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Exam Review Answers:

1- Semi-angle of inclination between two sight-lines to a star.


2-A smooth continuous spectrum
3-The black body will begin to emit visible light
4-It is a spectrum of EMG radiation emitted by a source. Created by photons emitted by atoms and
molecules
5-A spectrum of EMG radiation transmitted through a substance, showing dark lines or bands due to
absorption of specific wavelengths.
6-The sun in the grand scheme of the cosmos has a fairly small radius, mass, and low brightness
7-One could use a sunspot on the sun in order to estimate its rotational period. The rotational period of
the sun is 25 days at its equator and 36 days at its poles
8-The Photosphere, this is where the sun emits photons.
9-5770K, We infer the temperature based on the luminosity
10- By using the Boltzmann equation to relate temperature, radius and luminosity
11-The amount of energy generated in the sun's core is not equal to the amount leaving. The amount
generated is spread out and absorbed over the many large layers of the sun until finally being released
from the surface (takes about 100000 years)
12-The study of the propagation of wave oscillations, particularly acoustic pressure waves, in the sun.
13-Radiation: on average hotter photons move out and cooler (low energy) photons move in.
Convection: rising/falling of hot/cool gases
14-Cooler falling gas bubbles appear darker and Hotter rising gas bubbles appear Brighter
15- Its composition
16- 70% hydrogen, 28% Helium, 1.5% carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen, 0.5% trace elements
17-The hottest region of the sun is the core, about 15.7 million Kelvin, giving off visible light
18-Radiative zone, where nuclear fusion takes place. (core) about 0.2 to 0.25 solar radii
19-Photosphere- where light is emitted, about 5700 K
Chromosphere- just above the photosphere, higher temperature
Corona- above chromosphere, 1-2 million K, emits x-rays
Solar Wind- charged particles flow away from the sun (only about 0.1% of the mass)
20-Due to the structure of the sun's magnetic field
21-Areas of cooler falling gas that in comparison to the bright regions around them look dark
22-There will be a disturbance in the current sheet across the solar system and as a result we will see
more auroras when the suns magnetic field flips ends
23- It requires immense amounts of energy to bond two atoms together through kinetic fusion
24- Energy when fusing together hydrogen atoms into helium atoms is created and released from the
sun, this is its primary source of energy
25-It is the conversion of 4 hydrogen nuclei and ending with one Helium nuclei
26-For elements before Iron, nuclear fusion releases energy, for elements after iron, nuclear fusion
absorbs energy, this is known as the iron peak
27-Hydrogen fusion makes neutrinos (light atomic particles with no charge) , the problem with
neutrinos is they are nearly impossible to detect as they flow through everything
28-By using a parallax or by relating temperature and radii to luminosity. Also by measuring their
absorption spectrum
29-The stars in our nearby neighbourhood since they tend to be small and red and fall along the main
sequence, bright stars tend to be far away and are rare overall
30-We can determine a stars transverse velocity by seeing whether it is red shifted of blue shifted and
by how much. We can determine the radial velocity by using the doppler effect and the effect of nearby
orbiting bodies

