PREFACE

This module is intended for the first semester students of IKIP PGRI Pontianak in
Mathematics Program. It helps students in understanding and using basic grammatical
structure in sentence. The students are expected to master the available materials in this
module, so they can continue their study to higher level. Besides, the students have ability
to use English grammar properly in all language skills, reading, writing, listening, and
speaking. The materials include parts of speech, kinds of sentences, and some tenses. Parts
of speech which will be given are nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, conjunction,
prepositions, and interjection.
After having known the concept of parts of speech, the students will be trained to
make some simple sentence forms, affirmative or positive sentence, negative sentence,
interrogative sentence, and imperative sentence. In addition, the students will be introduced
the usages of several tenses, for instances, simple present tense, present continuous tense,
simple past tense, present perfect tense, pluperfect tense, past continuous tense, and
perfect continuous tense. The last is about mathamatics terms. Its functions are to help
students to operate mathetimatics whether in spoken or written English (e.g. how to say 3 2
+ 225 = ...., etc). Those materials aim to present the concepts of basic grammars in which
the students will enable to use English in everyday communication.
I must thank the people to whom I receive some supports to accomplish this module,
my beloved family. I also thank the Rector of IKIP PGRI Pontianak for allowing me to write
this module, and my colleagues in IKIP PGRI Pontianak for the constructive criticism.

Dayat
Pontianak
April 2015

CONTENTS
COVER ...................................................................................... i
PREFACE .................................................................................. ii
CONTENT ................................................................................. iii
Part 1
Parts of Speech ........................................................................ 1
Nouns ......................................................................................................................... 1
Pronouns .................................................................................................................... 7
Verbs .......................................................................................................................... 15
Adjectives ................................................................................................................... 19
Adverbs ...................................................................................................................... 22
Conjunction ................................................................................................................. 25
Preposition .................................................................................................................. 26
Interjection .................................................................................................................. 27
Part 2
Forms of sentence .................................................................... 28
Simple sentence ......................................................................................................... 28
Affirmative sentence ................................................................................................... 25
Negative sentence ...................................................................................................... 28
Interrogative sentence ................................................................................................ 29
Imperative sentence ................................................................................................... 31
Part 3
Tenses ...................................................................................... 32
Simple present ............................................................................................................ 32
Present continuous ..................................................................................................... 36
Past tense ................................................................................................................... 40
Present perfect tense .................................................................................................. 43
Past perfect tense ....................................................................................................... 46
Past continuous tense ................................................................................................ 47
Perfect continuous tense ............................................................................................ 48
BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................... 50

Part 1
Parts of Speech
The first part introduces parts of speech. In this part, the students have ability in
defining each part of speech.
A. Nouns

1. Definition
Dykes (2007: 22) and Pearson Education Australia (2011: 8) states that the
word noun comes from Latin nomen meaning name. According to Dykes (2007:
22) a noun is the name of a thing. Everything that exists has a name, whether you
can see it or not. While, Pearson Education Australia (2011: 8) considers nouns
name things, persons, places and abstractions (qualities, feeling, passions,
attributes and ideas).
Things: mandau, bag, vegetables, animals, mountain, etc.
Person: Ali, students, teacher, singer, accountant, dentist, etc.
Place: Pontianak, Korem, living room, Rumah Adat, etc.
Qualities, feeling, attributes: redness, tenderness, superiority
Ideas: civilization, cynicism, post-Modernism, idealism, infinity (Pearson
Education Australia, 2011: 8).
2. Kinds of nouns
A dyke (2007: 22) proposes four kinds of nouns. They are:
a. Common Nouns
These are names of everyday things that we can see, hear or touch.
For example:
city, mango, volcano, song, etc.
We can put the word the in front of them and make sense, as in: the rope, the
poison.
If it does not make sense, the word cannot be a noun.

b. Proper Nouns
Definition: The word proper comes from the French word propre meaning ones
own, i.e. belonging to a particular person or thing.
Proper nouns are the special names that we give to people, places and
particular things like the days of the week, months of the year, or even the titles
of books or TV shows.
For example:
Jason, Town Hall, China, French, The Wishing Chair
Because they are special and individual names, they start with a capital letter
and, apart from people, most of these things have only one proper name.
Students Activities:

c. Collective Nouns
Definition: These are names for groups of things, animals or people, which go
together, or have something in common.
For example:
A number of people in a group singing are a choir.
A number of cows in a group are a herd.
Note here that if the group word is singular then the verb following must also be
singular.
For example:
Correct The choir was rehearsing in the chapel.
Incorrect The choir were rehearsing in the chapel.
There may, of course, be more than one group. In which case the verb will be
plural.
The choirs were competing in the final.
d. Abstract Nouns
Definition: Abstract nouns form what can be the most difficult group to
understand, as they represent ideas, and have no physical substance that you
cannot see or touch.
The idea may be of quality,
For example: beauty, greed, intelligence

Or the idea may be a state that is felt or suffered,

For example: joy, misery, neglect.
It may be the act of something
For example: duty, aggression.
It may even be an event or happening,
For example: conversation, pause.
Pearson Education Australia (2011: 8) clarifies that nouns can be count and noncount.
a. Count Noun
Most nouns have a singular form and a plural form. These are called count
nouns. For example:
Singular

plural

book

books

potato

potatoes

tooth

teeth

medium

media

criterion

criteria

It is important to know the ways to pluralize count-nouns, as they can cause

some confusion.
It is a good idea, especially for younger and ESL students, to
explain the various ways in which we make plurals, as they can cause some
confusion.
1) For most nouns, we just add s to form the plural.
For example:
One hat

two hats

One fire

five fires

2) For some words it is difficult to add s alone try saying box with just s on
the end. For such words, we insert the vowel sound e for ease of pronunciation.
For example:
One box

two boxes

One lunch

two lunches

3) Although our language has been simplified in many ways over time, some
old forms have stayed, largely due to earlier pronunciation. Among these are a
number of words in which the inside vowel changes between singular and plural.
These just have to be learnt.
For example:
One man

two men

One mouse

three mice

4) We also have plurals made by adding en.

