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Enzymes, Vitamins, and

Hormones
An organism that contains carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids may
be complete structurally, but it still does not have all the compounds
it needs to carry on its cellular processes. Specialized proteins called
enzymes facilitate almost every reaction that takes place in living
organisms. Vitamins are small but indispensable nutrients that organisms cannot produce by themselves. Hormones serve as chemical
messengers from one part of an organism to another. These too are
the molecules of life.

Enzymes: Organic Catalysts

Enzymes are protein molecules that act as catalysts. For example, an
equilibrium between carbon dioxide, water, and carbonic acid functions as the red blood cells pick up carbon dioxide from muscles,
transport it to the lungs, and then release it during respiration. Once
carbon dioxide is released, red blood cells immediately pick up oxygen. An enzyme named carbonic anhydrase catalyzes both of these
reactions. Without this enzyme, one molecule of hemoglobin would
react approximately every 100 seconds. With the enzyme, however,
100000 molecules can react every second. In this reaction, the rate
is multiplied by a factor of 107. Without that increase, there would be
no way for the lungs to exchange enough gases to support the respiratory process needed to maintain life.

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CO2 + H2O

carbonic anhydrase

H2CO3

Enzymes act with amazing precision. God, in His omnipotence,

designed the enzymes so that they would select just the right types
of molecules on which to act. An enzyme called trypsin catalyzes a
reaction that breaks down protein chains. What is remarkable is that
the enzyme splits protein chains only on a certain site of two amino
acids; it ignores all other sites on the protein chain.
How can enzymes work so fast, in so many applications, and
with such precision? Researchers have proposed several models to
account for what has been observed. One widely accepted model is
the lock-and-key model. It holds that enzymes catalyze reactions by
placing reactants in ideal positions for the reactions to occur. When
an enzyme and the substance on which it works combine, collisions
with other reactants are more effective than without the enzyme.
A complete understanding of how enzymes work will involve a
thorough knowledge of the shapes and sizes of the biological moleculesnot an easy task, considering how complex large proteins can
be. Like the study of steroids, enzyme research is currently one of the
most exciting and active areas in biochemistry.

Vitamins: Micronutrients
As far as biochemistry is concerned, sailors had it rough in the old
days. For British seamen, long trips almost certainly meant bleeding
gums, loose teeth, cuts that did not heal, and weight loss. Japanese
navigators faced stiff lower limbs and possible paralysis. The causes
of these plights had nothing to do with the sea, but rather with the

Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry

Chapter Eighteen

unbalanced diets of the seamen. They had the vitamin-deficiency

diseases now known as scurvy and beriberi.
Vitamins are organic substances that are essential for normal
nutrition, but they are not carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, or fats.
The British sailors lacked ascorbic acid, or vitamin C, in their onboard diets. A daily ration of lemon or lime juice provided the necessary nutrient to help control the symptoms of scurvy and earned the
sailors the nickname limeys. The Japanese navy fought the disease
of beriberi in the late 1800s by introducing portions of wheat and
barley and unpolished rice into their diets. The hulls of these grains
contain vitamin B1, which relieved the sailors suffering. The doctor
who first isolated the organic substance that cured beriberi found
that it contained an amine (NH2) group; he called it a vital amine,
or vitamin.
Vitamins are vital to the proper functioning of enzymes. Vitamin C is connected with the formation of the intercellular glue in
bones, connective tissue, and cartilage. The B vitamins help enzymes
break down carbohydrates. Without them, pyruvic acid, a product
of incomplete carbohydrate breakdown, accumulates in the muscles
and causes the pain of beriberi. Today, approximately twenty-one vitamins are known, but researchers suspect that several others exist.
The known vitamins can be classified as either water soluble or fat
soluble. Tables 18-11 and 18-12 list the common vitamins, their functions, and the possible consequences of deficient intake.

