GCSE PAPER 1 REVISION GUIDE

SECTION B CONFLICT AND TENSION BETWEEN EAST AND WEST,

1945-1972
The questions in section B are usually set out as follows:
(15) Source analysis- How do you know?

(16) Utility Which source is more useful?

(17) Write an account..

(18) The Nazis use of threats and violence was the main reason why Hitler became Chancellor
of Germany in January 1933.
How far do you agree? Explain your answer.
(16) + 4 SPaG

Formula for do you agree question:

start with the interpretation / view in the question e.g. the view that Hitler got into power because of his use

of violence has some credibility..

explain this, using detailed knowledge to back up the view.
bring in other factors which are relevant to the question to develop a multi-causal answer e.g. However,

there were other very important reasons why Hitler was appointed Chancellor such as the weaknesses of the
Weimar political system and the problems this presented for Hindenberg You need to refer to at least
another 2 factors.
make a judgement on the question this can be in favour, against or a mixture as long as it is supported!

Level 4: An analytical, linked, multi-causal answer clearly focused on the question.

Complex explanation of stated factor and other factor(s) leading to a sustained judgement. Answer
demonstrates a range of accurate and detailed knowledge and understanding that is relevant to

the question. Answer demonstrates a complex, sustained line of reasoning which has a sharply-focused
coherence and logical structure that is fully substantiated, with well-judged relevance.

Topic 4: The Origins of the Cold War 19451960

Key issue: Why did the USA and USSR become rivals in the years 19451949?

Ideological differences and their effects

The Yalta and Potsdam Conferences
The dropping of the atom bomb and its effects: Hiroshima and Nagasaki
The Iron Curtain: Soviet expansion in the East; Czechoslovakia, 1948
The Truman Doctrine: the situation in Greece and Turkey; the purpose of the Truman Doctrine
The Marshall Plan: effect of Marshall Aid and the Soviet response; Cominform and Comecon; Yugoslavia
The Berlin Blockade and Airlift.

Key issue: How did the Cold War develop in the years 19491960?
The formation of NATO: its membership and purpose
The nuclear arms race: atom bomb; hydrogen bomb
The Korean War, 19501953: reasons for involvement of UN and USA; the role of MacArthur; the part played
by USSR and China
The Thaw: death of Stalin; Austria; Khrushchevs policy of peaceful co-existence
The formation of the Warsaw Pact: membership and purpose.
Hungary, 1956: causes of the rising, why it was a threat to the USSR and how the Soviets dealt with it; the
effects on Europe and the Cold War
The continuation of the nuclear arms/space race: Sputnik 1; ICBMs; Polaris; Gagarin; Apollo

Topic 5: Crises of the Cold War and Dtente 19601980

Key issue: How close to war was the world in the 1960s?
The U2 Crisis 1960: the purpose of U2; the responses of the USA and the USSR to the crisis; the effect on
the
Paris Summit and the peace process
The situation in Berlin: the Berlin Wall; Kennedys response.
The nuclear deterrent: progress with nuclear disarmament; the space race in the 1960s
The Cuban Missile Crisis,1962: the effect of Castros seizure of power in Cuba; Kennedy and the Bay of Pigs;
Khrushchev and the missile crisis of 1962; Kennedys response; the danger to the world; the results of the
crisis;
the effect on Kennedy and Khrushchev
Czechoslovakia, 1968: Dubcek and the Prague Spring; why it concerned the USSR and the Warsaw Pact and
their response to it; the effects on East-West relations; the Brezhnev Doctrine.

Key issue: Why did Dtente develop and collapse in the 1970s?
Reasons for Dtente: the motives of the USSR, USA, China and West Germany
The progress of Dtente: SALT I, 1972; Brezhnev-Nixon Summits; the Helsinki Agreement, 1975
The Soviet involvement in Afghanistan: reasons for Soviet involvement; reaction of President Carter and the
USA to the war
The failure of SALT II; the Olympic boycotts; deployment of Soviet and US missiles in Europe

Topic 6: The Collapse of Communism and the Post Cold War World 19802000
Key issue: Why did communism collapse in Central and Eastern Europe?
Reagan and the renewal of the Cold War: attitudes to Communism; development of new weapons; SDI
Solidarity in Poland: conditions in Poland; Lech Walesa; aims and suppression.
Soviet failure in Afghanistan and its political and economic effects on the USSR
Gorbachev and Reagan: changing attitudes: Glasnost and Perestroika; changes in domestic and foreign
policy and their effects; the collapse of the USSR

 The end of Soviet control in Eastern Europe: the success of Solidarity; the end of the Berlin Wall;
Czechoslovakia and Hungary; the fate of Gorbachev; the end of the Cold War.

Key issue: What problems face the USA and UN following the end of the Cold War?
The role of USA in the Post Cold War World: USA as a global power; military supremacy; the sole
superpower; the champion of democracy in the world; US relations in Europe.
The UN: case studies of UN action in Kuwait, Iraq and Kosovo; success and failure of the UN

Topic 4: The Origins of the Cold War 19451960

What was the Cold War?
The end of the Second World War saw the emergence of two superpowers, the USA and the
USSR, who were locked in a struggle which lasted for 45 years. This was known as the Cold
War.
The term Cold War was first used in 1947 to describe the conflict. It was a war of words, of
propaganda and of threat between the USA and the USSR, but it did not involve the two
Superpowers in direct confrontation. They both took part in proxy wars that is they helped
their allies to fight the other Superpower or their allies but did not become directly involved in
the conflict themselves.

Key issue: Why did the USA and USSR become

rivals in the years 19451949?
Ideological differences and their effects
In 1917 Russia became the first communist country in the world. Both the USA and the USSR
believed that their system was the best way of organising a country and that other countries
should follow their example.

The USSR one party state, no free elections, state owned industry and agriculture. The
government planned the economy and what should be produced. There is a lack of freedom
and strict censorship.

The USA democratic and capitalist, free elections, industry and agriculture were privately
owned and run for profit. Free press and freedom of movement.

Both sides feared the other was out to destroy it. The Soviets believed the west was out to
destroy communism. The West believed Soviets wanted to spread communism around the
globe.
Stalins Suspicion of the West
The USSR had been attacked previously, Germany had invaded Russia in 1914, in 1918,
Allied forces had invaded Russia during the Civil War. Hitler had invaded in 1941. Stalin
believed it was essential to have friendly countries on his border to prevent this happening
again.
Stalin did not trust the West. The West had appeased Hitler in the 1930s - Stalin believed
they had wanted Hitler to destroy communism. The West was also slow to open the Second
Front during the Second World War to help the Russians fight Hitler.

The USAs change of policy

The USA was determined not to repeat its isolationist policies of the interwar years.
The USA believed appeasement did not work, and that dictators had to be confronted and
democracy supported.
As the richest and most successful country in the world the USA expected to have a say in
the way the world was run. It was confident no other power had nuclear weapons.
The USA did not want to return to the Depression and wanted to secure markets for its
goods, it did not believe that the communist countries would buy American goods and so was
determined to prevent the spread of communism. It was not in the USA's economic interests to
allow the spread of communism.

The Yalta and Potsdam Conferences

Yalta Conference (February 1945)
The leaders present were Stalin (USSR), Roosevelt (USA) and Churchill (Britain).
Agreements

Stalin agreed to join the war against Japan once

Germany was defeated
All 3 agreed to join the United Nations.
Germany to be divided into four zones of
occupation (Br, Fr, USA, USSR)
Berlin to be divided into four zones, as Germany
Stalin to have a sphere of influence' in Eastern
Europe.
Free elections' to be held to decide
governments countries liberated from Nazi
occupation
USSR to join the war against Japan once Hitler
had been defeated

However there was a dispute over Poland:

Stalin insisted on a friendly government in Poland. The West demanded free

elections in Poland.

Potsdam Conference (July 1945)

The leaders present were Stalin (USSR), Truman (USA), and Attlee (Britain)
Personality clash: Truman, the new President of the USA, was
fiercely anti-communist. He was not prepared to negotiate
with Stalin. This, in turn, angered Stalin.
Agreements:

USSR to gain eastern Poland and Poland to be

compensated with some German territory - the German
border was settled at the Oder-Neisse Line.
Nazi Party to be banned and Nazi war criminals to be
put on trial.

Disagreements:

Stalin demanded harsh reparations from Germany for the USSR - demanded $20
billion compensation. This figure was rejected by Truman and Attlee they did not
want to make the same mistakes as at Versailles.
Stalin denied a naval base in the Mediterranean
Stalin had set up a communist government in Poland without free elections
being held this angered Truman and Attlee and made them suspicious of Stalins
motives.