For example:
one chick

ten chickens

one ox

a team of oxen

Other examples of irregular plurals include:

child

children

die

dice

leaf

leaves

sheep

sheep

woman

women

foot

feet

goose

geese

The students need to learn these especially, as they may not be familiar with
hearing them spoken.
Gender is a grammatical term for classifying nouns according to masculine,
feminine or neuter. The classification is largely irrelevant in English, which does
not attribute gender to inanimate objects. Many languages do, however, for no
obvious reason.
For example:
in French we have la chaise (feminine) meaning chair

but le tabourer (masculine) meaning stool

la pierre (feminine) meaning stone
but le roc (masculine) meaning rock
Note, too, how the article (the word for the) in these examples has a feminine
and a masculine form. We are fortunate then that the English gender generally
speaks for itself and we have few alternative forms. Many former distinctions
have become blurred in modern times, even politically incorrect, so that we
seldom refer to an actress or an authoress as opposed to actor or author. In
some respects this is a pity as a unisex term provides less information.
Exercises:

b. Non-count Nouns
Some nouns have only one form. These are called non-count nouns. For
example:
information, equipment, technology, furniture, applause, leisure, clothing,
homework, luggage
In some cases, non-count nouns can be referred to in the plural
(technologies, knowledges). This varies from discipline to discipline.
B. Pronouns

Definition: The word pronoun comes from the Latin pronomen meaning for a
noun. As the word implies, pronouns are the words that we use in place of nouns. It will
become clear later when we discuss the difference between possessive and
demonstrative pronouns and possessive and demonstrative adjectives, why this
definition is so important. Pearson Education Australia (2011: 9) says that personal
pronouns are used to identify persons or things without using their names.
We use pronouns to make clear whom or what we are talking about, while
avoiding confusing or clumsy repetition. It is wise to teach just personal pronouns initially
and bring in the other kinds later. Recognition is important while fuller explanation and
exercises can follow later.
Before learning about pronouns, students should:
understand the term noun
recognise both common and proper nouns
1. Personal Pronouns
Share this story with your friends. This (true) story could sound something like the
following:

Marjorie lost her false teeth. The dog had found Marjories false
teeth and buried Marjories false teeth. Marjorie could not find
Marjories false teeth anywhere, but Marjorie dug up Marjories
false teeth two years later, while Marjorie was digging in the
garden.
With the use of pronouns this would read much more smoothly, in spite of the
repetition of the pronouns. Although equally important to the sense, they are less
prominent.

Marjorie lost her false teeth. The dog had found them and buried

them. Marjorie could not find them anywhere, but she dug them
up two years later, while she was digging in the garden.
Without the words I and you (personal pronouns) we could become very confused.
Instead of:

I saw her give you the letter for me.

We would have to say something like this:
John saw Maureen give Michael the letter for John. (John, referring
to himself!)
And:
I hurt myself.
Would become:
John hurt John. (himself or another person called John?)
It becomes altogether very confusing!
Most languages have pronouns, though in some languages the pronoun is
incorporated in the verb. Pronouns change in form according to the work that they
do in the sentence. For example they have number:
Singular I went to town with him.
Plural We went to town with them.
Tables can be very useful, both now and for later reference, so we suggest that
students begin by entering a table of personal pro-nouns in their grammar exercise
books.

These forms are called subjective forms because they can act as subjects (Pearson
Education Australia 2011: 9).
And when the action is done to the person, for example:

The falling brick hit me

a. Following a preposition: These will be explained in the section on
prepositions and the section on object.
The brick fell on me.
b. A preposition that is understood, i.e. not mentioned.
It gave (to) me concussion.
The following words are common pronouns for one person or thing:
I you he she it me her him
And for more than one person or thing:
we you they us them
2. Demonstrative pronouns
As the name suggests, demonstrative pronouns demonstrate or point out which
one of a number. There are just four obvious ones:

Remember, as the pronoun takes the place of a noun, the noun is not mentioned.
A pronoun This is scrumptious.
Not a pronoun This clair is scrumptious.
In the second sentence thisis an adjective qualifying (telling more about) the noun
clair.

Note: the words one and such can also be used as pronouns taking the place of
nouns.
For example:
One can search for gemstones.
Such is life.
I found one.
He told me such

3. Possessive Pronouns
Possessive pronouns indicate possession or ownership.

These pronouns may stand alone, but they must refer to a noun. His is the best. is
fairly meaningless unless the reader knows what his refers to. In formal writing,
mine, yours and ours should be avoided.
4. Indefinite Pronouns
Indefinite pronouns always refer to the quantity of people or things, without
identifying any specific person or thing.

Depending on the usage, mixed indefinite pronouns can be used to suggest singular
or plural quantities.

C. Verbs

We cant do without them!

1. Definition
Definition: The word verb comes from the Latin verbum meaning word.
Verbs are doing, being or having words. Before learning about verbs, students
should:
understand the term noun
recognise common and proper nouns
understand the term pronoun
recognise most personal pronouns
be able to explain their purpose
It is a good idea to teach verbs next, as a noun or pronoun together with a
verb, can form a complete sentence. This proves most satisfactory for the student.

Care should be taken by the teacher to proceed to each new section or concept only
when the previous one has been fully grasped. The order of the segments has been
chosen carefully to provide a sound structure of understanding. For example, the
section on finite and non-finite verbs comes naturally at the end of the first section.
However, teachers may judge the timing of teaching this, depending on students
level of understanding. It should not be left too long. A simple way of expressing it
would be that a verb must have a doer i.e. a subject) for it to make sense.
2. Kinds of Verbs
a. Finite and Non-finite Verbs
A verb needs a noun (or a pronoun) in front of it for it to make sense.
For example:
John waves.
The load slipped.
Verbs are of two kinds, non-finite or finite. Non-finite means not complete. Nonfinite verbs are not complete, because they do not have a subject, that is, the person
or thing that does the action, or that the sentence is about. Non-finite verbs also
do not show a sense of time, i.e. tense. Finite verbs have both a subject and a
tense.
For example:
I hope (present)
John hoped (past)
The most common and recognizable form of non-finite verb is the to-infinitive.
For example:
to drink, to be, to laugh, etc.
b. Auxiliary (helper) verbs
Definition: The word auxiliary is formed from the Latin auxilium
meaning help, and in grammar it refers to certain verbs that are used to form
tenses. The main helpers are taken from forms of the verbs to be and to have.
Most native English speakers have little difficulty with using these forms

according to the language that they hear round about them. They do need
explanation, however, and the students will need more practice.

