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AE6403 - AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I

Department of Aeronautical Engineering


AE6403 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I

N.KALAIMANI, AP/AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING, MSAJCE

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AE6403 - AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I

AE6403 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I

LTPC
3104

OBJECTIVE
To study different types of beams and columns subjected to various types of loading and
support conditions with particular emphasis on aircraft structural components.
UNIT I Statically Determinate and Indeterminate Structures
9
Plane truss analysis method of joints method of sections method of shear 3-D trusses
principle of super position, clapeyrons 3 moment equation and moment distribution
method for indeterminate beams.
UNIT II Energy Methods
10
Strain Energy due to axial, bending and torsional loads Castiglianos theorems- Maxwell's
and Betis Reciprocal theorem, UNIT I load method - application to beams, trusses, frames,
rings.
UNIT III Columns
10
Eulers column curve inelastic buckling effect of initial curvature the Southwell plot
columns with eccentricity use of energy methods theory of beam columns beam
columns with different end conditions stresses in beam columns.
UNIT IV Failure Theory
9
Ductile and brittle materials maximum principal stress theory - maximum principal strain
theory - maximum shear stress theory - distortion energy theory octahedral shear stress
theory.
UNIT V INDUCED STRESSES
Thermal stresses impact loading Fatigue Creep - Stress Relaxation

7
T

OTAL: 45+15(Tutorial) = 60 periods


OUTCOMES
Ability to perform linear static analysis of determinate and indeterminate aircraft structural
components
Ability to design the component using different theories of failure
TEXT BOOK
1.Donaldson, B.K., Analysis of Aircraft Structures An Introduction, McGraw-Hill, 1993.
2.Bruhn.E.F.Analysis and design of flight vehicle structures Tri set of offset company,
USA, 1973.
REFERENCE BOOKS
1.Timoshenko, S., Strength of Materials, Vol. I and II, Princeton D. Von Nostrand Co,
1990.
2.Peery, D.J., and Azar, J.J., Aircraft Structures, 2nd edition, McGrawHill, N.Y., 1993.
3.Megson, T.M.G., Aircraft Structures for Engineering Students, Edward Arnold, 1995.

N.KALAIMANI, AP/AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING, MSAJCE

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AE6403 - AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I

UNIT I
Analysis of 2 D, 3 D trusses
Frames
Composite beams,
Propped cantilever
Fixed-fixed beamsClapeyron's Three Moment Equation
Moment Distribution Method, Super position method (brief).
STATICALLY DETERMINATE AND INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES
Statically determinate structure.
If the structure can be analyzed and the reactions at the support can be determined by
using the equations of static equilibrium such Fx = 0 and Fy = 0 and M = 0, then it is
called as a statically determine structure. Example: Simply supported beam, pin jointed truss
or frame.
Truss and Frame
Truss
Frame
Truss is defined as number of members riveted Frame is defined as number of members
together to carry the horizontal, vertical and together to carry the horizontal. Vertical
inclined loads in equilibrium.
loads in equilibrium.
Types of Frames
Frames are classified into two types.
1. Perfect
2. Imperfect
(i) Deficient frame
(ii) Redundant frame

perfect and imperfect frames


Sl.No Perfect frame
Imperfect frame
Perfect frames have sufficient or Imperfect frames have less or more
1.
enough members to carry the load.
members to carry the load than the required
numbers.
It satisfies the formula n = 2j-3
It does not satisfy the formula n = 2j-3
2
3

Eg. Triangular frame


n = 3, j = 3
n = 2j-3
3 = 23-3,

Eg: Square frame


n = 4, j = 4
n = 2j-3
4 = 24-3,

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3=3

45

Where, n = number of members, j = number of joints.


conditions of equilibrium used in the method of joints
The conditions of equilibrium used in the method of joints are, Fx = 0, Fy = 0.
One of the assumption is all the joints are pin jointed, there is no moment. The equilibrium
condition Mx = 0 is not used.
Pin-joined plane frame.
Sl. No

Deficient frame
If the number of members are
less than the required number of
members n < 2j-3

Redundant frame
If the number of members are
more than the required number of
members n > 2j-3