The dropping of the atom bomb and its effects: Hiroshima

and Nagasaki
The Atom Bomb
By May 1945, the Japanese were clearly losing the war
in the Pacific; they started making requests for a peace.
Stalin told Truman at Potsdam of 'telegram from
Japanese Emperor asking for peace (it was refused;
instead the Potsdam Conference called on Japan to
surrender unconditionally). In fact, the Japanese offered
to surrender on 3 August, but their offer was rejected
because it wasnt an unconditional surrender.
Instead, on 6 August 1945, the B29 bomber Enola Gay
dropped the first atomic bomb (nicknamed Little Boy)
on Hiroshima.

The temperature in the centre of the bomb was 50 times hotter than the surface of
the sun.

Winds swept out from the centre at 500 mph; everything in a two-mile radius was
flattened.

The mushroom cloud rose to 50,000 feet. The Americans estimated at 117,000
people were killed the Japanese put the figure at a quarter of a million.

Three days later, on 9 August, the Americans dropped another bomb, on Nagasaki,
and the Japanese surrendered. The Arms Race was pushed along by fear.

Why Drop the Bombs?

Churchill and Trumans official explanation was that the bomb was dropped to end the
war in Japan quickly, saving millions of American casualties
Truman dropped the atomic bombs because he wanted to end the war before the USSR
could enter the war in the Pacific and claim the lands promised them at Yalta.

The bomb was dropped to impress the Soviets, and persuade them to relax their grip on
eastern Europe

America had spent a lot of time and money researching the bomb and had to justify this
to American tax payers.

Consequences how did the bomb it cause the Cold War?

The atomic bomb changed TRUMAN'S attitude.

It encouraged Truman seek confrontation. When Truman knew that he had the bomb:

His attitude at the Conference became more aggressive,

He switched from pro-Soviet advisors (such as Davies) to anti-communist advisors

such as Stimson and Byrnes.

He developed an attitude of confrontation - 'I'm sick of babying the Soviets'.

The atomic bomb changed STALIN'S attitude.

The traditional argument was that Stalin was angry because Truman did not tell him
about the Atomic Bomb.

Truman, was deliberately vague when he mentioned the Bomb to Stalin on 24 July
he just quickly mentioned in passing that the USA had a new weapon of unusual
destructive force.

Truman didn't specifically call it an atomic bomb, and he certainly didnt say he was
going to use it against Japan.

Stalin merely nodded, and witnesses were convinced he hadnt realised the
implication of what he had just been told.

When the Americans dropped the bomb, the argument goes, Stalin was furious that
he had been duped, and this was how the Bomb caused the Cold War.

Soviet sources suggest, that straight after Truman told him about the new weapon,
Stalin gave orders for Soviet scientists to develop their own nuclear weapon so
news of the atomic bomb DID provoke a nuclear arms race.

There is no doubt that Stalin saw the dropping of the Bomb as directed more at
Russia than Japan: They are killing the Japanese and intimidating us he told
Molotov.

Stalins reaction, was to play 'hard ball', and he instructed his diplomats to take a
tougher position against the west. Then in February 1946, he gave the famous
Bolshoi speech accusing America of using its atomic advantage for imperialism. In
this way, it is claimed, the atomic bomb directly caused the entrenched positions of
the Cold War.

This started the arms race in topic 5

The Iron Curtain: Soviet expansion in the East;

Czechoslovakia, 1948
During 194647, Stalin made sure that Communist governments came to power in all the
countries of eastern Europe (the countries which Russia had conquered in 1945).

In February 1946, Stalin gave a speech for the Russian elections (it is often called
the 'Bolshoi' speech because he made it at the Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow).
It contained the normal Communist attacks on capitalism, but included one
sentence in which Stalin claimed: 'world capitalism proceeds through crisis and the
catastrophes of war'. American politicians took it as a threat.

Hungary (1947) Hungary was invaded by the Russians, and in 1945 the allies agreed that
Russian troops should stay there. Stalin allowed elections, in which the non-communists won a
big majority. However, some communists were elected, led by a pro-Russian called Rakosi.
Rakosi now started demanding that groups which opposed him should be banned. If not, he
hinted, the Russians would take over the country. Then he got control of the police, and started
to arrest his opponents. He set up a sinister and brutal secret police unit, the AVO. The
Hungarian Communist Rakosi described this process as slicing salami gradually getting rid
of all opposition, bit-by-bit. In this way, Russia gained control of:

Albania (1945) the Communists took power after the war without opposition Bulgaria
(1945) a left-wing coalition gained power in 1945; the Communists then executed the
leaders of all the other parties.

Poland (1947) a coalition government took power in 1945, but Stalin arrested all the
non-Communist leaders in 1945, and the Communists forced the other non-Communists
into exile.

Romania (19451947) a left-wing coalition was elected in 1945; the Communists

gradually took over control.

Czechoslovakia (194548) a left-wing coalition was elected in 1945. In 1948, the

Communists banned all other parties and killed their leaders.

East Germany (1949) the Russian turned their zone of Germany into the German
Democratic Republic in 1949.

The Long Telegram

The American State Department asked the American Embassy in Moscow for an analysis of
Soviet policy. Their question was answered by George Kennan, an Embassy official who had
lived in Moscow since 1933, and who hated Communism and the Soviet system. Kennan's
8,000-word reply - nicknamed 'the Long Telegram' - advised:

The Russians are determined to destroy the American way of life and will do everything
they could to oppose America.
This is the greatest threat the US has ever faced.
The Soviets can be beaten.
The Soviets must be stopped.
This can be done without going to war.
The way to do it is by educating the public against Communism, and by making people
wealthy, happy and free.

The Fulton Speech

On 5 March 1946, on the invitation of President Truman, Winston Churchill went to Fulton in
America and gave a speech.
He said a shadow had fallen on eastern Europe, which was now cut off from the free
world by an iron curtain. Behind that line, he said, the people of eastern Europe were
subject to Soviet influence . . . totalitarian control [and] police governments.

The Truman Doctrine: the situation in Greece and Turkey;

the purpose of the Truman Doctrine
Greece and Turkey

By 1946, Greece and Czechoslovakia were the only countries in Eastern Europe
that werent Communist.

Even in Greece, the government, which was being supported by British soldiers, was
having to fight a civil war against the Communists.

In February 1947, the British told Truman they could no longer afford to keep their
soldiers in Greece.

President Truman stepped in. The USA paid for the

British soldiers in Greece.

Truman noted that Turkey too was in danger from Soviet

aggression, so Congress voted to give aid to Turkey
as well.

Part of the money was given in economic and

humanitarian aid, but most was spent on military
supplies and weapons.

Truman Doctrine

In the 1930s, America had kept out of Europes business.

Now, on 12 March 1947, Truman told Americans that it was Americas DUTY to
interfere . His policy towards the Soviet Union was one of containment he did not
try to destroy the USSR, but he wanted to stop it growing any more. This was
called the Truman Doctrine.

The Marshall Plan: effect of Marshall Aid and the Soviet

response; Cominform and Comecon; Yugoslavia
The Marshall Plan

In June 1947, the American general George Marshall went to Europe. He said every
country in Europe was so poor that it was in danger of turning
Communist! Europe was a breeding ground of hate.

European countries owed $11.5billion to the USA from the war. There were extreme
shortages of all goods, and rationing was still common.

In 1947, Britain had a very cold winter and there was a severe coal shortage. This
meant that the electricity had to be turned off for a proportion of every day!

Marshall said that America should give $17 billion of aid to get Europes economy
going and stop
Communism.

Marshall said that it was up to the countries of Europe to decide what they
needed. In July 1947, led by Britain and France, the countries of western
Europe met in Paris, and asked for substantial economic aid.

Czechoslovakia
Pre-war Prime Minister, Benes, was not a communist, but he no longer trusted the West. He
was determined to establish good relations with the USSR in order to have protection for his
country in the future.

He visited Stalin and promised to support

the communists if Stalin helped to deport
the 2 million Germans still living in
Czechoslovakia.
In May 1946 the Communist Party
received 38% of the vote in free
elections. Again, to many Czechs the
communists were national heroes at this
time.
A coalition government with Benes as
President and Klement Gottwald as Prime
Minister was formed
However, in 1947, a dispute arose over
whether the Czechs should seek aid from
the American Marshall Plan.
Benes, and other non-communists in the
government, hoped that Czechoslovakia could become a bridge between east and west.
Stalin, however, was determined to prevent this and therefore approved a coup dtat
by Gottwald to remove the opposition and force Benes to resign.
A month later, the leading non-communist in the government, the Foreign Minister, Jan
Masaryk, was found dead beneath his office windows.
His death was officially described as suicide, but subsequent opening of the archives
proved that it was murder. When new elections were held in 1948 there was only one list
of candidates, all communists.

This prompted America to offer Marshall Aid

Stalins response.
Cominform and Comecon (Not the comic book convention)

The Soviet Union hated Marshall aid. Stalin forbade Communist countries to ask
for money.

Instead, in October 1947, he set up Cominform. Every Communist party in Europe

joined. This allowed Stalin control of the Communists in Europe.