We need to remember that these forms can be made more tricky to

recognize by the contractions which are common in everyday speech, but not
always fully understood.
For example:
Ill do it meaning I shall do it.
He wont do it meaning he will not do it.
Similarly, we need to explain that the auxiliary verb can be separated
from the main verb.
For example:
We are definitely going are going is the verb.
Also, when we ask a question we turn the verb around and place the
pronoun in between.
For example:
Statement: He was telling that funny joke.
Question: Was he telling that funny joke?
Other auxiliary verbs indicate uncertainty and help take on the role of
the subjunctive (see page 146). These need just to be recognized as verb parts
at the earlier stage and will be recognized through practice. They are can, could,
has, have, may, might, shall, should, will, would and must.
For example:
You must wipe your shoes when you come in.
Rover would not swallow his pill

c. Linking verbs
If a verb requires a subject complement (C) to complete the sentence,
the verb is a linking verb. The subject complement (underlined in the examples
that follow) typically identifies or characterizes the person or thing denoted by
the subject.
For example:
[1] Sandra is my mothers name.
[2] Your room must be the one next to mine.
[3] The upstairs tenant seemed a reliable person.
[4] A university is a community of scholars.
[5] The receptionist seemed very tired.
[6] You should be more careful.
[7] The distinction became quite clear.
[8] The corridor is too narrow.
The most common linking verb is be. Other common linking verbs (with
examples of subject complements in parentheses) include appear (the best
plan), become (my neighbour), seem (obvious), feel (foolish), get (ready), look
(cheerful), sound (strange). Subject complements are typically noun phrases
(cf. 4.2), as in [1][4] above, or adjective phrases (cf. 4.21), as in [5][8] above.
We have now looked at two basic sentence structures:
SVO: subject + (transitive) verb + (direct) object
SVC: subject + (linking) verb + (subject) complement
d. Intransitive verbs and adverbials
If a main verb does not require another element to complete it, the verb
is intransitive: SV: subject +(intransitive) verb
For example:
[1] I (S) agree (V).
[2] No cure (S) exists (V).
[3] They (S) are lying (V).

[4] The protestors (S) were demonstrating (V).

e. Stative and dynamic verbs
The major distinction in meaning is between verbs that are stative and
verbs that are dynamic.
Stative verbs introduce a quality attributed to the subject or a state of affairs:
For example:
I am a French citizen.
Their children are noisy.
She has two brothers.
I heard your alarm this morning.
Dynamic verbs introduce events. They refer to something that happens:
For example:
Her books sell well.
We talked about you last night.
Your ball has broken my window.
I listened to her respectfully.
Dynamic verbs, but not stative verbs, occur quite normally with the -ing form.
For example:
Her books are selling well.
We were talking about you last night.
They have been playing in the yard.
She is looking at us.
When stative verbs are used with the -ing form, they have been transformed
into dynamic verbs.
For example:
Their children are being noisy. (behaving noisily)
I am having a party next Sunday evening
f.

Regular and irregular verbs

All regular verbs take an ed ending, e.g. walked, laughed, called, etc.
While, Irregular verbs follow different patterns, e.g. drink, drank; sleep, slept,
etc.
D. Adjectives
Colour your world!
1. Definition
The word adjective is from Latin ad jacere meaning throw to or add. In
the grammatical sense, this means to add the characteristics of something, i.e. to
qualify it. Before studying adjectives, students should:
know the definition of a noun
recognize nouns, both common and proper
be able to give examples of nouns
Adjectives tell us more about nouns.
For example:
a red rose

a distinguished scholar

Remember: this, that, these and those, which are pronouns standing on
their own, are adjectives if the noun is specified. We call these possessive
adjectives.
For example:
This is tasty. [pronoun]
But This cake is tasty. [adjective]
Explained clearly, this is a lesson in logic.
The terms limit and modify are sometimes used with adjectives, but these
are also applied to adverbs, and it is helpful for the student to use different terms, to
better distinguish one from another. For young children, the word describe for
adjectives is preferable as they will be familiar with the word and readily understand
its meaning and application.

2. Forms of Adjectives

Most adjectives have three forms: positive, comperative and superlative

(Pearson Education Australia, 2011: 15).

a. Comparative and superlative

These are alternative terms applied to the act of comparing the extent or amount
of the quality expressed by the adjective. We show this comparison by adding
endings (suffixes) to the adjectives. If two things are compared (comparative
form), we use the suffix er.
For example:
Dads voice is louder than Mums.
Your baby is heavier than mine.
Note how the y of heavy has been changed to i with the addition of an ending.
If more than two things are compared (superlative form), est is the correct
ending.
For example:
Colins voice is loudest of all.
My BMX is the fastest on the track.
Some adjectives would become very clumsy with the endings added, so we
have the alternative of preceding the adjective with more or most. This usually
applies to longer words such as sensible or beautiful. Sometimes it is just a
matter of ease on the ear.

Some of the words that we find hard to categorize are, on further examination,
clearly adjectives, as they tell more about nouns. Students do need to realize
this so that they can fit them into the scheme of things. They should be
explained, although the terms need not be memorized at this stage.
3. Adjective order
Although changes in normal adjective order do not interfere with sentence
meaning or comprehension, such changes do lead to awkward and/or strangesounding sentences. Note that this chart provides only general guidance and not
hard-and-fast rules of word order.

E. Adverbs
The way its done!
1. Definition
Remembering that the word verb is derived from Latin verbum meaning
word we see that adverb must mean some-thing added to a word. Before learning
about adverbs, students should:
understand the term verb
be able to describe the function of a verb What is a verb?
be able to form simple sentences using a noun or pronoun together with a verb
An adverb is a word that adds meaning to any other word, except a noun or
pronoun (that being the job of an adjective). Adverbs are best understood as being
of two kinds, those that add to the meaning of a verb and those that add to the
meaning of other parts of speech and other adverbs.
The English language includes an immense range of adverbs, and while
flowery writing can result from an over-lavish use of either adjectives or adverbs;
they do enable us to be wonderfully imaginative and subtly descriptive. Henry James
remarked in one of his letters, Im glad you like adverbs I adore them; they are the
only qualifications I really much respect.

Adverbs are best taught first, as their function is readily under-stood by

young children. In order to establish a clear distinction between the functions of
adverbs and adjectives it is preferable to use a term other than qualify for adverbs.
The term limit can confuse young students by implying diminished meaning,
although that, of course, it does in fact do. For instance, if you attribute one quality
to a verb such as He ran quickly, you have denied it an opposing or conflicting
quality he did not run slowly. However, to avoid any confusion for learners we have
chosen the term modify for the function of adverbs.
While acknowledging that students may come up against kinds of adverbs
not mentioned here, the following are those commonly used and easy to
comprehend. Adverbs add meaning in a number of different ways.
2. Kinds of adverb
a. Adverbs of time (when adverbs)
These adverbs tell us when the action of the verb does or does not occur.
For example:
tomorrow, never
The show is on tomorrow. I have never been to the show.
b. Adverbs of place (where adverbs)
These tell us where the action of the verb does or does not happen.
For example:
here, somewhere
It isnt here. It must be somewhere!
c. Adverbs of manner (how adverbs)
These tell us the way in which the action of the verb does or does not happen.
For example:
well, rudely
You speak well. That boy spoke rudely.
Many adverbs are formed by adding ly to adjectives.

It is often easy to identify the adverb in a sentence by asking how?,

when?, where?, how far? or how much?
d. Interrogative adverbs (question adverbs)
These adverbs are the question words that apply to the verb in a sentence.
For example:
how, why, where
How did he escape?
Why did you leave the gate open?
Where can he be?
e. Comparative adverbs (comparing adverbs)
Adverbs of comparison follow a similar pattern to comparative adjectives while
maintaining their function of modifying words.
For example:
fast, faster [comparing two], fastest [comparing more than two]
The cake disappeared fast.
Your buns went faster.
But the pizza went fastest!
In the case of longer adverbs we use more and most again to avoid
clumsiness.