31-One could have a smaller radii and higher temperature, while the other could haves moderate radii
and moderate temperature. Both producing the same apparent luminosity
32- Its type of core burning
33- As a blackbody gets hotter and hotter it tends to emit more visible light
34- The temperature of the star
35- stars can be along the main sequence and be red or be off the main sequence and be red giants. The
colour doesnt really give a scope of any other characteristics besides temperature
36- Colour, size, luminosity and as a result temperature
3738-White and blue Low mass but high brightness stars sit below the main sequence, whereas red and
yellow giant stars sit above the main sequence
39-Masses can be directly determined
40- Based on parallax or radial velocities
41- They are too low in mass to maintain core Hydrogen fusion
42- Stars move of the main sequence when they run out of their primary source of fuel and have to
change sources. When this happens they go into the Giant Phase. The lifetime of a massive star is much
shorter than that of a less massive star. As the more massive the star the quicker it burns through its fuel
43- Matter that exists between the star systems in a galaxy, this matter includes gas in ionic, atomic and
molecular form, dust and cosmic rays, and can be around as low as 2.7 K to as high as 7000 K
44- Known as cosmic dust, it is comprised of comet dust, asteroidal dust coming from the kuiper belt.
It can block the view of stars and their orbiting bodies as it can become quite thick forming cosmic dust
clouds
45-A cloud of ionized gas. The gas is ionized from nearby stars emitting high energy photons. Young
stars tend to ionize part of the same cloud from which it was formed
46- They are so massive that they begin to attract other stars towards them
47- It becomes dense and collected in order to form high density stars
48- As mass begins to collapse towards the core of the star forming a disk the inherent velocity must go
somewhere if momentum is to be maintained (which we know it must) therefore the star begins to
rotate
49- Two star form either in separate or close proximity clouds and eventually begin to orbit a common
centre of mass
50- The process in Protostar formation is fast but may be obscured by the cloud unto which it was
formed
51- Protostars form, then with no energy source they steadily shrink, the star is compressed to higher
densities and temperatures, as they get close to the main sequence, hydrogen burning smoothly begins
and the luminosity stabilizes
52- Globular clusters form and are tight groups of hundreds of thousands of very old stars which are
gravitationally bound, while open clusters are more loosely clustered groups of usually very young
stars
53- Hydrostatic Equilibrium, as it gets smaller, pressure increases and gravity gets stronger bouncing it
back to equilibrium
54-It begins to use Helium burning, faster and faster burning and more energy released
55- They uses a different type of burning that is faster and as result they increase in size and
temperature releasing more and more energy quicker
56- The core begins to spontaneously use helium fusion as it runs out of Hydrogen
57- The star goes into the super giant phase and helium becomes all used up. The star then puffs up to
10000x the luminosity of the original star. Very short lived and the star eventually ejects allits outer
layers into space
58- Has immense amount of density in the white dwarf stage

59- The sun will become far to massive and hot and the earth will become inhabitable and eventually
be engulfed by the sun
60- The ejected material from the star forms planetary nebula, and become ionized by the star if the
conditions are right
61- The one star would most likely engulf the other
62- The Nuclear burning eventually reaches a point where it doesn't produce enough energy as it moves
through different types of burning ( H to He etc all the way to iron)
63- The star releases its outer layers and degrades to a white dwarf and a planetary nebula
64- Once all stars reach a certain point they become either red giants or white dwarfs
65- They are held up by quantum degeneracy pressure, meaning that no two neutrons or any other
fermionic particle can occupy the same quantum state
66- A supernova may occur when the star collapses under its own gravity to form a neutron star or
black hole. Or a star may undergo runaway nuclear fusion completely disrupting the star
67- A supernova causes the release of heavier elements into the interstellar medium
68- Highly magnetized rotating neutron star, first discovered based on their regularly timed radio
emissions. They rotate due to the conservation of angular momentum in the formation of the neutron
star
69- The point of no return where, an object cannot escape the gravity force of the black hole. The
Schwarzschild radius represents the ability of mass to cause curvature in space and time. Any object
smaller than this radius is defined as a black hole
70-Gravity according to Einstein is a distortion in spacetime, a curve in spacetime
71- This radiation is coming from small objects falling towards the black hole
72- A system of millions or billions of stars, together with gas and dust, held together by gravitational
attraction
73- Nebulae were never found on the plane of the galaxy which implied that they somehow had to be a
part of the galaxy itself
74-You can measure their period and know how far away they are
75-They are found in the halo of a galaxy and can be useful in judging distances
76-Most gas and dust is contained in the disk of the galaxy and along the spiral arms, the old stars form
in a bulge towards the centre of the galaxy. The young stars are located in the spiral arms of the milky
way
77-The rotation of the disk of gas forms spiral arms, central parts rotate faster than the outer parts
forming density waves
78- Orbital speeds of gas and stars depend on the mass of the galaxy and as a result there is not enough
visible matter to explain this, therefore there must be dark matter.
79-About 95% of the mass is dark matter, located in a large dark matter halo enclosing the galaxy
80-A super massive black hole. Based on the attraction of objects towards the centre of the galaxy and
disk of gas surrounding it
81- Large disk shaped,gas and dust in the disk, relatively blue, clouds compressed in the arms, rotation
of disk forms arms
82-large and small, have a a bulge, very faint disk like structures
83- Galaxies will not change types in isolation, colliding galaxies change type
84- The gases will collide but the stars will not ever collide since the spaces between stars are so vast
85- Intergalactic gas and Dark matter which is inferred through xray radiation and gravitational effects
respectively
86-Galaxies are formed through the collapse of a protogalactic cloud, were formed more rapidly in the
past
87-We view this by looking at the red shift of galaxies meaning they are moving further away