Then, in January 1949, Stalin created Comecon - an economic union of the

Communist countries in eastern Europe. This allowed Stalin to control the Iron
Curtain economies for the benefit of Russia - for instance, one of its rules was that all
inventions had to be shared.

Yugoslavia
Only Yugoslavia objected, and was consequently expelled from the Cominform in 1948,
though she remained communist.

The Berlin Blockade and Airlift.

The USSR had already disagreed with Britain and the

USA at Potsdam (July 1945) about what should be done
with
Germany. Germany had been split into four zones.
There had been particular disagreement about
reparations:
Britain and America had wanted Germany to recover economically, but the Russians had
gained the right to take 10% of the industrial equipment of western Germany.

What caused it?

[CABAN]

Cold War was just getting started (e.g. Czechoslovakia, March 1948)
Aims Stalin wanted to destroy Germany Britain and the USA wanted to rebuild Germany.
Bizonia The Russians were taking German machinery back to the USSR. In January 1947,
Britain and the USA joined their two zones together to try to get German industry going. They
called the new zone Bi-zonia (two zones).
American Aid Congress voted for Marshall Aid on 31 March 1948. Russians started searching
all road and rail traffic.
New Currency On 1 June, America and France announced that they wanted to create the new
country of West Germany; and on 23 June they introduced a new currency. The next day the
Russians stopped all road and rail traffic.
The Soviet Union saw the crisis as an attempt to
undermine Soviet influence in eastern Germany; Stalin
said he was defending the east German economy
against. The western powers said Stalin was trying to
force them out of Berlin.

Airlift Facts

The blockade lasted 318 days (11 months).

In the winter of 194849 Berliners lived on dried
potatoes, powdered eggs and cans of meat. They had four hours of electricity a day.
The airlift was codenamed 'operation Vittles';
The Soviet authorities offered to provide West Berlin with essential supplies - this offer
was rejected.
275,000 flights carried in 1 million tons of supplies. A plane landed every 3 mins.
On 16 April 1949, 1400 flights brought in 13,000 tons of supplies in one day Berlin only
needed 6,000 tons a day to survive.
Some pilots dropped chocolate and sweets.
The airlift continued until 30 September 1949, in order to build up a reserve of supplies.
The USA stationed B-29 bombers (which could carry an atomic bomb) in Britain.

What were the Results? [CENA]

Cold War got worse It almost started an all-out war.

East and West Germany In May 1949, America, Britain and France united their
zones into the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany). In October 1949,
Stalin set up the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) .

NATO and the Warsaw Pact

Arms Race

Key issue: How did the Cold War develop in the

years 19491960?
The formation of NATO: its membership and purpose
After the Berlin Blockade American decided that the West needed a common defence to
oppose any acts of aggression.
It was becoming increasingly clear that no European force would be strong enough to
stop the Red Army if Stalin attacked, so in March 1949 the Brussels Pact (France and
Britain joined with the Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands) opened
secret negotiations with the Americans.
In April 1949 the North Atlantic Treaty was signed, which set up the North Atlantic Treaty
Organisation (NATO).

The Aims of NATO

NATO was a military pact

All countries agreed to help each other against any act of aggression

It was to have an army with a common command

Originally, NATO consisted of 12 members:

Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland (did not have an army, by did have a good
strategic geographic position in the Atlantic), Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway,
Portugal, Britain and the USA.

In 1954, the Soviet Union tried to join NATO, but was turned down.

Instead, on 9 May 1955, NATO brought West Germany into NATO it was this act which
provoked the Soviet Union to form the Warsaw Pact (1955).

The formation of the Warsaw Pact: membership and purpose.

In 1955 West Germany joined NATO, the USSR was concerned over this and this led to the
formation of the Warsaw Pact. The Pact was a military alliance for mutual defence between
Communist countries.

The pact stated that all nations should unite to prevent war. It was described as a
treaty of friendship,
co-operation and mutual assistance.

All the armies of the pact were placed

under the leadership of a Soviet
commander.
This allowed Soviet troops to be
stationed in these countries for the
purpose of defence.
It became a way for the USSR to keep
the countries under control.
The Warsaw Pact was seen as a
response to NATO, and divided
Europe into two rival alliances.

The founding signatories to the Treaty of

Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual
Assistance consisted of the following
communist governments:

Albania Poland USSR Hungary

Czechoslovakia Romania Bulgaria

The nuclear arms race: atom bomb; hydrogen bomb

The dropping of atom bombs in 1945 on Japan started the nuclear arms race between the USA
and USSR. It was believed the more nuclear weapons you had the more powerful you were.
The USA and USSR spent millions increasing their stockpiles of weapons and developing
deadlier weapons.

In 1945, the USA became the first country to develop and use a nuclear bomb.
By 1949, the USSR had caught up - it had developed and tested its own nuclear bomb.
The USSRs nuclear weapons test prompted the USA to develop hydrogen bombs,
By 1953, both countries had hydrogen bombs, and during the 1950s and 1960s, both
countries competed to create large numbers of nuclear weapons.

Stalin made atomic research a top government priority. Entire towns like Arazmas-16 were
created to house scientists and engineers.
The USA allocated 40% of its defence spending to the Air Force, particularly the
Strategic Air Command bombing force.

There was a further concern when the Soviets developed the Bison jet bomber and
the long-range TU-95 bomber. There aircraft could hit US cities with nuclear bombs,
and this triggered off a panic known as the bomber gap
In response, the new President Eisenhower ordered new B-52 bombers.
The arms race was significant because it prevented a war in Europe. The USSR had 3
million troops, and could easily capture Western Germany, should she so choose.
The Soviet leaders never ordered an invasion because they feared an American nuclear
retaliation.

The continuation of the nuclear arms/space race: Sputnik 1;

ICBMs; Polaris; Gagarin; Apollo

The Space Race was closely linked to the nuclear arms race. The ability to fire rockets would
mean the ability to fire nuclear missiles.

Up to 1957 the US had been ahead in the development of nuclear weapons, the launch
of Sputnik 1 changed this. The US still had to carry nuclear weapons by plane whereas
the USSR now had the technology to fire missiles on the US.
By 1959 the US had developed Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles.
In 1960 the US fired the Polaris missile from a submarine, this meant they could get
closer to the USSR and be more accurate.
Each country had enough weapons to destroy the other; this meant they were less
likely to use them. They continued the build-up weapons to keep the balance and this
was known as the nuclear deterrent.
By the end of the 1960s both countries had enough weapons to destroy the whole
world

Space Race
Space exploration served as another dramatic arena for Cold War competition. The
Russians took the early lead.

On October 4, 1957, a Soviet R-7 intercontinental ballistic missile launched

Sputnik (Russian for traveler),
The worlds first artificial satellite and the first man-made object to be placed into
the Earths orbit.
Sputniks launch came as a surprise, and not a pleasant one, to most Americans.

American response

In 1958, the U.S. launched its own satellite, Explorer I, designed

by the U.S. Army under the direction of rocket scientist Wernher
von Braun.
That same year, President Dwight Eisenhower signed a public
order creating the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA), a federal agency dedicated to space
exploration.

In 1959, the Soviet space program took another step forward with
the launch of Luna 2, the first space probe to hit the moon.
The space race created tension as both sides now had the ability to
launch
nuclear warheads.

The

nuclear deterrent:
progress with
nuclear
disarmament; the
space race in the
1960s

This is part of topic 5 but makes sense to go here in the revision

guide.
By 1961, both of the superpowers had hundreds of missiles pointed at one another.
The USA had more than the USSR, but the advantage did not matter in real terms, because both sides
had enough to destroy the other many times over.
MAD Mutually Assured Destruction was a theory on both sides which stated that such weapons
actually made war less likely and relations more secure.

In April 1961, the Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to orbit Earth,
traveling in the capsule-like spacecraft Vostok 1.

For the U.S. effort to send a man into space, dubbed Project Mercury, NASA engineers
designed a smaller, cone-shaped capsule far lighter than Vostok;

they tested the craft with chimpanzees,

They held a final test flight in March 1961 before the Soviets were ready to send
anyone actually into space.

On May 5, astronaut Alan Shepard became the first American in space (though not in
orbit).

On July 16, 1969, U.S. astronauts Neil Armstrong, Edwin Buzz Aldrin and Michael
Collins set off on the Apollo 11 space mission, the first moon landing attempt.

After landing successfully on July 20, Armstrong became the first man to walk on

the moons surface; he famously called the moment one small step for man, one
giant leap for mankind.

By landing on the moon, the United States effectively won the space race that had
begun with Sputniks launch in 1957. For their part, the Soviets made four failed attempts
to launch a lunar landing craft between 1969 and 1972, including a spectacular launch-pad
explosion in July 1969.