What a colorful tie. This ones more colorful.

But that one is most colorful.

F. Conjunction
Come and join us!
1. Definition
This word is from the Latin con meaning together and jungere meaning to join. A
conjunction joins two or more parts of speech of a similar kind or two or more parts
of a sentence.
2. Kinds of conjunctions
a. Coordinating conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions such as and, but, or, for and yet are used to join two
or more different things.
For example:
Bread and butter, tea or coffee.
I went to the bowling alley but (and) my brother stayed at home.
b. Subordinating conjunctions

As the name suggests these join a subordinate clause to a main or principal

clause, so they should be taught in more detail later, along with the section on
clauses. However, it is wise for students to be able to classify them at this stage.
Students can recognize them as joining two parts of a sentence.
For example:
Tom had stomach ache, because he ate too many plums.
Although he felt sick, he still played soccer.
G. Preposition
Whats the position?
1. Definition
The word preposition is from the Latin word praepositio meaning placed
before or in front of. Just as the word denotes, a preposition normally precedes a
noun or pronoun. It shows a relationship to something, mainly according to place
(on the table) or time (at 2.00 pm) and less obviously to a notion, i.e. something
abstract (beyond belief).
Prepositions, by virtue of coming before a noun or pronoun are said to take
an object. Note that these same prepositions often appear in verb combinations
such as wash up, have to. In these examples the combination of verb and
preposition presents a new and specific notion everyone knows that by adding the
word up to wash we have the particular meaning of washing dishes. Therefore it
is commonsense to deal with the whole as one verb.
In another form, words that look like prepositions and come after the verb
are modifying the meaning of the verb, as in look around, stand up. These are
adverbs and are easy to recognize as they do not take an object i.e. there is no
noun or pronoun following.
For example:
on

the box

Preposition

object

2. Kinds of common prepositions

Here are some common prepositions:

about

before

during

over

until

above

behind

for

past

up

across

below

from

since

with

after

beside

in

than

without

against

between

inside

through

underneath

among(st)

but

into

till

around

by

off

to

as

despite

on

toward(s)

at

down

out

under

Many of the words listed here may also be used as adverbs or conjunctions.
Some prepositions consist of more than one word; for example, because of, in, spite
of, in addition to
H. Interjection
Wow!
1. Definition
This is another word from the Latin, inter, meaning between or among and
jacereto throw. In other words, an interjection is something thrown in. An
interjection is an exclamation of one or two words that stands alone and is usually a
response to surprise, shock or disgust, such as Goodness! or Yuk!
Umsattater (2010: 20) adds that the interjection, the eighth part of speech,
expresses strong emotions or feelings. Often found at the beginning of a sentence,
an interjection is usually followed by either an exclamation mark (for strong
emotions) or a comma (for mild emotions). An interjection can also be used to
protest or command. Though interjections can stand alone, they are often contained
within larger groups of words.
Oh, we didnt expect to see you so soon

Well, whats your explanation?

Yes, the finals will be next week

OK, were ready.

Wow! That was a close call

Part 2

Simple Sentence
In this part, the students will be introduced to the simple sentence and some of its
component parts including subjects, verbs, nouns, pronouns, articles and adjectives.
A. Simple Sentence
1. Definition
A simple sentence must have a subject and a verb, and it must make complete
sense; that is, the reader or listener is not left wondering Who?, What? or How? A
sentence must begin with a capital letter and end with a full stop.
For example:
[1] Mr. Yon slept.
[2] Mr. Yon read a book.
[3] A heavy rain has drowned some houses.
2. Sentence Forms
a. Affirmative Sentence or Positive Sentence
These are sentences in which something is stated or told. Speech and writing
consists mainly of statements. They end with a full stop.
For example:
Roger fell into the river.
b. Negative sentence
In the most basic kind of negative statement, not or n't comes after the (first)
auxiliary verb or modal auxiliary. We can usually change a positive sentence into a
negative sentence by inserting not or nt after the auxiliary verb. Here are the auxiliaries
and modal auxiliaries are:
Principal auxiliaries
to be
to have
to do

Modal auxiliaries
can could
may might
must had to
ought
shall should
will would

Semi-modals
to need
to dare
used

c. Interrogative sentence (Questions)

These are the second most common form of sentence. They ask something
which they expect to be answered and they end with a question mark. There are some
types of questions: Yes-No Questions and Wh/1H Question.
1) Yes-No Question
Yes-No question is one of questions which with auxiliary and with the expected
answer yes or no.
For example:
Do you speak English?
Yes, I do.
No, I do not (dont).

Will you come to my party?

Yes, I will.
No, I wont

Note: when or is added for choice, it will not be answered with yes or no.
For example:
Do you like coffee or tea?
Coffee
2) Wh/1H Question
Question words are also called wh questions because they include the letters
'W' and 'H'. The formulas are almost similar as Yes-No Question but wh/1H must be at
the beginning of the sentence:
Wh/1H + Aux. Verb + Subject + P /+ O?
To answer the question, you have to give complete or clear information. For
example:
A : Why do you study English at IKIP PGRI Pontianak?
B : Because I want to learn more about English and to get Sarjana Degree.
Be careful with question Who and What for asking Subject in the sentence. The
formula:
Who + P /+ O ? Who opened the door?
What + P /+ O ? What happened on the way?
For more details, you can read some question words and their functions in the
sentences:
Table . 2.1 Question Words and Their Functions in the Sentences

Question Word

Function

Example

asking for information about something

What is your name?

asking for repetition or confirmation

What? I can't hear you.

You did what?

what...for

asking for a reason, asking why

What did you do that for?

When

asking about time

When did he leave?

Where

asking in or at what place or position

Where do they live?

Which

asking about choice

Which colour do you want?

Who

asking what or which person or people

(subject)

Who opened the door?

Whom

asking what or which person or people

(object)

Whom did you see?

Whose

asking about ownership

Whose are these keys?

Whose turn is it?

Why

asking for reason, asking what...for

Why do you say that?

why don't

making a suggestion

Why don't I help you?

asking about manner

How does this work?

asking about condition or quality

How was your exam?

how + adj/adv

asking about extent or degree

see examples below

how far

Distance

How far is Pattaya from

Bangkok?

how long

length (time or space)

How long will it take?

how many

quantity (countable)

How many cars are there?

how much

quantity (uncountable)

How much money do you

have?

how old

Age

How old are you?

how come (informal)

asking for reason, asking why

How come I can't see her?