18-11 Fat-Soluble Vitamins

Vitamin

Deficiency symptoms

Dietary sources

contributes to visual
pigments in the eye

inflammation of eyes, night

blindness, and drying of
mucous membranes

eggs, butter, cheese, liver, dark green and

deep orange vegetables

aids in absorption and

deposition of calcium

rickets (defective bone growth)

fish-liver oil, fortified milk

protects blood cells,

unsaturated fatty acids, and
vitamin A from oxidation

anemia, bursting of red blood

cells

wheat germ, whole grain cereals, liver,

margarine, vegetable oil, leafy green
vegetables, egg yolk

aids clotting of blood

slow-clotting blood

liver, cabbage, potatoes, peas, leafy green

vegetables

Water-soluble vitamins can be excreted from the kidneys; therefore, they need to be replenished constantly. Unlike water-soluble
vitamins, excessive amounts of fat-soluble vitamins can accumulate
in the fatty tissue. Although vitamins are essential to good health,
megadoses ofsome vitamins can be harmful. Excessive amounts of
vitamin A can result in brain and kidney damage. Too much vitamin
C has been linked to kidney stones. (See Table 18-12.)

Hormones: Chemical Messengers

Complex organisms have many specialized body parts that must
constantly communicate with each other. The brain must know
when the eyes see something as significant as a charging rhinoceros,
the adrenal gland must know when it is time to secrete adrenaline,

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Functions

and the muscles must know when to respond to the danger with
increased activity. Nerves, which carry electrical messages, handle
many of the bodys communications, but they are not alone in this
task. Hormones are chemical messengers that are produced by the
endocrine glands and are transported by the bloodstream to various
areas of the body.
Hormones are a chemically diverse lot. They can be steroids, polypeptide chains, or proteins. These compounds, when released into the
bloodstream or other body fluids, travel throughout the body. Despite
the fact that they come into contact with many cells, they act only
on their target cells. Research findings suggest that the target cells
contain receptor molecules that recognize specific hormones by
their shapes.
Hormones are also found in insects and plants. Biochemical researchers use insect sex attractant hormones called pheromones to
trap and disorient insect pests. The pheromone for the gypsy moth,
for example, is effective at a level of 1 10-13 gram. Some herbicides
are modeled after plant hormones in order to be very selective in
the plants that they kill. Continued biochemical research will enable
us to replace broad-spectrum pesticides and herbicides with compounds that will act against specific targets.

Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry

18-12 Water-Soluble Vitamins

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Vitamin

Functions

Deficiency symptoms

Dietary sources

B1 (thiamine)

aids in carbohydrate metabolism

fatigue, beriberi, accumulation

of body fluids

pasta, bread, lima beans, wheat

germ, nuts, milk, liver, peas, pork

niacin

aids in energy utilization

inflammation of nerves and

mucous membranes, dermatitis

meat, whole grains,

poultry, fish, peanuts

B2 (riboflavin)

aids in protein metabolism

dermatitis, inflammation
of the tongue, anemia

milk, meat, eggs, mushrooms,

dark green vegetables,
pasta, bread, beans, peas

B6 (pyridoxine)

aids in amino acid metabolism

convulsions in infants,
inflammation of the tongue,
increased susceptibility
to infections

muscle meats, liver, whole

grains, poultry, fish

B12

aids in the formation

of nucleic acids

retarded growth, spinal

cord degeneration

meat, fish, eggs, milk,

kidneys, liver

C (ascorbic acid)

builds strong connective tissues in

bones, cartilage, and blood vessels

slow wound healing,

scurvy, anemia

citrus fruits, melons, tomatoes,

green peppers, berries,
leafy green vegetables

pantothenic acid

aids in respiration

gastrointestinal disturbances,
depression, mental confusion

whole grain cereals, bread

folic acid

aids in formation of heme

groups and nucleotides

various types of anemia

kidneys, liver, leafy

green vegetables, wheat
germ, peas, beans