The Korean War, 19501953: reasons for involvement of UN and

USA; the role of MacArthur; the part played by USSR and China
The Japanese had occupied Korea from 1910 1945. After its defeat in WWII, Japan had to pull
out. It was agreed to divide the country along the 38th parallel (a line of latitude) because of
concerns about Koreas ability for self-governance. This was agreed at Potsdam by the Big
Three, but the Koreans were never consulted.

Causes of the war

[DUCKS]
President Truman was interested in the Far East:

Domino theory:
Europe was not the only place where Communists were coming to power. China
turned Communist in 1949. Truman believed that, if one country fell to Communism,
then others would follow, like a line of dominoes. He was worried that, if Korea fell,
the Communists would capture Japan.

Undermine Communism:
In April 1950, the American National Security Council issued a report (NSC 68)
recommending that America abandon 'containment' and start 'rolling back'
Communism.

Cold War:
Truman realised the USA was in a competition for world domination with the USSR. By
supporting South Korea, America was able to fight Communism without directly
attacking Russia. North Korea (led by Kim Il Sung) was Communist. South Korea (led by
Syngman Rhee) was capitalist. The two countries hated each other.

Kim Il Sung visited Stalin

In 1949, he persuaded Stalin that he could conquer South Korea. Stalin did not think
that America would dare to get involved, so he gave his agreement. Stalin saw a
chance to continue the cold war and discomfort America, but at arms length
without directly confronting the Americans. Kim Il Sung also went to see Mao
Zedong, the leader of China, to get his agreement.

Syngman
Syngman
was going to
was a good
North Koreans

Rhee In 1950,
Rhee boasted that he
attack North Korea. It
enough excuse the
invaded South Korea.

Events of the war

June - Sept 1950

On 25 June 1950, the North Koreans attacked. They were very successful. The North
Korean People's Army (NKPA) easily defeated the Republic of Korea's army (the ROKs)
They captured most of South Korea.
The Americans were alarmed On 27 June they persuaded the United Nations to pass a
resolution supporting South Korea. The Americans sent troops to Korea to reinforce the
South Korean Army at Pusan.

Sept - Nov 1950

On 15 September, the American General MacArthur led a UN amphibious landing at

Inchon (near Seoul) behind the NKPA . Out of the 300,000 UN troops, 260,000 were
Americans.
In danger of being cut off, the NKPA had to retreat. The Americans drove them back
and recaptured South Korea. 125,000 NKPA prisoners were taken.
On 7 October 1950 MacArthur invaded North Korea. He advanced as far as the Chinese
border. He boasted that the Americans would be 'home by Christmas'.

Nov 1950 - Feb 1951

Now the Chinese were alarmed. On 25 November, 200,000 Chinese troops ('People's
Volunteers') attacked
MacArthur. They had modern weapons supplied by Russia, and a fanatical hatred of the
Americans.
Then, on 31 December, half a million more Chinese troops entered the war and attacked
the
Americans. They drove the Americans back (using 'human wave
tactics'). They recaptured North Korea, and advanced into South Korea.

February March 1951

The Americans landed more troops. They used bombers.

The Chinese admitted to losing 150,000 men dead - western sources put the figure at
nearly a million Chinese and half a million North Koreans dead. The Americans drove
the Chinese back, but admitted losing 35,000 American soldiers dead doing so (the
Chinese claimed they lost 390,000).
MacArthur reached the 38th parallel in March 1951.

March 1951 1953

Truman told MacArthur to stop. MacArthur was sacked when he publicly criticised
Trumans order.
In 1953, Eisenhower became American president. The Americans threatened to use the
atomic bomb if China did not stop fighting. The Chinese agree to a truce, which was
signed on 27 July 1953.

The war raised tensions between Russia and America turning the
Cold War into a global conflict.
The Thaw: death of Stalin; Austria; Khrushchevs policy of
peaceful co-existence
Stalin died in 1953. After a short struggle for power, Khrushchev became the new ruler
in Russia.
In 1955, Austria regained its sovereignty and became an independent, neutral nation
after the withdrawal of Soviet troops from the country. This implied that things were
going to improve.
Peaceful Co-existence
At first, the western powers hoped that Khrushchev would be the start of a thaw in the
Cold War.

Khrushchev often met western leaders at summit meetings.

Stalin had made all Communist countries do what he wanted and he had fallen out
with President Tito of Yugoslavia. But in 1955 Khrushchev went to Yugoslavia, telling
Tito that there are different roads to communism.
Western leaders thought he would no longer insist that all communist countries take
orders from Russia.
In a speech at the Twentieth Party Congress in 1956, Khrushchev attacked Stalin,
saying that Stalin was a murderer and a tyrant.
Khrushchev began to de-stalinise Russia - political prisoners were set free and Beria
(Stalins Chief of Secret Police) was executed.
Khrushchev said that he wanted peaceful co-existence with the West. Western leaders hoped
this meant the end of the Cold War.

Increasing Tension
Peaceful co-existence actually increased the tension!
If the rulers of the West hoped that Khrushchev would bring an end to the Cold War,
they were disappointed. By peaceful co-existence, Khrushchev really meant
peaceful competition. He started to build up Russian power:

'De-stalinisation did not mean a change back to capitalism, or freedom from

Russian control.
When communist countries went too far in their reforms, Khrushchev sent in the
Red Army.
He visited countries like Afghanistan and Burma and gave them economic aid if
they would support Russia.
Russia began an 'arms race' and a space race with America.
In 1955 Khrushchev set up the Warsaw Pact a military alliance of Communist
countries to rival NATO. Pact countries had detailed plans of how to fight a
nuclear war against NATO if there was a war.
Russia waged a propaganda war against America and Britain.

Faced by this, America became just as aggressive:

In America, Senator McCarthy led a witch-hunt for Communists in America.

There was a propaganda war against Communism.

America was determined to win the 'arms race' and 'space race' with Russia.

The Americans used U2 planes to spy on Russia.

Hungary, 1956: causes of the rising, why it was a threat to the

USSR and how the Soviets dealt with it; the effects on Europe and
the Cold War
Causes
The basic cause of the Hungarian revolution was that the Hungarians hated
Russian communism:

Poverty. Hungarians were poor, yet much of the food and industrial goods they
produced was sent to Russia.
Russian Control. The Hungarians were very patriotic, and they hated Russian control
which included censorship, the vicious secret police (called the AVH after 1948) and
Russian control of what the schools taught.
Catholic Church. The Hungarians were religious, but the Communist Party had banned
religion, and put the leader of the Catholic Church in prison.
Help from the West. Hungarians thought that the United Nations or the new US
president, Eisenhower, would help them.
Destalinisation. When the Communist Party tried to destalinise Hungary, things got
out of control. The Hungarian leader Rakosi asked for permission to arrest 400 troublemakers, but Khrushchev would not let him.

Events of the Hungarian Uprising

It started with riots of students, workers and soldiers. They smashed up the statue of
Stalin, and attacked the AVH and Russian soldiers.
Imre Nagy took over as Prime Minister. He asked Khrushchev to take out the Russian
troops. Khrushchev agreed, and the Russian army pulled out of Budapest.
The new Hungarian government introduced democracy, freedom of speech, and
freedom of religion (the leader of the Catholic Church was freed from prison). Nagy
also announced that Hungary was going to leave the Warsaw Pact.
But Khrushchev decided to act, 1000 Russian tanks rolled into Budapest. By 8.10 am
they had destroyed the Hungarian army and captured Hungarian Radio its last words
broadcast were Help! Help! Help! Hungarian people even children fought them
with machine guns. Some 4000 Hungarians killed fighting the Russians.

Consequences of the Hungarian Uprising

200,000 Hungarian refugees fled into Austria.

Russia stayed in control behind the Iron Curtain no other country tried to get rid of
Russian troops until Czechoslovakia in 1968.
People in the West were horrified many British Communists left the Communist Party.
The West realised it could do nothing about the Iron Curtain countries but this made
Western leaders even more determined to contain communism.

Topic 5: Crises of the Cold War and Dtente 1960

1980
Key issue: How close to war was the world in the
1960s?
The U2 Crisis 1960: the purpose of U2; the responses of the USA
and the USSR to the crisis; the effect on the Paris Summit and the
peace process
As part of his policy of peaceful co-existence, Khrushchev visited the USA in 1959 and
promised to hold a summit meeting with the USSR, USA, France and Britain. Its purpose was to
try and solve some of the problems of the Cold War, with a treaty hopefully to be signed with
Germany, ending the Cold War.

The U2 incident and the Paris summit of 1960

By the end of the 1950s, there was massive tension in the Cold War:
The arms race - both sides accepted the need for some kind of Nuclear Test Ban treaty.
Berlin - the Russians were furious that many East Germans were fleeing to the west
through West Berlin.
Cuba - the Americans were worried because Fidel Castro, a Communist, had seized
power there in 1959.
A summit meeting was arranged for Paris to try to sort things out.
On 1st May 1960 - thirteen days before the summit - an American U2 spy plane was shot down
over Russia and the pilot, Gary Powers, was captured. At first, the Americans tried to say that it
was a weather plane, but they were forced to admit that it was a spy plane when the Russians
revealed that much of his plane had survived, and that they had captured Gary Powers alive.
When the summit met on 14 May, the first thing Khrushchev did was to demand that the US
president, Eisenhower, apologise. When Eisenhower refused, Khrushchev went home.
The Cold War had just become substantially more dangerous.

