower
capacity factor of solar, the energy generated from photovoltaics is not expected to exceed that of
wind until 2015.
Selected renewable energy global indicators[50][51][52]
Investment in new renewable capacity (annual) (109 USD)
Renewables power capacity (existing) (GWe)
Hydropower capacity (existing) (GWe)
Wind power capacity (existing) (GWe)
2008
130
1,140
885
121
2009
160
1,230
915
159
2010
211
1,320
945
198
2011
257
1,360
970
238
2012
244
1,470
990
283
Selected renewable energy global indicators[50][51][52]

Solar PV capacity (grid-connected) (GWe)
Solar hot water capacity (existing) (GWth)
Ethanol production (annual) (109 litres)
Biodiesel production (annual) (109 litres)
Countries with policy targets
for renewable energy use
2008
16
130
67
12
2009
23
160
76
17.8
2010
40
185
86
18.5
2011
70
232
86
21.4
2012
100
255
83
22.5
79
89
98
118
138
Projections vary, but scientists have advanced a plan to power 100% of the world's energy with
wind, hydroelectric, and solar power by the year 2030.[53][54]
According to a 2011 projection by the International Energy Agency, solar power generators may
produce most of the worlds electricity within 50 years, dramatically reducing the emissions of
greenhouse gases that harm the environment. Cedric Philibert, senior analyst in the renewable
energy division at the IEA said: Photovoltaic and solar-thermal plants may meet most of the
worlds demand for electricity by 2060 -- and half of all energy needs -- with wind, hydropower
and biomass plants supplying much of the remaining generation. Photovoltaic and
concentrated solar power together can become the major source of electricity, Philibert said.[18]
Economic trends
Cost of photovoltaics in the EU
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory projects that the levelized cost of wind power will
decline 25% from 2012 to 2030.[55]
Renewable energy technologies are getting cheaper, through technological change and through
the benefits of mass production and market competition. A 2011 IEA report said: "A portfolio of
renewable energy technologies is becoming cost-competitive in an increasingly broad range of
circumstances, in some cases providing investment opportunities without the need for specific
economic support," and added that "cost reductions in critical technologies, such as wind and
solar, are set to continue."[56]
Hydro-electricity and geothermal electricity produced at favourable sites are now the cheapest
way to generate electricity. Renewable energy costs continue to drop, and the levelised cost of
electricity (LCOE) is declining for wind power, solar photovoltaic (PV), concentrated solar
power (CSP) and some biomass technologies.[57]
Renewable energy is also the most economic solution for new grid-connected capacity in areas
with good resources. As the cost of renewable power falls, the scope of economically viable
applications increases. Renewable technologies are now often the most economic solution for
new generating capacity. Where oil-fired generation is the predominant power generation
source (e.g. on islands, off-grid and in some countries) a lower-cost renewable solution almost
always exists today.[57]
A series of studies by the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory modeled the "grid in the
Western US under a number of different scenarios where intermittent renewables accounted for
33 percent of the total power." In the models, inefficiencies in cycling the fossil fuel plants to
compensate for the variation in solar and wind energy resulted in an additional cost of "between
$0.47 and $1.28 to each MegaWatt hour generated"; however, the savings in the cost of the fuels
saved "adds up to $7 billion, meaning the added costs are, at most, two percent of the savings."[58]
Hydroelectricity
See also: List of largest hydroelectric power stations
Three Gorges Dam (left), Gezhouba Dam (right).

The Three Gorges Dam in Hubei, China, has the world's largest instantaneous generating
capacity (22,500 MW), with the Itaipu Dam in Brazil/Paraguay in second place (14,000 MW).
The Three Gorges Dam is operated jointly with the much smaller Gezhouba Dam (3,115 MW).
As of 2012, the total generating capacity of this two-dam complex is 25,615 MW. In 2008, this
complex generated 98 TWh of electricity (81 TWh from the Three Gorges Dam and 17 TWh
from the Gezhouba Dam), which is 3% more power in one year than the 95 TWh generated by
Itaipu in 2008.
Wind power development
See also: List of onshore wind farms, List of offshore wind farms and Design feasibility of Wind
turbine systems
A panoramic view of the Whitelee Wind Farm with Lochgoin Reservoir in the foreground.
Wind power: worldwide installed capacity[59]
Fenton Wind Farm at sunrise