What

How

d. Imperative sentence (command)

Imperative sentence or command is a verb in simple form without a subject

telling someone to do something (DeCapua, 2008: 420). Another definition is a sentence
to give a command (strong emotion) or makes a request (mild emotion) (Umstatter,
2010: 77). Use an exclamation after the imperative sentence that contains a strong
emotion, and a period after one that contains a mild emotion.
Stop that foolish talk now!
Please take the empty plate away now, Ira.
The formula of imperative sentence P /+ O, you can put exclamation mark
for strong emotion, or period for mild emotion. The Predicate can be preceded by Verbs
(verb predicate) or Be (nominal predicate). Example:
Take off your shoes.
Be careful on the way.
For negative command, the sentence is preceded by Do not (Dont). Example:
Do not (or Dont) disturb me.
Do not (Dont) be late.

Part 3
Tenses

Before explaining more details about the tense, this module will give some
definitions of time, tense, and aspect. After giving the definition, the module will describe
about some tenses based on the level of the students (for the first semester). They are simple
present, present continuous, simple past tense, present perfect tense, past perfect tense,
past continuous tense, and perfect continuous tense. Other tenses will be clarified in the next
semester.
A. Time, tense, and aspect
Time relates with past, present, and future. Tense is a grammatical category
referring to the time of the situation; the tense is indicated by the form of the verb. There are
two tense forms: present and past (Greenbaum and Nelson, 2002: 55). One important
structure that functions together with tense is aspect. Aspect is a grammatical category that
indicates temporal features such as duration, frequency, and completion. Aspect is indicated
by complex tenses that are composed of an auxiliary verb + a main verb. There are two
different aspects in English: the progressive and the perfect (DeCapua, 2008: 166)
B. Simple Present Tense
1. Definition
Simple present tense is that this refers to something taking place now. Present time
generally does not refer to events taking place now. Instead, the label present time refers
to general habits, customs, characteristics, or truths (DeCapua, 2008: 168). The simple
present is frequently explained as describing timeless time, i.e. time reference that has no
terminal points, time that can include the past, present, and future. Often frequency adverbs,
such as always, generally, usually, frequently, often, sometimes, occasionally, hardly, ever,
rarely, seldom, never.
2. The Sentence Pattern of Simple Present tense
The sentence pattern is S + V1 (s/es) /+ O. for more pattern can been seen in the
table 3.1.

Table 3.1.Sentence pattern of Simple Present Tense

Auxiliary

subject
Ali

Auxiliary + not

verb
Walks

Sentence Forms
Affirmative

WE
Ali
We
Ali
we

Does
Do

walk
does not
do not

Walk
walk
Walk?
Walk?

negative
question

3. The uses of Simple Present Tense

For general guidelines, the simple present is used to:
Table 3.2
The uses of simple present tense

example

describe repeated actions, customs,

1. Ned leaves for school at 8:00.

or habits

2. Blair and Jamie work at a bank.

describe general truths or facts

1. The sun rises in the east.

2. The president and his family live in the
3. White House.

describe certain characteristics, mental

states, emotions, and senses.

feel, smell, taste used intransitively,

with the idea of using one of the five

1. Gina is thin.
2. The sky looks gray.
3. Good

teachers

understand

their

students needs.

senses

4. Max loves pizza.

hear, see used transitively with the

5. Helen seems happy.

idea of using one of the five senses

narrate stories and events

1. And the batter hits the ball into the outfield

for another home run for the Yankees.
2. She gets up, turns on the oven, leaves the
room, and the next thing you know, theres
smoke coming out of the kitchen.

summarize stories, articles

1. The president addresses the soldiers and

asks for their continued support in the fight
against terrorism.
2. The reviewer argues that the conclusions
presented

by

the

researchers

are

erroneous.
Source: DeCapua, 2008: 169.

Exercise 1
Fill in these sentences using the correct form of the verb to be and the words in the
brackets. Then write the words in the blanks.

1. I_____________ happy.(not)

2. He _________ sad.

3.

4. We __________ Chinese.

You

_____________

Japanese.(not)

6.

Tigers

_________big

5. They ____________ busy.(not)

cats.

7. Cheung Chau __________ in

8. His name ______ Billy..

Kowloon.(not)
9. We _______ good friends.

10. She ______ my mother.

11. You ______ the monitor.

12. I ______ thirteen years

13. He ______ 2 years old.(not)

old.
14. They ______ good
football players.(not)

Exercise 2

Say these sentences using the correct form of the verbs in brackets. Then write the
words in the blanks.
(1) Susie ______________ shopping in Causeway Bay.(love)
(2) Causeway Bay ____________ very busy.(be)
(3) Betty _______________________ early.(not get up)
(4) I ______________________ fruit.(not like)
(5) School always _____________ at eight oclock in the morning.(start)
(6) We usually _________________ at school at half past seven.(arrive)
(7) The dog ________________ me. (like)
(8) Henry ___________ a nice school bag.(have)
(9) She ________________ television every night. (not watch)
(10) I ____________________ that dress.(not like)
Exercise 3
Say these sentences using the correct form of the verbs in brackets. Then write the
words in the blanks.
1. Sam __________(wash)his face every day.
2. Susie ___________(kiss)Mum every night.
3. Dad often _____________(carry)Susies books.
4. Nick ___________(cook) dinner for his family every evening.

5. He ____________ (brush) his hair every morning.

6. May often ____________ (read) books.
7. Kitty ____________ (wash) the dishes every night.
8. My bird __________(fly) beautifully.
9. The dog __________(like) eating bones.
10.My baby sister ___________(cry) every night.
11.Jenny always ___________(do) her homework on time.
12.Vincent _____________(love) Flora.
13.Ron_________(take) his dog for a walk every afternoon.
14.Mable usually___________(buy) vegetables at the market.
15.The lion __________(run) very fast.

Exercise 4
Say these questions and answers using the correct form of the verb to do. Then
write the words in the blanks.
1. ________ you like English?
Yes, I do/we do.
2. _________Bobby like noodles?

No, he doesnt.

3. _________ we have a test now?

Yes, you do/we do.

4. __________ they have a test this morning?

No, they dont.

5. __________ Susie like ice cream?

Yes, she does.

6.___________Tommy walk to school?

Yes, he does.

7.___________you understand?

Yes, I do.

8. ___________I read English books?

9. ___________you remember me?
10. ___________we have to stay after school?

No, you dont.

Yes, I do.
No, you dont

She usually gets up at 4 in the morning. (tell about habit)

Birds have two wings. (tell about general truth)

C. Present Continuous tense

1. Definition Present Continuous tense

The present continuous tense or the present progressive tense shows the ongoing
nature of an event. Progressive verbs are composite verbs. It is called composite verbs
because they have more than one part. All progressive verbs require be + present participle.
It describes events occurring now, at the moment of speaking.
2. The Sentence Pattern of Present continuous tense
Because it describes present time, the auxiliary verb be must be in present form:
am, is, or are. For negatives, simply place not after the auxiliary. The sentence types are
summarized below:
Table 3.3 The Sentence Pattern of Simple Present tense
auxiliary

Is

subject

Auxiliary

Jenny

Is

Jenny

Is

Jenny

+ not
not

Present participle

Sentence forms

Leaving.