Consequences of the U2 crisis

Peaceful co-existence was ended.

Eisenhower was blamed for the failure
It was a propaganda victory for Khrushchev.
America accelerated its work on devising new ways of spying.

The Paris meeting collapsed and there was no Test Ban Treaty.

There was no discussion about

the problem of Berlin -

which, ultimately, led to the

The incident was seen as a defeat

Berlin Wall.
for the US - so they

elected John F Kennedy as

president because he

promised to get tougher with the

There was an exchange of spies to

Russians.
free Gary Powers.

The situation in Berlin: the Berlin Wall; Kennedys response.

The Marshall Plan had made West Berlin richer than the
East. People reacted to this by crossing the border from
East to West to have a better standard of living. Between
1945 and 1961 2 million people crossed from East to
West. This was an embarrassment to Russia, which
claimed that Communism was better. Also, many who
left were skilled workers.
The Russians also claimed that the Americans used West
Berlin for spying and sabotage.
At the Vienna summit of June 1961, Khrushchev again
demanded that the Americans leave West Berlin.
Kennedys refused and on 25th July increased Americas spending on weapons.
On 13th August, Khrushchev closed the border between East and West Berlin and built a wall.
The West was taken by surprise - the Communists regarded it as a propaganda success.
The wall completely sealed the East from the West, families were separated, people who lived
in the East and worked in the West lost their jobs.
In response, Khrushchev ordered a border of machine guns, barbed wire and concrete to be
built along the demarcation line between the two halves of the city. The Soviets threatened to
kill anyone who tried to cross the wall. Churchill had spoken of an iron curtain descending in
1946; in 1961 a real wall had been built dividing Berlin in half.
Kennedy used the building of the Berlin wall as a propaganda opportunity: if communism was
so great, why did the Soviets need to build a wall to keep people in? In 1963 Kennedy visited
West Berlin and in his speech he said "Ich bin ein Berliner" (I am a Berliner), this symbolised
his support for the city and his determination to prevent its fall to the communists.

Importance of the Wall

It reduced the number of defectors from East Berlin

It became a propaganda victory for the US
It stabilised the economy of East Germany
It was settled peacefully
Plans for a united Berlin and Germany were ended
It removed an area of likely conflict

Consequences of the Wall

Berlin was split in two. Hundreds of East Berliners died trying to cross it.
America complained, but did not try to take it down it was not worth a war.
Tension grew: both sides started nuclear testing.
The West became more anti-communist.
The Wall became a symbol in the West of Communist tyranny.

The Cuban Missile Crisis,1962: the effect of Castros seizure of

power in Cuba; Kennedy and the Bay of Pigs; Khrushchev and the
missile crisis of 1962; Kennedys response; the danger to the
world; the results of the crisis; the effect on Kennedy and
Khrushchev
The most serious event of the Cold War occurred in 1962. The Cuban Missile Crisis brought
the USA and the USSR to the brink of nuclear war. The crisis was over the deployment of
Soviet missiles on Cuba, a very near neighbour of the USA.

Background
From 1933-1959, a right-wing dictator called Batista ruled Cuba. The Americans bought sugar,
Cubas main crop; they also controlled much of Cubas economy. Batista was overthrown by
the Marxist Fidel Castro in 1959. The USA did not like Castro and refused to trade with Cuba,
as a result Castro seized American assets in Cuba and made an alliance with the USSR.

The Bay of Pigs 1961

President Kennedy tried to overthrow Castro in April 1961. Cuban rebels, with the support of
the CIA, launched an invasion of Cuba at the Bay of Pigs. The attack was a disaster and failed
dismally. The fiasco convinced Castro that the USA was enemy; he now turned to the USSR for
protection.

The Cuban Missile Crisis

In September 1961, therefore, Castro asked for and Russia publicly promised
weapons to defend Cuba against America.
In 1962 Khrushchev sent aircraft, boats and ground-to-air missiles to Cuba. Mediumrange nuclear weapons were also sent.
On 14th October 1962, U2 spy planes confirmed that nuclear missile sites had been
built in Cuba for the Soviets. These missiles had a 2500-mile range and could now
include most US cities as targets.
The situation was dangerous; Kennedy had lost face over the Bay of Pigs and the
building of the Berlin wall, he was not prepared to back down again.
On 22nd October Kennedy announced a 500-mile naval blockade of Cuba to prevent
nuclear missiles being delivered. Khrushchev was not prepared to go to war, but he did
not want to back down either.
The first Russian ship reached the naval blockade. It was an oil ship and was allowed
through. All the other Russian ships (carrying missiles) turned back. Secretly, the US
government offered to remove US missiles in Turkey in exchange for those in Cuba.
26th Oct: Russia was still building the missile bases, and Kennedy started planning a
military attack on Cuba - until, at 6pm, Khrushchev sent a telegram to Kennedy,
offering to dismantle the sites if Kennedy would lift the blockade and agree not to
invade Cuba.
During the next few days a U2 plane was shot down over Cuba and a Soviet cargo ship
was boarded. The world held its breath.
On 28th October the USSR agreed to remove its missiles
from Cuba; in return the USA ended its blockade on 20 th
November.

Results

Both the USA and the USSR realised that they had had a
narrow escape. Relations between the two sides had to
improve.

In 1963 a Test Ban Treaty was signed, banning the testing of nuclear weapons in the
air or under water. A hot-line was set up between Moscow and Washington.
A much greater spirit of co-operation existed between the superpowers after the
Cuban Missile Crisis, although there were a number of setbacks e.g. the Prague Spring
of 1968.
In the 1970s the thaw between the superpowers was known as dtente.

Czechoslovakia, 1968: Dubcek and the Prague Spring; why it

concerned the USSR and the Warsaw Pact and their response to
it; the effects on East-West relations; the Brezhnev Doctrine.
In 1964, Khrushchev had been ousted from power, and was replaced by Leonid Brezhnev.
In the 1960s, a new mood developed in Czechoslovakia.
A weak economy made this discontent worse; none of the reforms that were introduced to
strengthen the economy worked. The workers remained in poor housing and led the most basic
of lifestyles. The same occurred in rural Czechoslovakia where farmers had to follow
Communist Party rules with regards to agriculture, and innovation was frowned on.

Dubcek
In 1967, Dubek became the new Communist leader in Czechoslovakia.

Dubek announced that he wanted the Czech Communist Party to remain the biggest
and most important party in Czechoslovakia.
But he proposed a series of reforms: less censorship, more freedom of speech,
legalisation of political opposition groups, a reintroduction of capitalist elements into the
Czech economy and a reduction in the activities of the secret police.
He had taken on board lessons from the Hungarian Uprising, and assured Brezhnev that
Czechoslovakia would not pull out of the Warsaw Pact or Comecon.

Prague Spring
The opposition in Czechoslovakia was led by intellectuals as censorship had been eased, they
were able to launch attacks on the Communist leadership, pointing out to the people of
Czechoslovakia how useless and corrupt they were.
Communist government ministers were grilled live on TV about how they were running the
country, and about events before 1968. This period became known as the Prague Spring,
because new ideas were appearing everywhere.

Dubeks reforms were welcomed enthusiastically by students, intellectuals, workers

and younger members of the Czech communist party.
Older Czechoslovakian communists, however, were shocked by the Prague Spring, and
their horror was shared by Soviet Premier Brezhnev and his allies across Eastern Europe.

Brezhnev was horrified

would weaken the
Communism.

at this. He feared it
control and strength of

Consequences of the Prague Spring

On 20 August, 1968, Soviet tanks rolled into Czechoslovakia. Dubek ordered the Czech
people not to respond with violence.
The bulk of these troops were from the Soviet Union but to give the impression that
they represented the whole of the Warsaw Pact who all disapproved of Dubeks
reforms, there were groups of Polish, East German, Hungarian and Bulgarian troops
involved.
There was a great deal of non-violent civil disobedience from the Czechoslovakian
people.
Dubcek was arrested and taken to Moscow, where Brezhnev tearfully told him that he
had betrayed socialism. Dubcek was forced to sign the Moscow Protocol, which
committed the Czech government to protecting socialism by reintroducing censorship
and removing political opposition.
After the Prague Spring, the Soviet media portrayed Czechoslovakia as a huge threat to
the USSR.

