Voltaire is an empiricist who criticizes systematic rationalism through satire within

Candide.
Cited from the Oxford dictionary, rationalism is the theory that reason rather than
experience is the foundation of certainty in knowledge. Likewise, empiricism is stated as the
theory that all knowledge is derived from sense-experience. However, rationalism must be
clearly separated from empiricism. Rationalists claim that concepts and knowledge are gained
independently of sense experience (Markie). Contrarily, empiricism is the belief that sense
experience is the ultimate source of all our concepts and knowledge (Markie). In other words,
while rationalism places importance on abstract reasoning and knowledge, empiricism places
importance on how all knowledge is derived from our sense experience. Naturally, a balance
between abstract knowledge and practical experience is the most important. As the Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy states, if experience cannot provide the concepts or knowledge the
rationalists cite, then we don't have them (Markie). In other words, if the knowledge cannot be
gained through experience but only through reasoning, then the supposed knowledge is not
knowledge at all. In this way, empiricists skeptically question abstract reasoning as a source of
knowledge. Systematic rationalism is different from rationalism in that it is the monolithic
embrace of reason (Feder 199). In this way, the balance between reason and experience has
been disrupted.
Throughout Candide, the reader can see that Voltaire is definitely an empiricist. Voltaire
lived during the 18th century enlightenment, the intellectual movement that emphasized reason as
a source of knowledge. Therefore, it is not surprising for Voltaire to be skeptical of the
institutionalization of reason. This institutionalization of reason can be more accurately
regarded as the belief that reason legitimates power . . . that reason is power . . . it is power that
gives reason its prerogatives, that power, in short, produces the reason-or reasons-it needs.
(Feder 200). While proper reasoning can provide knowledge, which in turn provides power,
Voltaire is skeptical of the monolithic embrace of reason, when abstract reasoning itself has
become power, regardless of whether or not it provides any legitimate knowledge. An example
can be seen on page 20 of Candide, on the last paragraph, when Cunegonde, while walking
near the castle, in a little wood which they called a park, saw between the bushes, Dr. Pangloss
giving a lesson in experimental natural philosophy to her mother's chamber-maid, a little brown
wench, very pretty and very docile. As Miss Cunegonde had a great disposition for the sciences,
she breathlessly observed the repeated experiments of which she was a witness; she clearly
perceived the force of the Doctor's reasons, the effects, and the causes; she turned back greatly
flurried, quite pensive, and filled with the desire to be learned; dreaming that she might well be a
sufficient reason for young Candide, and he for her. In regards to diction, take note of the
apostrophes around the park and sufficient reason. Both are great examples of how Voltaire
utilizes his famous satire and wit to criticize systematic rationalism through the figure of
Pangloss. Other words like pretty little brunette, eminently teachable, great interest in
science, and breathless fascination further the comic effect. The important part is the satiric
connection Cunegonde makes between science and reason. Her abstract reasoning itself excuses
Pangloss actions and her own desire to reason equally well with young Candide. In this case,
Cunegondes experience itself will be derived from her reasoning and supposedly scientific
knowledge when it is her knowledge that is supposed to be derived from her sense experience.
Voltaire uses such a satiric metaphor to warn of the dangers of abstract systems and
metaphysical explanations. Oxford describes metaphysical as something based on abstract

(typically, excessively abstract) reasoning. Voltaire more directly ridicules metaphysical