Pinjoined
1.
plane
frames
(also known as trusses) are commonly used in structures to span large distances where
constructing beams is uneconomical. They are common as roof structures in industrial
buildings, and large assembly building and bridges.
Assumptions made in the analysis of a pin-jointed plane frame.
The structural action of a frame is derived from the following assumptions to get an
ideal frame.
The frame has perfect hinge joints. For practical purposes, this assumption gives
reasonable results and makes the actual frame more stable.
The frame is loaded only at the joints and not in between the joints. The weights of
members acting over their length are calculated and transferred to the joints for analysis.
Some bending of the members due to their own weight or loads acting in between the joints is
generally neglected.
The centroidal lines of the members meet at the joint. By careful fabrication and
design, this can be reasonably achieved. If the lines are not concurrent, some moment due to
eccentricity is developed.
Two methods employed for the analysis of a pin-jointed frame and principle involved in
each case:
The basic approach to the analysis of a frame is the section method. We take a section
cutting a number of bars, and consider the equilibrium of either of the two parts so obtained.
On solution, the equilibrium equations so formulated can give us values of unknown bar
forces and reactions. Depending upon the method of taking a section, there are basically two
methods of analysing a frame, as shown in figs.

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AE6403 - AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I

Section around a joint or method of joints:


In this case, as in fig, a section is taken around a joint, isolating the joint completely.
The important point to note is that the isolated joint is in equilibrium under the action of a set
of concurrent forces. Thus, there are two equilibrium equations for each joint, H=0 and
V=0, where H and V re the summations o components along two mutually perpendicular
directions.
In a stable, determinate frame, there are 2j equations available and the number of

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AE6403 - AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I

members is only (2j-3). The three extra equations available can be used to calculate the three
unknown reactions or for checking.
Ritters method of section:
Here, the section is taken as shown in fig. the truss is separated into two parts by such
a section and each part is in equilibrium under the action of a general coplanar fore system.
There are three equilibrium equations. H=0, V=0, and M=0, available for such a force
system and three unknown forces can, therefore, be determined.
If the retains are calculated from the conditions of equilibrium for the frame as a
whole, then the advantage of Ritters method of section is that it enables us to determine the
force in any member by taking a section cutting that member. In the method of joints, it is
necessary to go from free ends as in a cantilever truss.
Before we discuss these methods in detail, we need to look at some simple procedures
to enable us to find forces in some members through visual inspection or to check the results.
Two methods of building a frame work:
Staring with a triangle of three members and three joints, the frame can be built up to
any extent by adding two members for every additional joint. This gives an internally stable
frame work, which can be supported suitably for external stability.
Starting from a firm foundation, two members can be made to form a joint. The frame
can be built up further as described. Note that the frame work is dependent upon its
attachment to the foundation for internal stability.
Analyse the frame shown in fig. and find the forces in all the members.
Solution :
There are three members forces and three reactive components RAH, RAV, and RCV, we
formulate two equations for each of the joints a, B and C and determine the six unknowns.

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Joint A from the free body diagram shown in fig.


H 0 , R AH FAC FAB
V=0 +,

2
0
2.5

(i)

1.5
0
2.5

R AV FAB

(ii)

Note that members AB and AC are assumed to be tension. The ratio of the length, the
vertical, and horizontal projections for member AB are 2.5, 1.5 and 2.0.
Joint B From the free body diagram in fig.
H 0 , 80-FAB

2
2
FBC
0
2.5
2.5

(iii)

V=0 +,

1.5
1.5
FBC
0
2.5
2.5

(iv)

-40-FAB

Joint C from the free body diagram in fig.


H 0 , FAC FBC

2
0
2.5

(v)

V=0 +,

1.5
0
2.5

(vi)

R CV FBC

These equations can be solved to evaluate the six unknowns.


FAB = -14.58 kN
(The member is under compression and not tension as assumed)
FBC = - 52.09 kN
(The member is in compression)
FAC = 41.67 kN
The member is in tension as assumed)
and

RCV = 31.25 kN,


RAH = -30 kn

RAV = 8.75 kN

Analyse the frame loaded as shown in fig. and determine the forces in all the members.

N.KALAIMANI, AP/AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING, MSAJCE

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solution :
The reactions are determined from the equilibrium conditions of the frame as a whole. Let
RAH and RAV be the vertical reaction at B.
H = 0 +, RAH+30=0,

RAH = - 30kN

Acting towards the left.


M 0 2A

+,30 2+30 3+60 3-RBV 6 0, RBV 55kN

V 0, R AV 55 30 60 0, R AV 35kN

From visual inspection, considering joint C shown in fig. F BC = 60 kN (tensile) and FAC = FCD,
both tensile or both compressive. As shown in fig, the ratio of the length, horizontal and
vertical projections are 13 , 3 and 2 for AB and BD.
From the free bodies of the joints shown in fig. we observe the following.
Joint A
2

V 0, R AV FAB
H=0, -30-63.1

13 0
3
13

, FAB 35

13
63.1 kN (compressive)
2

FAC 0, FAC 82.5 kN (tensile)