Affirmative

Leaving.

Negative

Leaving?

Question

3. The Uses of Present Continuous Tense

The Present Continuous Tense is used when talking about:
Thing which is happening at the time of speaking (now)
e.g. Look! The boys are playing football.
Thing which is happening around the time of speaking (now).
e.g. Tom and Ann are talking in a caf. Tom says: Im reading an interesting
book at the moment. Ill lend you when Ive finished it. (Tom is not reading the
book at the time of speaking. He means that he has started it but not finished
yet. He is in the middle of reading it).
Period around the present, for instances today, this week, this evening etc.
e.g. youre working hard today. Yes. I have a lot to do.
Changing situation
e.g. The population of the world is rising very fast.

Is your English getting better?

Temporary situation
e.g. Ann is from Mempawah. She is studying English at IKIP PGRI. Now, she
is living with her aunt in Pontianak. (It means that Ann is temporarily staying
with her aunt).
Present Progressive for the Future
Are there any other ways to express future time? English also uses the present
progressive to express future time. We frequently use the present progressive with a time
expression to indicate close future time, especially with verbs of direction or motion.
Can we use all verbs in the present progressive?
Some verbs are not usually used in the present progressive. These are usually nonaction verbs, called stative verbs (think state as in state of mind) because they describe:

mental states

attitudes

perceptions

emotions

existence

These verbs are used in the present tense, even when describing something taking
place now. The following chart lists some of the more common stative verbs.
Table 3.4. Stative Verbs
Believe

Hear

Know

Please

See

think

Feel

(dis)like

Love

Prefer

Smell

Understand

Hate

Guess

Mean

Recognize

Suppose

Want

Have

Imagine

need

remember

taste

wish

Source: DeCapua, 2008: 173.

Exercise 1
Fill in the blanks with the verbs in the present continuous tense
1. John and I ...................................... (stay) in a beautiful hotel.
2. Kevin .......................................... (work) at home today.
3. I ...................................... (wait) for a very important letter.
4. You ...................................... (walk) too fast.
5. We ........................................... (plan) our next holiday.
6. The girls ............................................ (visit) their grandmother today.

7. She ....................................... (read) in her bedroom at the moment.

8. The baby ...................................... (learn) how to walk.
Exercise 2
Rewrite the sentences in the negative. Use the present continuous
1. They .......................................... (buy) a new car.
2. He ............................................... (learn) to read.
3. I .................................................. ( look) for your keys.
4. We ............................................... (sell) the house.
5. They ........................................ (drink) tea.
6. You ....................................... (work) very hard.
7. Jack and Jill ....................................... (run) downhill.
8. I ....................................... (go) home now.
Exercise 3
a) Write the questions. Use the present continuous
1. What /Jessica / do?
2. Why / John and Patrick / laugh?
3. What book / you / read?
4. What / we / watch?
5. Where / they / stay?
6. Why / we / sit in the dark?
7. Where / they / wait?
8. What / you / sell?
b) Make questions. Write the short answer ( + and -)
1. It / rain?
2. You / learn / French / at school?
3. I /speak / clearly?
4. Angela and Fred / dance / together?
5. The plane / land/ now?
6. The Smiths / plan / a party?
7. The children / study / in their bedroon?
8. Chris / wave/ at us?
Exercise 4
Put the verbs in the PRESENT SIMPLE/PRESENT CONTINUOUS
1. a: What ................................................. (you/do)? b: Im an architect.
2. a: What ................................................. (you/do)? b: I .................... (want)
to get this car started.
3. a: Where .............................................. (you/work)? B: I ............................
(work) in a big insurance company.
4. a: Where .............................................. ( you/work)? B: Im in Cardiff this
week.

5. a: .................................................................. (your son/play) the violin? B:

No, the piano.
6. a: ............................................................. (your son/play) the violin? B:
Actually, thats the radio.
7. a: What language .............................................. (she/speak)? It
.......................... (sound) like Russian.
8. a: What language ............................................... (she/speak)? b: Frenchshes from Belgium.
9. a: Who ............................................... (drink) champagne? B: Me, when I
can afford it.
10. a: Who ............................................... (drink) champagne? B: Me, can I
have some more.
Exercise 5
Put the verbs in the PRESENT SIMPLE or the PRESENT CONTINUOUS
1. Vegetarians are people who .................................................. (not / eat )
meat.
2. Look out! My father ........................................... (come)
3. Some people still ................................... (think) the sun ................... (go)
round the earth.
4. I .................................. (play) tennis every weekend.
5. Who .................................... (sit) in my chair?
6. What ........................................... (happen) in golf if you ....................
(lose) the ball?
7. Look! She ............................................ (wear) the same shoes as me.
8. a: What ................................................ (you/look) at? B: A strange bird!
9. I ........................................ (stay) with John for a few weeks until my flat
is ready.
10. We ....................................................... (usually/stay) with Peggy when
we go to Chicago.
11. What time .................................................. (you/go) to bed on
Saturdays?
12. Why ............................................. (you/wait) outside the door.
13. Dont ask Tim. He ...................................... (not/know) the answer.
14. I .................................. (have) lunch at the moment.
15. When ......................................... (he / leave) the house?
16. I ............................................... (not/understand). What .................
(happen)?
17. Excuse me, ............................................ (you/know) the time?
18. This is a great party. I .................................... (have) a lovely time.
19. We cant use the lift because it ................................... (not/work)
20. a:What ......................................... (you/do) here? B: Nothing.
21. a: ......................... (Penny/like) cheese sandwiches? No, ....................
22. a: What time .......................... (the sun/rise)? B: It ................ (rise) at
7.30.

23. We ......................................... (not/watch) videos at school.

24. Look out of the window! It ................................. (snow).
25. a: ...................................................... (you/wear) a uniform at your
school? B: Yes,
........................