Brezhnev Doctrine

Brezhnev went even further he put forward a justification of the invasion which
became known as the Brezhnev Doctrine.
According to this doctrine, the USSR had the right to invade any country in Eastern
Europe whose actions appeared to threaten the security of the entire Eastern Bloc.
Brezhnev argued that Dubceks actions threatened to undermine the Warsaw Pact and
communist control in Eastern Europe, therefore he had to invade.

Consequences of the invasion

Albania withdrew from the Warsaw Pact

America condemned it, but didnt take any action (already fighting in Vietnam)
Western European communist parties officially declared themselves independent of the
Soviet Communist Party
Yugoslavia and Romania distanced themselves from the Soviet Union, and publicly
condemned Brezhnevs actions, along with China.

Key issue: Why did Dtente develop and collapse in

the 1970s?
Reasons for Dtente: the motives of the USSR, USA, China and
West Germany
Dtente

(meaning "relaxation") is the easing of strained relations, especially in a political

situation.
In 1969, the Cold War entered a period of dtente. The Cuban Missile Crisis had brought the
world to the brink of a nuclear holocaust. During the late 1960s and 1970s, the leaders of the
USA (Nixon, Ford) and the USSR (Brezhnev) tried to ease tensions in their relationship.
In the West, this period was called dtente, in Russia razryadka.
The USSR and the USA signed some important treaties at the end of the 1960s that are
examples of the dtente relationship.

Reasons for Dtente

The war in Vietnam 58,000 American soldiers had been killed, and war crimes had
been committed on both sides. America was keen to avoid another confrontation.
The ongoing arms race was increasingly costly for both sides.
This was compounded by the fact that the price of oil rocketed in the 1970s, which
posed economic problems for the USA and the USSR.
The USSR was spending huge amounts on nuclear technologies, at the expense of basic
food and supplies for its people.
China - was fearful of its isolation in the world. The Chinese were also fearful of what
USA had done in Vietnam to quash Communism. Chinas stockpile of nuclear weapons
was a lot smaller than that of USA. China was also worried by her worsening relations
with USSR.

Things got so relaxed, that the USA sent its table tennis team to China and the phrase
ping-pong diplomacy was coined.

The progress of Dtente: SALT I, 1972; Brezhnev-Nixon Summits;

the Helsinki Agreement, 1975
The SALT I treaty was signed in 1972, seven years before SALT II treaty.
The SALT treaty stands for Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty.

Now the treaty was signed on May 26, 1972, by the United States and the Soviet Union.
What the treaty did was not to make each country stop making nuclear weapons
or ICBM but It made both countries not produce any more than they had already.
Due to this "flaw" each country was able to study how to add more power to
each rocket. They studied how to add more warheads.
They could still make as many non-nuclear weapons as they wanted.
This treaty had a huge impact on the Cold War because for example some say it
helped prevent a nuclear holocaust or even that the treaty helped the
development of rockets which helped Man get to the moon.

Helsinki Agreement 1975

Dtente progressed further with the Helsinki Agreement in 1975
The Helsinki Agreement recognised Soviet control over Eastern Europe (the Iron
Curtain), concluded a trade agreement, and Russia promised to respect human rights.

Limitations of dtente

The Non-Proliferation Treaty did not stop other countries developing nuclear
weapons (eg China, and South Africa and Israel).

Neither Russia or America kept to the SALT1 agreement. Neither side reduced
their conventional weapons. Further talks were much less successful and a SALT2
Treaty in 1979 added little.

In the Arab-Israeli War of 1973, America supported Israel, and Russia supported
Egypt and Syria.

The Helsinki Agreement achieved nothing - it confirmed the Iron Curtain and
Russia ignored its promises about human rights.

Table tennis and space meetings were just one-off propaganda stunts.

Brezhnev said that Communists would still try to destroy capitalism. Some
historians suggest that Nixon only went to China to drive a wedge between Russia and
China

The Soviet involvement in Afghanistan: reasons for Soviet

involvement; reaction of President Carter and the USA to the war
Afghanistan offered a land route between the oil-rich Middle East and the Soviet Union. Since
1947, the Soviet Union had heavily influenced Afghanistan, but it had also received aid from
the USA.

Context:
In January 1979, there was a revolution in neighbouring Iran, in which the Shah was
overthrown and replaced by fundamentalist Muslims. This revolution was deeply anti-American
53 US embassy workers were taken hostage in Tehran, and held for over a year. This
revolution also worried the Russians who wanted to control Afghanistan.

The Soviet Problem:

There had been a communist revolution in Kabul (Afghanistan) in, 1978 which saw the Afghan
royal family, replaced with a new government based in Kabul which was determined to build
socialism in Afghanistan.

In 1979, Hafizullah Amin seized control of the Afghan government. He was a communist
but didnt really like Russia.
He faced opposition from major Muslim groups.
The Soviet Union feared that these Islamic groups would take control of Afghanistan and
set up an Islamic state, as had happened in Iran.
Lots of Muslims lived in areas of the Soviet Union which bordered Afghanistan, so
Brezhnev feared that uprisings in Afghanistan would have a knock-on effect in the Soviet
Union.
The USSR was concerned that Afghanistan would become an Islamic state, and influence
nearby Soviet republics to do the same.

Inside Afghanistan, dissatisfaction with Amin was growing, and thousands of Muslims were
joining the Mujahideen, a guerrilla movement who claimed to be fighting a jihad.
On 25 December 1979, Soviet troops rolled into Afghanistan.
Within the week more than 50,000 Soviet troops had been sent to restore order and protect
the communist
leadership from the Mujahideen.

President Carters Reaction

Carter condemned the Soviet invasion and said that the USSR would have to pay for
their actions. Carter sent a USA force to protect the Arabian Sea and suspended all
trading with the USSR.
The USA also boycotted the 1980 Moscow Olympics and were disappointed that it didnt
receive more support from Europe
(The USSR boycotted the 1984 LA Olympics in retaliation to the US boycott of 1980, but
this was not as successful as the 1980 boycott).
It also led to the collapse of the SALT II negotiations.

The War

The Soviets quickly captured Kabul, the capital of Afghanistan but no more.

The mujahidin still controlled the countryside (over 80% of Afghanistan).

They fought a guerrilla war.
The Soviets had no training or experience fighting in mountains and the mujahidin
would attack the Soviets and then disappear into the mountains.
In total the Soviets launched nine offensives between 1980 and 1985, with little
success.
In 1988 Gorbachev announced a full withdrawal from Afghanistan, this was completed in
1989.

The failure of SALT II; the Olympic boycotts; deployment of Soviet

and US missiles in Europe
The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) were two international treaties involving the United
States and the Soviet
Union on the issue of armament control. (controlling the number of nuclear weapons).

The two rounds of talks and agreements were SALT I and SALT II.
Negotiations commenced in November 1969. SALT I led to the Anti-Ballistic Missile
Treaty and an interim agreement between the two countries.
Although SALT II resulted in an agreement in 1979, the United States chose not to ratify
the treaty in response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, which took place later that
year.
The United States eventually withdrew from SALT II in 1986.
The USA also boycotted the 1980 Moscow Olympics and were disappointed that it didnt
receive more support from Europe
(The USSR boycotted the 1984 LA Olympics in retaliation to the US boycott of 1980, but
this was not as successful as the 1980 boycott).
The thawing of the Cold War and the spirit of dtente that had existed in the 1970s was
over.

The Soviet Union began deploying SS-20 intermediate-range ballistic missiles

equipped with nuclear warheads along its western and south-eastern borders in 1977.

The United States and its NATO allies regarded this deployment as destabilizing to
the nuclear balance in Europe, and in December 1979 NATO decided to counter with
the deployment of Pershing II intermediate-range ballistic missiles and groundlaunched cruise missiles (GLCMs), both equipped with nuclear warheads.

Tensions increased when the US announced they would deploy Pershing II missiles
in West Germany, followed by US President Reagan's announcement of the US
Strategic Defense Initiative.

Topic 6: The Collapse of Communism and the Post

Cold War World 19802000
Key issue: Why did communism collapse in Central
and Eastern Europe?
Soviet failure in Afghanistan and its political and economic effects
on the USSR
After the first few months of 1980, Soviet troops controlled the towns in which they were
based,
but the Mujihadeen controlled the countryside.

The rebels were well equipped because the USA had been providing them with
weapons and funds.

The Soviets in Afghanistan found themselves in a situation where, although they

were a superpower with all the advantages of modern technology, they were
unable to win a guerrilla war.

The Mujihadeen attacked Soviet supply routes and shot down Soviet
helicopters. The Soviets suffered increasing amounts of casualties, but succeeded only
in propping up the unpopular Communist government in Kabul.

Although there were 125,000 Soviet troops in Afghanistan by the early 1980s, they
found it impossible to defeat the Afghan rebels.

In 1982, they tried to launch a massive attack on the Mujahideen in Panjahir

Valley, but this failed.