88-Hubbles law is essentially a line of fit between distance and velocity. This law explains that the
universe is constantly expanding and that there is no centre of the universe and no centre of expansion
it is expanding in all directions, everywhere
89- you can equate hubble's law to estimate the age of the universe by using the distance and velcotiy
of an object with reference to earth. Since everything is expanding uniformly the age of the universe is
estimated at roughly 13.8 billion years
90- Active galaxies containing an active galactic nuclei emit large amounts of light across the
electromagnetic spectrum
91-Super massive black holes are thought to power the active galaxies. Quasars form around the black
hole and emit large amounts of light
92-Very luminous at radio wavelengths, are created via beams of high energy aprtciles and magnetic
fields coming from close to the active nucleus
93-The black holes strong gravity bends the light from behind it to the front
94- Black holes have less and less fuel and as a result quasars are not as visible and the light from
previous ones has not reached us
95-Matter in the universe is distributed homogeneously when observed at a large enough scale
96- If stars emit the same radiation as a perfect black body how can the sky be dark. The universe is
expanding and therefore the light is redshifted to faintness. Another explanation includes the finite age
of stars and the fractal star distribution
97-The struggle between the momentum of expansion and the pull of gravity on itself
98- As the universe gets older it gets large and larger and as a result creates a struggle between the
momentum of expansion and the gravity it imposes on itself
99-The entire universe is curved under its own gravity and as a result has the risk of collapsing under
itself
100-The sky faintly glows in microwaves, from when the universe was hot and ionized
101- The first two minutes after the big bang when the universe was a big soup of sub-atomic particles
and Hydrogen fused to form deuterium which then quickly converted to helium
102- It had a massive amount of mass expanding rapidly from one source, at this point there was an
immense amount of fusion occurring.
103-Everything expands uniformly in all directions giving the impression from any point in space that
it is in fact the centre of expansion when there really is not one
104- The ripples are where the universe was cool enough to form neutral Hydrogen and allow for
formation of high mass objects
105- Yes they believe it is accelerating the expansion of the universe
106- Inflation is accelerating expansion, which solved the Big Bang theory and the theory of dark
energy
107- The universe rapidly expanded after the big bang forming immense amounts of galaxies which led
to the formation of the milky way galaxy. The sun which is just like any other star formed and captured
planets in its gravity, the earth happened to land within its habitable zone
108- Consisted mainly of hydrogen, throughout collisions with large asteroids which built up carbon
dioxide. Shifting plate tectonics released more oxygen into the atmosphere forming what we now have
109-Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus and Sulfur
110-Photosynthesis, Respiration and Chemosynthesis
111-Region around the star within which planetary mass objects with sufficient atmospheric pressure
can support liquid water at their surfaces
112-Their atmospheres are not suitable as a result there is limited to no liquid water
113- It contains ice water as it is so far away from the sun and blocked by jupiter
114- Drakes equation describes the probability of finding civilizations in our galaxy based on the
amount of stars and habitable planets. The number of habitable planets is not large

115- Based on the assumption that there are other planets like earth that could have similar life forms
and have developed interstellar travel, we should have already been visited (fermi paradox)
116- Radio waves or microwaves
117-Ugly

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