Wind power is growing at over 20% annually, with a worldwide installed capacity of 238,000
MW at the end of 2011,[50][60][61] and is widely used in Europe, Asia, and the United States.[62][63]
Several countries have achieved relatively high levels of wind power penetration, such as 21% of
stationary electricity production in Denmark,[64] 18% in Portugal,[64] 16% in Spain,[64] 14% in
Ireland[65] and 9% in Germany in 2010.[64][66] As of 2011, 83 countries around the world are using
wind power on a commercial basis.[46]
Top 10 countries by nameplate windpower capacity
(2012 year-end)[67]
Windpower capacity
Country
% world total
(MW)
China
75,564
26.8
United States
60,007
21.2
Germany
31,332
11.1
Spain
22,796
8.1
India
18,421
6.5
United Kingdom
8,845
3.0
Italy
8,144
2.9
France
7,196
2.5
Canada
6,200
2.2
Portugal
4,525
1.6
(rest of world)
39,853
14.1
World total
282,482 MW
100%
As of 2012, the Alta Wind Energy Center (California, 1,020 MW) is the world's largest wind
farm.[68] The London Array (630 MW) is the largest offshore wind farm in the world. Phase 1 is
complete, it is intended to introduce more turbines for Phase 2.[69] The United Kingdom is the
world's leading generator of offshore wind power, followed by Denmark.[70]
There are many large wind farms under construction and these include Anholt Offshore Wind
Farm (400 MW), BARD Offshore 1 (400 MW), Clyde Wind Farm (548 MW), FntneleCogealac Wind Farm (600 MW), Greater Gabbard wind farm (500 MW), Lincs Wind Farm (270
MW), London Array (1000 MW), Lower Snake River Wind Project (343 MW), Macarthur Wind
Farm (420 MW), Shepherds Flat Wind Farm (845 MW), and the Sheringham Shoal (317 MW).
Solar thermal
Main article: List of solar thermal power stations
See also: Solar power plants in the Mojave Desert
Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System with all three towers under load, Feb., 2014. Taken
from I-15 in San Bernardino County, California. The Clark Mountain Range can be seen in the
distance.
Solar Towers from left: PS10, PS20.

The United States conducted much early research in photovoltaics and concentrated solar power.
The U.S. is among the top countries in the world in electricity generated by the Sun and several
of the world's largest utility-scale installations are located in the desert Southwest. The oldest
solar power plant in the world is the 354 megawatt (MW) SEGS thermal power plant, in
California.[71] The Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System is a solar thermal power project in
the California Mojave Desert, 40 miles (64 km) southwest of Las Vegas, with a gross capacity of
377 MW.[72] The 280 MW Solana Generating Station is a solar power plant near Gila Bend,
Arizona, about 70 miles (110 km) southwest of Phoenix, completed in 2013. When
commissioned it was the largest parabolic trough plant in the world and the first U.S. solar plant
with molten salt thermal energy storage.[73]
The solar thermal power industry is growing rapidly with 1.3 GW under construction in 2012
and more planned. Spain is the epicenter of solar thermal power development with 873 MW
under construction, and a further 271 MW under development.[74] In the United States, 5,600
MW of solar thermal power projects have been announced.[75] In developing countries, three
World Bank projects for integrated solar thermal/combined-cycle gas-turbine power plants in
Egypt, Mexico, and Morocco have been approved.[76]
Photovoltaic power stations