To compound these issues, the Soviet Union was also facing hostility from other Islamic
states, such as
Pakistan. The Soviets thus became increasingly worried that some of
the 30million Muslims living within the borders of the Soviet Union may revolt in support
of the Mujihadeen.

By 1985, the USSR had a new Premier, Mikhail Gorbachev. He realised that the
USSR could never win this war, and in 1987 he began talks with the USA. He
and President Reagan reached an agreement at Geneva in 1988.

The last Soviet troops left Afghanistan in February 1989.

Afghanistan was a disaster for the Soviet Union. Even the Soviet leaders could see the scale of
their mis-step. In addition to the cost
in men and materials, the decade-long
war of attrition was an extended
international humiliation
An extract from A History of Europe
since 1945 (2005),
by Tony Judt, a respected British
historian

Reagan and the renewal of the Cold War: attitudes to

Communism; development of new weapons; SDI
In 1981 Ronald Reagan became President. He hated communism and during his time there was
deterioration in the USSR-USA relationship.
Reagan had promised a hard-line approach to communism and promised peace through
strength and increased the spending on arms. It appears he thought the best way to beat the
USSR was to get so far ahead of them that they would have to back down.
Reagan saw about a massive increase in military spending ($325 billion $456 billion). He
also re-started the development of the neutron bomb and invested funds in the building of two
new bombers.
He also speeded up the development of the Peacekeeper missiles, installed cruise missiles in
Europe and announced the Strategic Defense Initiative (lasers designed to destroy
incoming missiles.

Solidarity in Poland: conditions in Poland; Lech Walesa; aims and

suppression.
In the 1970s the people of Poland were unhappy with the standard of life.

Price increases led to strikes and marches and the deaths of ordinary workers.
Further price rises and a shortage of basic foods caused more disaffection with the
Polish government in 1976.
This led to the formation of the first independent trade union, Solidarity (Trade unions
were not allowed in communist countries).
Solidarity encouraged the population to challenge the communist government in an
attempt to raise the standard of living.

Gdansk Shipyard

Opposition showed itself in the Gdansk shipyard in 1980, two outspoken workers had
been dismissed and when the government raised the price of meat and allowed no
wage increase the workers protested.
They locked themselves in the shipyard and issued 21 demands, these included the
right to form independent trade unions, the end of censorship, more freedom for the
church and improvements in the national health system.
News of the strike spread through Poland and strikes started in to happen in other ports
and factories.
The government was forced to accept the demands and Solidarity was recognised by
the government and by 1981 had over 9 million members.

Results
Working conditions improved and Solidaritys popularity increased.

Lech Walesa (the leader of Solidarity) became an international figure.

The USSR began to fear that Solidarity was becoming a political party. In December
1981 Soviet troops began to gather at the Polish border.
The new Polish leader declared Martial Law and overnight he arrested 5,000 members of
Solidarity, including Walesa. Strikes were dealt with by riot police and in 1982 Solidarity
was declared illegal.
Solidarity continued as an underground group until it took power in the free elections in
1989.

Gorbachev and Reagan: changing attitudes: Glasnost and

Perestroika; changes in domestic and foreign policy and their
effects; the collapse of the USSR
By the 1980s, the Soviet leadership was weak. Brezhnev died in 1982. The next two leaders,
Yuri Andropov and Konstantin Chernenko suffered from ill health, and by 1985 the USSR had no
leader.

Mikhail Gorbachev became the youngest leader to hold power since Stalin, at the age of
54.
Gorbachev appeared to be open to new ideas and was keen to see progress both within
the Soviet Union and also in international relations.

Problems
When he came to power Gorbachev was facing many problems within the USSR.

By 1985 the war in Afghanistan was costly and was draining the economy.
Trade and industry were outdated and the output was falling and of poor quality, the
USSR couldnt keep up with the technological advances of the West.
The communist system also guaranteed everyone a job and home so people were
becoming lazy in regards to their work, people no longer feared the state and had no
incentive to work.
People were losing faith in the government due to their inability to change and were
starting to turn to drink and this led to growing crime and people missing work.
Furthermore, the USSR was still in a costly arms race with the USA that they could not
afford.

Gorbachev realised that change was needed. He was also aware that he would have to be
careful so he didnt upset the rest of the communist party.
He began to reform the Soviet system by allowing Perestroika (restructuring) and Glasnost
(openness).

Perestroika
Perestroika introduced private profit into the USSR and was designed to accelerate the Soviet
economy. It allowed people to make private profit and led to the organisation of a new
Parliament called the Congress of Peoples deputies. This gave people the choice to vote for
parties other than the Communists.

Glasnost
Glasnost was a method to try to improve the Soviet government. It allowed free speech and a
reduction in censorship.

Opposition towards the government was allowed and non-communists

could stand for election.
Gorbachev realised that he couldnt compete with the USA, and he
announced he would reduce Soviet spending on arms.
Reagan met with Gorbachev and realised he was trying to change
Soviet attitudes to the Cold War.
Further meetings happened where both countries tried to negotiate.
They agreed in a reduction of nuclear arms, they banned mid-range
nuclear missiles and the USA agreed to stop the Strategic Defense
Initiative.

Impact of Gorbachev on US and Russian relations.

A general improvement in Soviet-American relations began soon after Gorbachev was
selected general secretary in March 1985.

Annual summit meetings between Reagan and Gorbachev were held at Geneva
(November 1985); Reykjavik (October 1986); Washington (December 1987);
and Moscow (May 1988).

At the Geneva summit meeting between Reagan and Gorbachev in November 1985, a
new general cultural agreement was signed that involved exchanges of performing
arts groups and fine arts and educational exhibits.

At the Reykjavik summit, some progress was made in strategic arms reductions
negotiations, although no agreements were reached.

At the Washington summit, the INF Treaty was signed.

Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty.

Washington, December 1987.
Eliminated all nuclear missiles with a range of 500-5500km.
First treaty to reduce the amount of nuclear missiles that the superpowers possessed.
Went further than SALT I which only limited the stockpiling of weapons.
At the Moscow summit, an agreement increasing the level and type of educational
exchanges was signed. Although no major arms control agreements were signed during the
Moscow summit, the summit was significant because it demonstrated a commitment
by both sides to a renewed dtente.

The end of Soviet control in Eastern Europe: the success of

Solidarity; the end of the Berlin Wall; Czechoslovakia and
Hungary; the fate of Gorbachev; the end of the Cold War.
Poor living standards had led to the criticism of communist leaders, most people wanted
glasnost and perestroika like the USSR. The problem however, was with the communist
leaders, who didnt want change.
Gorbachev realised that the USSR could no longer support the governments in Eastern Europe.
He thought that a relaxation over control would lead to a better relationship with the USA; it
would also make the USSR more attractive to trade with. In 1988 he abandoned the Brezhnev
Doctrine and told leaders they couldnt rely on the Soviet army to support them. This meant
that the rulers of Eastern Europe would have to relax their rule and listen to the demands of
their people.
This led to great changes. Countries in Eastern Europe started to leave the Soviet Union.

Poland
Free elections were held in 1988 and Lech Walesas party won all of the seats that were open
to them. The communist government tried to form a coalition with them, but Walesa refused.
In 1989 the first non-communist government was set up in a Soviet satellite state. In 1990
Lech Walesa became President of Poland.

Hungary
Hungarys change was smoother than other countries. From 1956-1988 Hungary was led by
Kadar, he had managed to gain some independence from the USSR and he traded with the
West, but remained loyal to the Warsaw Pact.
In 1989 Hungary opened its border to Austria, in October other parties were allowed to stand
for election and in 1990 the Hungarian Republic was declared. The last Soviet troops left in
1991.

Czechoslovakia
After the Prague Spring in 1968 Czechoslovakia had been ruled less harshly than other
countries.
In 1987 the government announced reforms similar to those of Gorbachev. Changes were slow
and there were demonstrations in 1988 and 1989.
In 1989 the communist government collapsed. Elections were held in 1990 where there was a
massive victory for democratic parties.

East Germany
The leader of East Germany refused to put Gorbachevs reforms into effect.
Many East Germans took advantage of Hungary opening its border with the West and fled
through Hungary, others showed their opposition with protests.
The communist government was forced to resign in 1989 and on November 9th the border
with West Germany was opened.
In Berlin, people marched to the Berlin Wall and started pulling it down.
Free elections were held in 1990, the old East Germany collapsed and Germany was reunited.

Key issue: What problems faced by the USA and UN

following the end of the Cold War?
The role of USA in the Post-Cold War World: USA as a global
power; military supremacy; the sole superpower; the champion of
democracy in the world; US relations in Europe.
The fall of the Berlin Wall, and the collapse of the USSR led to the emergence of a new world.

GDR/FRG reunified for the first time in 41 years. Elections were held and Kohl, the West
German leader was elected as Chancellor of a united Germany.
Berlin was unified as the capital city.
The USSR ceased to exist in December 1991, and split into several independent states,
the largest of which was the Russian Federation with Boris Yeltsin as President.
Yeltsin remained in power until 1999, when Vladimir Putin replaced him.
Russia took the place of the USSR in the UN.