D. Simple Past Tense

1. Definition of Simple Past Tense
The simple past is used to describe completed past actions or events. As you know,
there is only one past inflection for all regular past tense verbs, the ed added to the verb
(DeCapua, 2008: 174). There are many irregular past tense forms, including some of the
most common verbs used in English, such as went, had, was and were, wrote, ate, drank,
etc.
2. The Sentence Pattern of Simple Past Tense
To form questions and negatives, simple past tense verbs, like present tense ones,
require the do auxiliary. Since the use of do with simple past, do changes to did. Remember
also that the main verb remains in its simple or base form, with no ed attached. The different
sentence types in simple past are summarized below.
Table. 3.5 The Sentence Pattern of Simple Past Tense
auxiliary

Subject

auxiliary + not

Sue
Sue
Did

verb
walked

did not

Sue

sentence forms
affirmative

walk.

negative

walk?

question

Pronunciation ofed
If all regular past tense verbs take the same ed inflection, why does the ending sound
different? We say walked with a t sound but called with a d sound.
Although there is only one past tense inflection for regular verbs, there is a difference
in pronunciation when the ed inflection is added. The change in pronunciation depends on
what sound the verb ends in. The different pronunciations of ed are not reflected in written
English. The chart shows the different pronunciations of the ed inflection.
Table 3.6 pronunciation of -ed
Word ending sounds

pronouncing

example

Verbs that end in the sound p, k,

t sound

f, s, sh, ch

helped, baked, coughed

missed, washed, pitched

Verbs that end in the

id sound extra syllable added

wanted, needed

Sounds d or t
All other verbsound

d sound

robbed, dragged, shaved,

endings(b, g, v, z, zh, th,

garaged, breathed, raged,

j, m, n, ng, l, r,oravowel

blamed, ruined, pinged,

sound)

called, ordered, played

3. The Uses of Simple Past Tense

The Simple Past Tense is used for:
Completed action in the Past
Use the Simple Past to express the idea that an action started and finished at
a specific time in the past. Sometimes, the speaker may not actually mention
the specific time, but they do have one specific time in mind.
I saw a movie yesterday.
I didn't see a play yesterday.
Last year, I traveled to Japan.
A Series of Completed Actions
The Simple Past is also used to list a series of completed actions in the past.
I finished work, walked to the beach, and found a nice place to swim.
He arrived from the airport at 8:00, checked into the hotel at 9:00, and met
the others at 10:00.
Duration in Past
The Simple Past can be used with a duration which starts and stops in the past.
A duration is a longer action often indicated by expressions such as: for two
years, for five minutes, all day, all year, etc.
I lived in Brazil for two years.
Shauna studied Japanese for five years.
They sat at the beach all day.
Habits in the Past

The Simple Past can also be used to describe a habit which stopped in the
past. It can have the same meaning as "used to." To make it clear that we are
talking about a habit, we often add expressions such as: always, often, usually,
never, when I was a child, when I was younger, etc.

I studied French when I was a child.

He played the violin.
He didn't play the piano.
Past Facts or Generalizations
The Simple Past can also be used to describe past facts or generalizations
which are no longer true. This use of the Simple Past is quite similar to the
expression "used to."
She was shy as a child, but now she is very outgoing.
He didn't like tomatoes before.
Did you live in Texas when you were a kid?
People paid much more to make cell phone calls in the past.
Note: When-Clauses Happen First
Clauses are groups of words which have meaning but are often not complete
sentences. Some clauses begin with the word "when" such as "when I dropped my pen..."
or "when class began..." These clauses are called when-clauses, and they are very
important. The examples below contain when-clauses.
Examples:
When-clauses are important because they always happen first when both clauses
are in the Simple Past. Both of the examples above mean the same thing: first, I
paid her one dollar, and then, she answered my question. It is not important whether
"when I paid her one dollar" is at the beginning of the sentence or at the end of the
sentence. However, the example below has a different meaning. First, she answered
my question, and then, I paid her one dollar
I paid her one dollar when she answered my question.
E. Present Perfect Tense

1. Definition of Present Perfect Tense

The present perfect refers to a situation set in some indefinite period that leads to
the present. The situation may be a state of affairs that extends to the present (Greenbaum
and Nelson, 2002: 56).
They have been unhappy for a long time.
2. The Sentence Pattern of Present Perfect Tense
The present perfect consists of the auxiliary verb have+past participle of the main
verb. Regular past participles are the same as the past tense of the verb, e.g. walked,
camped, loaned, etc. Irregular past participles have various forms. To form negative
statements and questions, it follows the first auxiliary rule.
Table 3.7 The Sentence Pattern of Present Perfect Tense
auxiliary

Has

Subject

auxiliary

Sue

has

Sue

has

Sue

+ not
not

past participle

sentence forms

walked.

affirmative

walked.

negative

walked?

question

3. The Uses of Present Perfect Tense

Traditionally, the present perfect is described as referring to indefinite time, that is,
to events or actions that start in the past and extend into the present and even possibly into
the future. The present perfect is generally presented in contrast to the simple past, which
describes events that are over and completed. EFL learners are also told that the present
perfect tense is difficult because there is much variation as to when it is used. However,
learners will have fewer problems if we regard the present perfect as occurring in two primary
ways: stable and variable (Marshall in DeCapua 2008: 186). By stable usage, it means that
there are two instances when the present perfect is always used.
Stable Time
The present perfect is used to express continuative or durative time, that is, to
describe an event or action that occurs over a period of time. This is stable time. The present
perfect often co-occurs with such expressions of time as for and since.
I have lived here for ten years.
She has studied English since 2003.

Because the present perfect is also used to express repeated time, that is, an event
or action that occurs more than once, that is repeated. Frequency or time expressions often
co-occur with this use of the present perfect.
Andy has always lived in New York.
Thats my favorite movie. I have seen it at least 20 times.
Florida has had numerous hurricanes.
Variable Time
The present perfect is also used for what is commonly called indefinite time. Here
the present perfect is used to describe events or actions that ended in the recent past but
without a specific time marker to indicate when they ended or occurred. The time is
unspecified. Because native speakers alternate between using simple past and present
perfect to describe such events with little or no change in meaning, this use of the present
perfect is variable. Choice of one tense over another when referring to one event or action
occurring in the recent past is dependent on context, the region of the United States, and
the individual.
Cleo just took her exams.
Cleo has just taken her exams.
Ethan already took his exams.
Ethan has already taken his exams.
Exercise 1
Fill in Since or For
1. He has been back ___________ two hours / __________ 3 oclock.
2. I havent seen him _________ over two months / ________ Christmas.
3. Youve been watching TV __________ you came home from school / _____ most
of the evening.
4. Carol has been looking after the baby _________ this morning / ______ over four
hours.
5. The Healers have had Dusty ________ their old dog died / ________ nearly two
years.
6. Weve been standing here ________ twenty-five minutes / _________ half past
six.
7. Kate has been learning French ________ she was eleven / _________ four years.
8. Grandfather has been living with us ____________ Granny died / ________ quite
some time.