Main article: List of photovoltaic power stations
Photovoltaic power
(GW)[77]
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
5.4
7.0
9.4
15.7
22.9
2010
2011
2012
39.7
67.4
100
Year end capacities
Nellis Solar Power Plant, 14 MW power plant installed 2007 in Nevada, USA.
Solar photovoltaic cells (PV) convert sunlight into electricity and photovoltaic production has
been increasing by an average of more than 20% each year since 2002, making it a fast-growing
energy technology.[78][79] While wind is often cited as the fastest growing energy source,
photovoltaics since 2007 has been increasing at twice the rate of wind an average of
63.6%/year, due to the reduction in cost. At the end of 2011 the photovoltaic (PV) capacity
world-wide was 67.4 GW, a 69.8% annual increase. Top capacity countries were, in GW:
Germany 24.7, Italy 12.8, Japan 4.7, Spain 4.4, the USA 4.4, and China 3.1.[77][80]
Many solar photovoltaic power stations have been built, mainly in Europe.[81] As of May 2012,
the largest photovoltaic (PV) power plants in the world are the Agua Caliente Solar Project
(USA, 247 MW), Charanka Solar Park (India, 214 MW), Golmud Solar Park (China, 200 MW),
Perovo Solar Park (Ukraine, 100 MW), Sarnia Photovoltaic Power Plant (Canada, 97 MW),
Brandenburg-Briest Solarpark (Germany, 91 MW), Solarpark Finow Tower (Germany, 84.7
MW), Montalto di Castro Photovoltaic Power Station (Italy, 84.2 MW), and the Eggebek Solar
Park (Germany, 83.6 MW).[81]
There are also many large plants under construction. The Desert Sunlight Solar Farm is a 550
MW solar power plant under construction in Riverside County, California, that will use thin-film
solar photovoltaic modules made by First Solar.[82] The Topaz Solar Farm is a 550 MW
photovoltaic power plant, being built in San Luis Obispo County, California.[83] The Blythe Solar
Power Project is a 500 MW photovoltaic station under construction in Riverside County,
California. The California Valley Solar Ranch (CVSR) is a 250 MW solar photovoltaic power
plant, which is being built by SunPower in the Carrizo Plain, northeast of California Valley.[84]
The 230 MW Antelope Valley Solar Ranch is a First Solar photovoltaic project which is under
construction in the Antelope Valley area of the Western Mojave Desert, and due to be completed
in 2013.[85]
Many of these plants are integrated with agriculture and some use tracking systems that follow
the sun's daily path across the sky to generate more electricity than fixed-mounted systems.
There are no fuel costs or emissions during operation of the power stations.
However, when it comes to renewable energy systems and PV, it is not just large systems that
matter. Building-integrated photovoltaics or "onsite" PV systems use existing land and structures
and generate power close to where it is consumed.[86]
Biofuel development
See also: Ethanol fuel, Sustainable biofuel and Issues relating to biofuels
Brazil has bioethanol made from sugarcane available throughout the country. Shown a typical
Petrobras gas station at So Paulo with dual fuel service, marked A for alcohol (ethanol) and G
for gasoline.
Biofuels provided 3% of the world's transport fuel in 2010.[46] Mandates for blending biofuels
exist in 31 countries at the national level and in 29 states/provinces.[46] According to the
International Energy Agency, biofuels have the potential to meet more than a quarter of world
demand for transportation fuels by 2050.[87]
Since the 1970s, Brazil has had an ethanol fuel program which has allowed the country to
become the world's second largest producer of ethanol (after the United States) and the world's
largest exporter.[88] Brazils ethanol fuel program uses modern equipment and cheap sugarcane as
feedstock, and the residual cane-waste (bagasse) is used to produce heat and power.[89] There are
no longer light vehicles in Brazil running on pure gasoline. By the end of 2008 there were 35,000
filling stations throughout Brazil with at least one ethanol pump.[90]
Nearly all the gasoline sold in the United States today is mixed with 10% ethanol, a mix known
as E10,[91] and motor vehicle manufacturers already produce vehicles designed to run on much
higher ethanol blends. Ford, Daimler AG, and GM are among the automobile companies that sell
flexible-fuel cars, trucks, and minivans that can use gasoline and ethanol blends ranging from
pure gasoline up to 85% ethanol (E85). By mid-2006, there were approximately 6 million E85compatible vehicles on U.S. roads.[92] The challenge is to expand the market for biofuels beyond
the farm states where they have been most popular to date. Flex-fuel vehicles are assisting in this
transition because they allow drivers to choose different fuels based on price and availability.
The Energy Policy Act of 2005, which calls for 7.5 billion US gallons (28,000,000 m3) of
biofuels to be used annually by 2012, will also help to expand the market.[92]
Geothermal development
The West Ford Flat power plant is one of 22 power plants at The Geysers.
See also: Geothermal energy in the United States
Geothermal power is cost effective, reliable, sustainable, and environmentally friendly,[93] but has
historically been limited to areas near tectonic plate boundaries. Recent technological advances
have dramatically expanded the range and size of viable resources, especially for applications
such as home heating, opening a potential for widespread exploitation. Geothermal wells release
greenhouse gases trapped deep within the earth, but these emissions are much lower per energy
unit than those of fossil fuels. As a result, geothermal power has the potential to help mitigate
global warming if widely deployed in place of fossil fuels.
The International Geothermal Association (IGA) has reported that 10,715 MW of geothermal
power in 24 countries is online, which is expected to generate 67,246 GWh of electricity in 2010.
[94]
This represents a 20% increase in geothermal power online capacity since 2005. IGA projects
this will grow to 18,500 MW by 2015, due to the large number of projects presently under
consideration, often in areas previously assumed to have little exploitable resource.[94]
In 2010, the United States led the world in geothermal electricity production with 3,086 MW of
installed capacity from 77 power plants;[95] the largest group of geothermal power plants in the
world is located at The Geysers, a geothermal field in California.[96] The Philippines follows the
US as the second highest producer of geothermal power in the world, with 1,904 MW of capacity
online; geothermal power makes up approximately 18% of the country's electricity generation.[95]
Developing countries
Main article: Renewable energy in developing countries
Solar cookers use sunlight as energy source for outdoor cooking.
Earthlife Africa promotional brochure.