rationalism at the top of page 20 when he says, Pangloss taught metaphysico-theologo-cosmolonigology. Such diction clearly satirically criticizes metaphysical rationalism. On the same page,
Voltaire describes Pangloss oddly named philosophy as the belief that because of cause and
effect, this world is the best of all possible worlds. Such optimistic twisted abstract reasoning that
excuses the suffering of the unfortunate is at the center of the systematic rationalism Voltaire
opposes.
An interesting part of Pangloss metaphysico-theologo-cosmolo-nigology is the word
theologo which is presumably theology. Oxford states theology as religious beliefs and theory
when systematically developed. The words theory and when systematically developed
clearly emphasize the link between religion and systematic rationalism. Once again, systematic
rationalism is the monolithic embrace of reason which leads to the institutionalization of
reason. Religion is a good example. When Candide and Cacambo arrive in Paraguay, they meet
the Jesuits, which Oxford states is a Roman Catholic order of priests. Cacambo describes the
Jesuits on page 62 when he says, I was a servant in the College of the Assumption, and am
acquainted with the government of the good Fathers as well as I am with the streets of Cadiz. It
is an admirable government. The kingdom is upwards of three hundred leagues in diameter, and
divided into thirty provinces; there the Fathers possess all, and the people nothing; it is a
masterpiece of reason and justice. For my part I see nothing so divine as the Fathers who here
make war upon the kings of Spain and Portugal, and in Europe confess those kings; who here kill
Spaniards, and in Madrid send them to heaven; this delights me. Once again, in regards to
diction, words like wonderful, masterpiece, godlike creatures, and delightful express Voltaires
satiric criticism of the institutionalization of reason within religion. While colleges during the
Enlightenment taught abstract knowledge, modern colleges tend to teach much more empirical or
practical knowledge that is gained through experience. The contrast explains why Voltaire so
vehemently criticizes systematic rationalism. Voltaire juxtaposes the reverend fathers who own
the whole lot and the people who own nothing. He also juxtaposes how the reverends fight
the Kings of Spain and Portugal over here [Paraguay] and give them absolution in Europe.
Oxford defines absolution as the formal release from guilt, obligation, or punishment. This
explains why Cacambo says the reverend fathers kill Spaniards in Paraguay and send them to
heaven in Madrid. All of this contradiction is wrapped up when Cacambo says thats what I
call a masterpiece of reason and justice. It sounds like what Voltaire would satirically say
himself. Through Cacambo, Voltaire has expressed the inherent contradiction within both
religion, its institutionalization of reason, and systematic rationalism.
Thus far, only Voltaires criticism of systematic rationalism has been discussed. In
Candide, there are also many examples of his support of empiricism, which emphasizes
knowledge gained through sense-experience. Such empirical knowledge is not limited to the
fields of science but also extends to the most common and important empirical knowledge within
Candide. The knowledge of suffering the characters experience. Through Candide, who is also
optimism, Voltaire satirically puts an end to Leibnizian optimism which is a subset systematic
rationalism. As mentioned earlier, Pangloss rationalist and metaphysical philosophy is the belief
that this world is the best of all possible worlds. Such twisted Leibnizian optimism is indeed an
example of the abstract logic within systematic rationalism. Candides suffering is repeatedly
caused by patriotism, when he is impressed into the army by the Bulgars on page 23, and by
religion, when he is nearly roasted or boiled by the Oreillons on page 71, who hate Jesuits. Both

patriotism and religion are examples of systematic rationalisms empty abstractions. Candide and
Pangloss attempt to face reality with optimistic systematic rationalism and empty abstractions
and Voltaire repeatedly shows how ridiculous that is. Candides suffering demonstrates that
humans beings are neither the masters of the earth nor of fate, which is what systematic
rationalism and Leibnizian optimism both declare as fact. Through satirically emphasizing
Candide and the other flat characters empirical suffering in material reality as opposed to
Candides ignorance within abstract reasoning, Voltaire successfully criticizes both Leibnizian
optimism and its constituent systematic rationalism. However, the characters empirical
experience is not only limited to their suffering but also to their happiness within their practical
material garden at the conclusion of the novel.
On page 139, when Cacambo was the only one toiling in the garden and everyone else
had a lot of leisure time, Voltaire writes that Candide, Martin, and Pangloss sometimes
discussed metaphysics and morals. Eventually, their boredom become so intolerable that the
old woman says on page 140, I should like to know which is the worst . . . to experience all the
miseries through which we have passed or just to stay here with nothing to do? Her question
implicitly ridicules metaphysics and systematic rationalism as a useless boring activity, boring
enough to contest with all their miseries. Ironically, most of their miseries were caused by
religion, patriotism, and optimism, all of which are some form of empty abstraction, similar to
their useless philosophizing. Voltaires solution to their boredom, his proposed form of happiness
for the characters, is work. As Martin proposes on page 144, We must work without arguing . . .
that is the only way to make life bearable. They all agree to this admirable plan, and each
began to exercise his talents. As opposed to metaphysical rationalism, where no one exercises
their talents. Voltaire proposes that a pure empirical experience of simple daily work in which
everyone contributes to a small community with minimal abstract rationalist philosophizing is
the way to happiness. He writes on page 144, Cunegonde was decidedly ugly, but soon she
made excellent pastry. Pacquette was clever at embroidery, and the old woman took care of the
linen. No one refused to work, not even Brother Giroflee, who was a good carpenter, and thus
became an honest man. Before all the characters decided to partake in work, in pure empiricism,
the reader was never aware of their talents and the characters never exercised their talents.
Furthermore, Voltaire suggests that empiricism will make the characters better people,
Cunegonde who was ugly made excellent pastry and Brother Giroflee became an honest man
through carpentry. As one last jab at systematic rationalism and its uselessness, continuing on
page 144, Voltaire makes Pangloss suggest that this happiness is the result of a chain of events
in this world that is the best of all possible worlds. Candide replies with Thats true
enough . . . but we must go and work in the garden. In other words, Voltaire is saying that
regardless of rationalism and its abstract concepts, man must indulge in work, in the senseexperience, and thus in empiricism. It is in this way that Voltaire is an empiricist who
vehemently criticizes systematic rationalism and empiricism as the way to happiness.