Exercise 2
Complete these sentences using the Present Perfect Tense of the following verbs: to be
to clean to eat to have to rain to see
1. Chris ___________________ all the biscuits. (They are gone now.)
2. The boys ___________________ the car. (It looks beautiful now.)
3. Mrs Wood _______________ a busy day. (She is tired now.)
4. It _________ not _________ for weeks. (The garden is very dry.)
5. I _________________ the film. (I know it.)
6. My sister _______________ to Paris several times. (She knows it.)
Exercise 3
Complete these sentences using the Present Perfect Tense or the Past Tense
1. We (not meet) _____________________ his mother so far. We _________ his
mother then.
2. Greg (be) _____________________ a good student last year. Greg ___________
a good student up to now.
3. They (live) ___________________ in our street since 1982. They _____________
in our street some years ago.
4. Bob and Chris (not quarrel) _________________________ all week. Bob and Chris
____________________ yesterday.
5. You (ask) __________________ me this question before. You _______________
me this question last lesson.

F. The Past Perfect Tense

1. Definition of The Past Perfect Tense
The past perfect tense indicates an event or action completed prior to another point
of time in the past.
2. The Sentence Pattern of The Past Perfect Tense

The past perfect consists of the past form of the auxiliary verb had, and the past
participle of the main verb. Since had is an auxiliary verb, it follows our first auxiliary rule in
forming negative statements and questions.
Table 3.8 The Sentence Pattern of Past Perfect Tense
auxiliary

Had

Subject

auxiliary

Sue

had

Sue

had

+ not
not

Sue

past participle

sentence forms

walked.

affirmative

walked.

negative

walked?

question

3. The Uses of The Past Perfect Tense

The past perfect is generally used in conjunction with a past tense verb phrase.
(1) We carefully walked through the dirt that had accumulated on the floors.
(2) It had stopped raining, so we didnt take our umbrellas.
In Sentences (1) and (2), the past perfect occurs together with the simple past in
order to clarify which action happened first. Both actions took place in the past, but one
occurred before the other: In Sentence (1), we walked occurred after the dirt that had
accumulated. In Sentence (2), we didnt take our umbrellas, took place after It had stopped
raining. You will note that even though the clause order is different in Sentences (1) and (2),
the sequence of events is still clear because the past perfect indicates which action took
place first, while the simple past indicates the later action.
When time sequence is not important, speakers may substitute simple past for past
perfect:
(3a) She had called before I left.
(3b) She called before I left.
Sentences (3a) and (3b) differ from Sentences (1) and (2) in that (3a) and (3b)
include the word before. This word by itself indicates which action was the first past action.
The use of the past perfect is not required in order to establish the sequence of events. Both
(53a) and (53b) are acceptable English sentences conveying the same information. When
before and after occur, speakers commonly choose to use simple past to refer to both past
actions since the sequence of events is clearly established by these time adverbs. Some
native speakers rarely use the past perfect, especially in casual spoken and written English
and use the past tense only, relying on the surrounding context to make the meaning clear.

G. The Past Continuous Tense

1. Definition of The Past Continuous Tense
The past progressive describes ongoing events or actions in the past. Like the
present progressive, the past progressive is a composite verb consisting of the auxiliary be
plus the present participle of the main verb.
2. The Sentence Pattern of The Past Continuous Tense
Since the past continuous or past progressive is a composite verb with an auxiliary,
to make questions is by simply inverting the subject and auxiliary. To make a sentence in
the past progressive negative, put the not after the auxiliary. The sentence forms are
summarized below.
Table 3.8 The Sentence Pattern of Past continuous
auxiliary

subject

auxiliary

Sue

+ not

present participant

sentence forms

was

walking

affirmative

We

were

walking

Sue

was

We

were

not

walking

negative

walking

Was

Sue

walking?

Were

we

walking?

question

3. The Uses of The Past Continuous Tense

For general guidelines, the past progressive for:
an event or action that was happening when another event or action interrupted it.
She was driving home when the rain started.
My computer crashed while I was e-mailing you.
emphasizing the ongoing nature of an event or action in the past
She was working all morning.
It was raining the whole night.
an event or action that was already happening at a particular time in the past.
Nathan was studying at midnight.
Other uses:
The past progressive is often used together with the simple past to contrast two
actions or events. The past progressive emphasizes the ongoing nature of the one event or
action. The simple past emphasizes the single occurrence of the other.

When both the past progressive and simple past occur in a sentence, the order in
which the two verb phrases occurs can vary. When and while are used in such sentences.
When is used with the simple past and while is used with the past progressive (DeCapua
2008: 178).
Example:
Past continuous

Simple past

We were eating
While

when

Joyce called.

We were eating

Joyce called.

Past continuous

Simple past

Joyce called,

We were eating.

Or:
When

Joyce called

while

We were eating

H. The Present Perfect Continuous Tense

1. Definition of The Present Perfect Continuous Tense
The Present Perfect Continuous Tense is an recent continuing activities, continuing
up to the present.
2. The Sentence Pattern of The Present Perfect Continuous Tense
The Present Perfect Continuous Tense is formed by placing the present tense form
of have and been in front of the present participle (the ing form of the verb).
Table 3.8 The Sentence Pattern of The Present Perfect Continuous Tense

singular

plural

First person

I have been kicking

We have been kicking

Second person

You have been kicking

You have been kicking

Third person

He/ she/ it has been kicking

They have been kicking

3. The Uses of The Past Continuous Tense

DeCapua (2008: 186) says that the present perfect progressive is used to stress the
ongoing nature or duration of an event or action that is indefinite with no specific beginning
or end. It is also used to indicate an event or action that began in the past and continues into
the present and possibly the future. Our earlier discussion of stable and variable time in

conjunction with the present perfect also applies to the present perfect progressive.
Furthermore, Vince (2008: 21) adds the present perfect progressive is used for:
recent continuing activities, continuing up to the present.
e.g. I have been waiting here for a half an hour.
explaining a present situation
e.g. I have been washing the cow thats why my clothes are wet.
emphasizing the length of a continuing activity
e.g. I have been working on my project all morning.
a repeated activity, to emphasizing the repetition of the activity
e.g. he has been phoning me every day since the party.
how long question
e.g. how long have you been having disturbing dreams?
meaning, thinking, considering
e.g. I have been thinking of changing my job.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
DeCapua, Andrea. 2008. Grammar for Teachers: A Guide to American Elnglish
and Non-Native Speakers. New York: Springer Science+Business Media.
Dykes, Barbara. 2007. Grammar for Everybody; Practical Tool for Learning and
Teaching Grammar. Victoria: ACER Press.

Greenbaum, Sidney & Nelson, Gerald. 2002. An Introduction to English Grammar.

London: Pearson Education Limited.
Murphy, Raymond. 1998. English Grammar in Use. United Kingdom: Cambridge
University Press.
Schatz, Mary S. 2005. Grammar Rules: for Students, Parents, & Teacher: A
Straightforward Approach to Basic English Grammar and Writing Skill.
Garlic Press.
Thomson, A.J. & Martinet, A.V. 1994. A Practical English Grammar (4th Ed.)
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Vince, Michael. 2008. Macmillan English Grammar in Context. Oxford: Macmillan
Publishers Limited.