Renewable energy can be particularly suitable for developing countries. In rural and remote
areas, transmission and distribution of energy generated from fossil fuels can be difficult and
expensive. Producing renewable energy locally can offer a viable alternative.[97]
Technology advances are opening up a huge new market for solar power: the approximately 1.3
billion people around the world who don't have access to grid electricity. Even though they are
typically very poor, these people have to pay far more for lighting than people in rich countries
because they use inefficient kerosene lamps. Solar power costs half as much as lighting with
kerosene.[98] An estimated 3 million households get power from small solar PV systems.[99] Kenya
is the world leader in the number of solar power systems installed per capita. More than 30,000
very small solar panels, each producing 12 to 30 watts, are sold in Kenya annually. Some Small
Island Developing States (SIDS) are also turning to solar power to reduce their costs and
increase their sustainability.[100]
Micro-hydro configured into mini-grids also provide power. Over 44 million households use
biogas made in household-scale digesters for lighting and/or cooking, and more than 166 million
households rely on a new generation of more-efficient biomass cookstoves.[14] Clean liquid fuel
sourced from renewable feedstocks are used for cooking and lighting in energy-poor areas of the
developing world. Alcohol fuels (ethanol and methanol) can be produced sustainably from nonfood sugary, starchy, and cellulostic feedstocks. Project Gaia, Inc. and CleanStar Mozambique
are implementing clean cooking programs with liquid ethanol stoves in Ethiopia, Kenya, Nigeria
and Mozambique.[101]
Renewable energy projects in many developing countries have demonstrated that renewable
energy can directly contribute to poverty reduction by providing the energy needed for creating
businesses and employment. Renewable energy technologies can also make indirect
contributions to alleviating poverty by providing energy for cooking, space heating, and lighting.
Renewable energy can also contribute to education, by providing electricity to schools.[102]
Industry and policy trends

See also: Renewable energy commercialization
Global New Investments in Renewable Energy[103]

U.S. President Barack Obama's American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 includes
more than $70 billion in direct spending and tax credits for clean energy and associated
transportation programs. Clean Edge suggests that the commercialization of clean energy will
help countries around the world pull out of the current economic malaise.[104] Leading renewable
energy companies include First Solar, Gamesa, GE Energy, Q-Cells, Sharp Solar, Siemens,
SunOpta, Suntech Power, and Vestas.[105]
The military has also focused on the use of renewable fuels for military vehicles. Unlike fossil
fuels, renewable fuels can be produced in any country, creating a strategic advantage. The US
military has already committed itself to have 50% of its energy consumption come from
alternative sources.[106]
The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) is an intergovernmental organization for
promoting the adoption of renewable energy worldwide. It aims to provide concrete policy
advice and facilitate capacity building and technology transfer. IRENA was formed on January
26, 2009, by 75 countries signing the charter of IRENA.[107] As of March 2010, IRENA has
143 member states who all are considered as founding members, of which 14 have also ratified
the statute.[108]
As of 2011, 119 countries have some form of national renewable energy policy target or
renewable support policy. National targets now exist in at least 98 countries. There is also a wide
range of policies at state/provincial and local levels.[46]
United Nations' Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to
lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity.[10] In October 2011, he "announced the
creation of a high-level group to drum up support for energy access, energy efficiency and
greater use of renewable energy. The group is to be co-chaired by Kandeh Yumkella, the chair of
UN Energy and director general of the UN Industrial Development Organisation, and Charles
Holliday, chairman of Bank of America".[109]
100% renewable energy