Germany took a while to recover from the GDRs problems following reunification, and the
1990s saw a series of economic problems. Similarly, the Russian Federation with its 83 federal
territories spent much of the 1990s in transition.
This meant the USA was the only major superpower with any global influence. The
development of the WWW in the 1990s led to a revolution in global communications.
This rapid spread of ideas and information led to challenges to injustice and advances in
campaigns for Human Rights and democracy, as well as an increase in global crime.
With no competitors after the collapse of the USSR, the USA had a military and
economic strength that allowed them to dominate the world.
The question was, how should they use their might?

Work with European allies to create a peaceful and democratic Europe?

Act as the worlds police force, protecting underdeveloped countries against aggression?
Lead the world in technological developments?
Advance Human Rights globally?
Secure US economic interests?
Promote stability in the Middle East?

Working with the UN to make sure their actions were in line with International Law, the USA
became involved in the First Gulf War and in the Balkan Peninsular after the break-up of
Yugoslavia.

They also intervened unsuccessfully in Somalia in 1992/3 to support the internationallyrecognised government against rebel.
Also involved in Haiti in 1994, where US troops helped to restore democratically-elected
president after a coup against him. Meanwhile, the USA financed research which led to
them playing a key role in the development of the internet
The power and activities of the USA made it a target for terrorist attacks, who blamed
the USA for their problems.
This included the attach on the WTC in 1993, the bombing of the Khobar Towers in
Saudi Arabia which resulted in the death of 19 American servicemen who were
accommodated there, and the bombing of the American Embassy in Tanzania in 1998.
In spite of this, the general feeling was that the USAs role internationally was a positive
one (83% of Britons, 77% of Moroccans, 75% Indonesians, 62% Turks and 37% of
Russians).

The UN: case studies of UN action in Kuwait, Iraq and Kosovo;

success and failure of the UN

The UN

The purpose of the United Nations is to bring all nations of the world
together to work for peace and development, based on the principles of justice, human
dignity and the well-being of all people. It affords the opportunity for countries to balance
global interdependence and national interests when addressing international
problems

The invasion of Kuwait, 1990.

On 2nd August 1990, over 50,000 Iraqi troops supported by tanks and air strikes, crossed
the border and
entered the territory of its oil-rich neighbour Kuwait.
The force soon increased to 150,000, and Kuwaiti resistance was crushed within 2 days.

Possible causes:

In 1980, Saddam Hussein had invaded Iran. Some suggest that the invasion of
Kuwait was a continuation of Saddams quest to strengthen his position in the
Arab world.
Kuwait had supported Iraq against Iran in a war that took place in the 1980s and
had loaned them money. Saddam wanted the debt cancelled, but Kuwait refused.
Iraq was financially ruined by the war with Iran, and the oil in Kuwait could solve some
of their debts.
Iraq accused Kuwait of stealing their oil by drilling under Iraqi territory (slant drilling)
Kuwait was accused of flooding the oil market and keeping prices low, when Iraq
wanted them high to make more profit.
Saddam claimed Iraq was supporting a planned uprising in Kuwait against the ruler.
Iraq had never accepted Kuwait as a separate state and thought it should still be
part of Iraqi territory.
Iraq thought the USA would not interfere.

UN Reaction to the invasion

Condemned it immediately passed Resolution 660 on 2 August.
Condemned Iraq, demanded immediate removal of troops, and that the dispute was
solved diplomatically (by negotiation)
6 August UN imposes global trade embargo because they hadnt withdrawn.
29 November Ultimatum (Resolution 678) which threatened military action if no
withdrawal by 15 January 1991.
The USA took the lead in acting on the UNs resolutions. USA interested in the area fears re:
Saudi oil fields, as well as those of Kuwait. Iraq supported USSR in CW so atmosphere of
hostility anyway. USA felt Iraq sponsored terrorism.
2 August 1990 President Bush (Snr) organised Operation Desert Shield which involved an
increase in US troops in the Persian Gulf region. Made it clear the US was prepared to support
UN actions against Iraq.

What happened next?

Iraq did not withdraw

17 January 1991 Resolution 678 carried out American-led coalition of 30+ countries
(incl. Britain, France, Saudi, Egypt) launched Operation Desert Storm against Iraqi
invaders
American General Norman Schwarzkopf was put in charge of the campaign which began
with air-strikes, supported by naval action.
Iraq responded by launching Scud missiles which hit towns in Israel.
Saddam appeared to be hoping that Israel would respond, which could lead to Arab
countries supporting him against to coalition, but the Americans persuaded the Arab
countries to keep out, and used missiles to intercept other Scud missiles bound for
Israel.
UN coalition soon had control of the air, and destroyed the Iraqi navy.
24 February 1991 coalition forces entered Kuwait and within 4 days had driven out the
Iraqis and liberated Kuwait.
Iraqi army set fire to oil wells as they retreated.
28 February most of the Iraqi army surrendered or fled, ceasefire declared.

The UN and Kosovo - Background

The six states that made up Yugoslavia were culturally, ethnically and religiously different.
(Serbs, Orthodox Christian; Bosnians, Muslim; Slovenes and Croats, Catholic)
In addition, Kosovo was mainly populated mostly by Albanians. After the Collapse of
communism USA/Europe encouraged free elections.

This led to the break-up of Yugoslavia; Croatia and Slovenia declared independence in
1991. Yugoslav army resisted, but after 10 days of fighting in Slovenia, the army
withdrew.
Serbs living in Croatia (500,000), with the support of the Yugoslav army, rebelled and set
up their own republic in Croatia and began process of ethnic cleansing.
Area won back by Croats in 1995, who carried out their own ethnic cleansing so that
there were very few Serbs left in Croatia.
Events in Bosnia-Herzegovina followed a similar pattern; independence in 1991, Serb
opposition & republic, ethnic cleansing. UN protection force sent to prevent violence but
achieved very little.
1995 NATO Implementation Force took over the UNs peacekeeping role in the
Balkans.
NATO bombing campaign- ended Serbian siege of Sarajevo and peace was restored at
the end of 1995 at the Dayton Peace Accords.
Dayton Peace Accords set up two self-governing states within Bosnia-Herzegovina, the
Bosnian Serb Republic and the Bosnian Croat Federation as shown on the second map.
Supervision of this done by multinational military forces under the command of NATO,
acting on behalf of the UN.

The UN and Kosovo

Kosovo separate province within Serbia, occupied mostly by Albanians.

Death of Tito opportunity for change and independence.
Serbs small minority population regarded Kosovo as integral part of their identity.
Serb nationalism championed by Slobodan Milosevic, who became president of Yugo. In
1989 and began to reduce Kosovos powers of autonomy.
Kosovars passive resistance failed to gain any rights.
1996 Albanian rebels (KLA) began a series of terrorist attacks on Serbian targets
(police stations/Yugoslav govt. officers)
Protests escalated 1998 SM sent in Serbian reinforcements extra police and army.

Serbian army began ethnic cleansing resulted in massacres of Kosovo Albanians as well as
over 100k refugees fleeing Kosovo. After months of fighting and over 250,000 people displaced
from their homes, UN announced their concern at the conflict in September 1998. They
adopted Resolution 1199 which demanded both sides hold a ceasefire
When this did not happen NATO got involved, and began preparing for ACTWARN (activation
warning). Continued victimisation of Kosovars led to NATO beginning bombing campaign
against Serbs 11 weeks Serbs withdrew. Milosevic charged with war crimes.
UN commission established to demilitarise the area, organise protection and return of refugees
and ensure peace, and supporting work of Kosovar police force in keeping order.

On June 10, 1999, the UN Security Council passed UN Security Council Resolution 1244,
which placed Kosovo under transitional UN administration ( UNMIK) and authorised
KFOR, a NATO-led peacekeeping force. Resolution 1244 provided that Kosovo would
have autonomy within the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.
The majority of the Serb population left when the Serbian forces left. There was also
some looting of Serb properties and even violence against some of those Serbs and
Roma who remained.
Many displaced Serbs are afraid to return to their homes, even with UNMIK protection.
Around 120,000-150,000 Serbs remain in Kosovo, but are subject to ongoing
harassment and discrimination due to physical threats for their safety.

According to resolution 1244 (which is still in force), UNMIK is to:

perform basic civilian administrative functions;

promote the establishment of substantial autonomy and self-government in Kosovo;
facilitate a political process to determine Kosovo's future status;
coordinate humanitarian and disaster relief of all international agencies;
support the reconstruction of key infrastructure;
maintain civil law and order;
promote human rights; and
Assure the safe and unimpeded return of all refugees and displaced persons to their
homes in Kosovo.

https://hum3bg.wikispaces.com/1989_Berlin+Wall+falls