Main article: 100% renewable energy
The incentive to use 100% renewable energy, for electricity, transport, or even total primary
energy supply globally, has been motivated by global warming and other ecological as well as
economic concerns. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has said that there are few
fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to
meet most of total global energy demand. In reviewing 164 recent scenarios of future renewable
energy growth, the report noted that the majority expected renewable sources to supply more
than 17% of total energy by 2030, and 27% by 2050; the highest forecast projected 43% supplied
by renewables by 2030 and 77% by 2050.[110] Renewable energy use has grown much faster than
even advocates anticipated.[111] At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already
have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of energy supply. Also, Professors S. Pacala
and Robert H. Socolow have developed a series of stabilization wedges that can allow us to
maintain our quality of life while avoiding catastrophic climate change, and "renewable energy
sources," in aggregate, constitute the largest number of their "wedges." [112]
Mark Z. Jacobson, professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and
director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program says producing all new energy with wind power,
solar power, and hydropower by 2030 is feasible and existing energy supply arrangements could
be replaced by 2050. Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be
"primarily social and political, not technological or economic". Jacobson says that energy costs
with a wind, solar, water system should be similar to today's energy costs.[113]
Similarly, in the United States, the independent National Research Council has noted that
sufficient domestic renewable resources exist to allow renewable electricity to play a significant
role in future electricity generation and thus help confront issues related to climate change,
energy security, and the escalation of energy costs Renewable energy is an attractive option
because renewable resources available in the United States, taken collectively, can supply
significantly greater amounts of electricity than the total current or projected domestic
demand." .[114]
The most significant barriers to the widespread implementation of large-scale renewable energy
and low carbon energy strategies are primarily political and not technological. According to the
2013 Post Carbon Pathways report, which reviewed many international studies, the key
roadblocks are: climate change denial, the fossil fuels lobby, political inaction, unsustainable
energy consumption, outdated energy infrastructure, and financial constraints.[115]
Emerging technologies
Other renewable energy technologies are still under development, and include cellulosic ethanol,
hot-dry-rock geothermal power, and ocean energy.[116] These technologies are not yet widely
demonstrated or have limited commercialization. Many are on the horizon and may have
potential comparable to other renewable energy technologies, but still depend on attracting
sufficient attention and research, development and demonstration (RD&D) funding.[116]
There are numerous organizations within the academic, federal, and commercial sectors
conducting large scale advanced research in the field of renewable energy. This research spans
several areas of focus across the renewable energy spectrum. Most of the research is targeted at
improving efficiency and increasing overall energy yields.[117] Multiple federally supported
research organizations have focused on renewable energy in recent years. Two of the most
prominent of these labs are Sandia National Laboratories and the National Renewable Energy
Laboratory (NREL), both of which are funded by the United States Department of Energy and
supported by various corporate partners.[118] Sandia has a total budget of $2.4 billion[119] while
NREL has a budget of $375 million.[120]
Cellulosic ethanol
See also: Cellulosic ethanol commercialization
Companies such as Iogen, POET, and Abengoa are building refineries that can process biomass
and turn it into ethanol, while companies such as the Verenium Corporation, Novozymes, and
Dyadic International are producing enzymes which could enable a cellulosic ethanol future. The
shift from food crop feedstocks to waste residues and native grasses offers significant
opportunities for a range of players, from farmers to biotechnology firms, and from project
developers to investors.[121]
Selected Commercial Cellulosic Ethanol Plants in the U.S.[122][123] (Operational or under

construction)
Company
Location
Feedstock
Abengoa Bioenergy
Hugoton, KS
Wheat straw
BlueFire Renewables
Irvine, CA
Multiple sources
Gulf Coast Energy
Mossy Head, FL
Wood waste
Mascoma
Lansing, MI
Wood
POET
Emmetsburg, IA
Corn cobs
SunOpta
Little Falls, MN
Wood chips
Xethanol
Auburndale, FL
Citrus peels
Marine energy
Rance, second largest tidal power station at 240 MW

Marine energy (also sometimes referred to as ocean energy) refers to the energy carried by ocean
waves, tides, salinity, and ocean temperature differences. The movement of water in the worlds
oceans creates a vast store of kinetic energy, or energy in motion. This energy can be harnessed
to generate electricity to power homes, transport and industries.
The term marine energy encompasses both wave power power from surface waves, and tidal
power obtained from the kinetic energy of large bodies of moving water. Offshore wind
power is not a form of marine energy, as wind power is derived from the wind, even if the wind
turbines are placed over water.
The oceans have a tremendous amount of energy and are close to many if not most concentrated
populations. Ocean energy has the potential of providing a substantial amount of new renewable
energy around the world.[124]
Rank
Station
Sihwa Lake Tidal Power

Station
Rance Tidal Power Station
Country
South
Korea
France
Location
371847N
1263646E
483705N
020124W
Capacity
(MW)
Ref
254
[125]
240
[126]
3
4
5
Annapolis Royal Generating

Station
Jiangxia Tidal Power
Station
Kislaya Guba Tidal Power
Station
Canada
China
Russia
444507N
653040W
282034N
1211425E
692237N
330434E
20
[126]
3.9
[126][127]
1.7
[126]
Enhanced geothermal systems
Enhanced geothermal system 1:Reservoir 2:Pump house 3:Heat exchanger 4:Turbine hall
5:Production well 6:Injection well 7:Hot water to district heating 8:Porous sediments
9:Observation well 10:Crystalline bedrock
Main article: Enhanced geothermal system
Enhanced geothermal systems are a new type of geothermal power technologies that do not
require natural convective hydrothermal resources. The vast majority of geothermal energy
within drilling reach is in dry and non-porous rock.[128] EGS technologies "enhance" and/or create
geothermal resources in this "hot dry rock (HDR)" through hydraulic stimulation.
EGS / HDR technologies, like hydrothermal geothermal, are expected to be baseload resources
which produce power 24 hours a day like a fossil plant. Distinct from hydrothermal, HDR / EGS
may be feasible anywhere in the world, depending on the economic limits of drill depth. Good
locations are over deep granite covered by a thick (35 km) layer of insulating sediments which
slow heat loss.[129] There are HDR and EGS systems currently being developed and tested in
France, Australia, Japan, Germany, the U.S. and Switzerland. The largest EGS project in the
world is a 25 megawatt demonstration plant currently being developed in the Cooper Basin,
Australia. The Cooper Basin has the potential to generate 5,00010,000 MW.
Experimental solar power
Concentrating photovoltaics in Catalonia, Spain

See also: Solar power Experimental solar power and Space-based solar power
Concentrated photovoltaics (CPV) systems employ sunlight concentrated onto photovoltaic
surfaces for the purpose of electricity generation. Thermoelectric, or "thermovoltaic" devices
convert a temperature difference between dissimilar materials into an electric current.
Artificial photosynthesis
Artificial photosynthesis uses techniques including nanotechnology to store solar
electromagnetic energy in chemical bonds by splitting water to produce hydrogen and then using
carbon dioxide to make methanol.[130] Researchers in this field are striving to design molecular
mimics of photosynthesis that utilize a wider region of the solar spectrum, employ catalytic
systems made from abundant, inexpensive materials that are robust, readily repaired, non-toxic,
stable in a variety of environmental conditions and perform more efficiently allowing a greater
proportion of photon energy to end up in the storage compounds, i.e., carbohydrates (rather than
building and sustaining living cells).[131] However, prominent research faces hurdles, Sun
Catalytix a MIT spin-off stopped scaling up their prototype fuel-cell in 2012, because it offers
few savings over other ways to make hydrogen from sunlight.[132]
Renewable energy debate

Main articles: Renewable energy debate and Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy
Renewable electricity production, from sources such as wind power and solar power, is
sometimes criticized for being variable or intermittent. However, the International Energy
Agency has stated that deployment of renewable technologies usually increases the diversity of
electricity sources and, through local generation, contributes to the flexibility of the system and
its resistance to central shocks.[133]
There have been "not in my back yard" (NIMBY) concerns relating to the visual and other
impacts of some wind farms, with local residents sometimes fighting or blocking construction.
[134]
In the USA, the Massachusetts Cape Wind project was delayed for years partly because of
aesthetic concerns. However, residents in other areas have been more positive. According to a
town councilor, the overwhelming majority of locals believe that the Ardrossan Wind Farm in
Scotland has enhanced the area.[135]
A recent UK Government document states that projects are generally more likely to succeed if
they have broad public support and the consent of local communities. This means giving
communities both a say and a stake.[136] In countries such as Germany and Denmark many
renewable projects are owned by communities, particularly through cooperative structures, and
contribute significantly to overall levels of renewable energy deployment.[137][138]
The market for renewable energy technologies has continued to grow. Climate change concerns,
coupled with high oil prices, peak oil, and increasing government support, are driving increasing
renewable energy legislation, incentives and commercialization.[8] New government spending,
regulation and policies helped the industry weather the 2009 economic crisis better than many
other sectors.[139]
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The What, Why, and How of Energy

What is energy management?

The energy-saving meaning

Photo by Valerie Everett

Home energy management

The global need to save energy

Photo by Kevin Dooley

Controlling and reducing energy consumption at your organization

Reduce costs this is becoming increasingly important as energy costs rise.

How best to manage your energy consumption?

1. Metering your energy consumption and collecting the data

The modern approach to energy-data collection is to fit interval-metering systems that

2. Finding and quantifying opportunities to save energy

Also, most buildings have open to them a variety of equipment- or building-fabric-related

3. Targeting the opportunities to save energy

Photo by Alana Elliott

4. Tracking your progress at saving energy

If you've corrected faulty timers or control-equipment settings, you'll need to keep

Managing your energy consumption effectively is an ongoing process...

2 Energy management in operational functions

o 3.4 Ethical and normative basis of the energy strategies

Energy management in operational functions

The Passivhaus uses a combination of low-energy building techniques and technologies.

Europe: In Germany a low-energy house can have a maximum energy consumption of 70

In comparison, the Passive house (Passivhaus in German) ultra-low-energy standard, currently

Shift to ecofriendly transport carrier such as railroad and waterway

Route and load optimization

Formation of corporate networks, which are connected by logistics service

Optimizing physical logistics processes by providing a sophisticated IT support

Production planning and control

Defrost the fridges

Check the barometer of cars and trucks

Insulation of hot systems

Improve leaks in building envelopes

decisions on energy investments, such as yield expectations, are determined.[20] By formulating

Potential energy strategies

Strategy of short-term profit maximization: The management is concentrating exclusively

In reality, you usually find hybrid forms of different strategies.

Energy strategies of companies

Energy strategies of politics

Ethical and normative basis of the energy strategies

Deontological ethics: The deontological ethics assigns individuals and organizations

Energy demand management

3 Types of Energy Demand Management

5 Problems with DSM

6 DSM in Systems Based on Hydropower

Types of Energy Demand Management

Problems with DSM

DSM in Systems Based on Hydropower

VDI-Guideline VDI 4602, page 3, Beuth Verlag, Berlin 2007.

viewed 10 November 2012.[dead link]

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"Features of ENERGY STAR Qualified New Homes." - EnergyStar.gov,

"retrieved 8 December 2012". Passiv.de. Retrieved 2013-12-31.

"retrieved 3 December 2012". Plusenergiehaus.de. Retrieved 2013-12-31.

Johannes Kals: Betriebliches Energiemanagement - Eine Einfhrung, p. 75 77,

"abgerufen am 10. November 2012". Iml.fraunhofer.de. 2013-12-20. Retrieved

"retrieved 4 December 2012". Ecotransit.org. Retrieved 2013-12-31.

"retrieved 4 December 2012". Ecotransit.org. Retrieved 2013-12-31.

Johannes Kals: Betriebliches Energiemanagement - Eine Einfhrung.

"retrieved 10 November 2012". Energieagentur.nrw.de. Retrieved 2013-12-31.

"retrieved 6 December 2012" (in (German)). Bmwi.de. 2012-04-24. Retrieved

British Standard Glossary of terms (3811:1993)

"abgerufen am 12. November 2012". Ps-consulting.de. 2013-11-21. Retrieved