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From joint C,
FCD = 82.5 kN (tensile)
Joint D
V 0, 55+FDB

2
13

0, FDB 99.15 kN (Compressive)

The forces in all the members are known. As a check, the equilibrium of joint B can be
verified. H at joint B gives.
30 63.1

3
13

99.15

3
13

V at joint B is equal to -30-60 +63.1 2/(13)1/2 +99.15 s/(13)1/2, which is equal to zero.
The forces in all the members are shown in fig.
The direction of RAH is opposite to that assumed. All the member forces are shown in their
correct nature in fig.
It may be easier in many cases to find the reactions from the equilibrium conditions for the
whole frame. The member forces can be analysed joint by joint.
Analyse the truss shown in figure and determine the forces in all the members.
Solution:
The reactions are found from the equilibrium conditions of the frame as a whole H=0 gives
RAH =0
M=0 @ A

+gives

20 2 + 50 2+ 20 4 + 30 4 RFV 6 = 0, RFV= 56.67 kN


V = 0 gives
RAV +
56.67
50
0,
=
63.33

N.KALAIMANI, AP/AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING, MSAJCE

20
30 =
RAV
kN

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AE6403 - AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I

A visual inspection of the frame shows that


Force in member BC (considering joint C)=20 kN (tensile)
Force in member AC = Force in member CE
Considering joint D, the members BD and DF are collinear. There is a vertical load of
30 kN at D. If the axes are selected as shown in fig, force in member DE= 30kN for
equilibrium in a direction perpendicular to BF. The force is member DE is compressive.
Members AB and BE are inclined at 45 to the horizontal, giving a ratio of 1, 1, 2 for h,v,
and l of these members. Members BD and DF have a ratio of 2,1 and 5 for h, v and l
Joint A V= 0 gives (fig)
63.33 FAB

1
2

FAB =-89.56 kN (Compressive ) H=0 gives


89.56

1
2

FAC 0,

FAC 63.33kN (tensile)

FCE =63.33 kN (tensile)


From joint C,
Joint F From the free body shown in fig , V=0 gives

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56.67 FDF

1
5

FDF 126.72kN (compressive)

H 0 gives
126.72

2
5

FFE 0

FFE = 113.34 kN (tensile)

From joint D,
FBD =126.72 kN(compressive)
Joint E V=0 gives
-30-20 +FEB

2
FEB =70.71 kN (tensile)

=0

We have determined the forces in all the members. As a check, let us consider the
equilibrium of joint B. H at joint B.
89.56

1
2

70.71

1
2

126.72

2
5

V at joint B,
50 20 89.56

1
2

70.71

1
2

126.72

1
5

Figure shows the forces in all the members.


Analyse the Warren truss shown in fig, and find the forces in all the members.
Solution:
The reactions are determined as
RAH =30 kN
M=0 @ A

+, 30 2.598 +60 3 +60 3 +60 6+30 12 RBV 9 =0

RBV= 108.66 kN, RAV=41.34 kN


The forces in the diagonal members meeting at any of the joint B, D, F or H must be
equal and opposite to give V=0 as shown in Fig. The diagonal members are inclined at 60
to the horizontal giving an h,v, l ratio of 1, 3 , 2 from the free body diagrams in fig. we can
observe the following.

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V=0 gives

Joint J
FHJ

3
30 0
2
FHJ 34.64 kN (tensile)

H=0 gives
FJG = 17.32 kN (compressive)
FHG =34.64 kN (Compressive)
H= 0 at joint H gives
FHF = 34.64 kN (tensile)

Joint G V=0 gives

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3
3
FGF
0
2
2
3
3
108.66 34.64
FGF
0
2
2
FGF = 90.83 kN (compressive)
108.66 FGH

FFE = 90.83 kN (tensile)


From joint F,
H =0 gives
FGE

90.83 34.64

17.32 10.77kN(tensile) F
2
2
H=0

Joint F

90.83 90.83

34.64 56.19 kN(compressive)


2
2
Joint E V=0 gives
FED

3
3
90.83
60 0
2
2

FED =21.54 kN(compressive)


H=0 gives
FEc

21.54 90.83

10.77 0,FEC 66.97(tensile)


2
2

Joint D V =0 gives
FDC =21.54 kN (tensile)
H=0 gives
21.54
21.54
56.19
2
2
=77.73 kN (compressive)
Joint C
V =0 gives
FDB =

FCB

3
3
21.54
60 0
2
2

FCB =47.74 kN (tensile)


H=0

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1
1
21.54 66.97 0
2
2

FCB =53.87 kN (tensile)


FAB =47.74 kN (compressive)
The forces in the members are shown in fig.
FCB 47.74

One two unknown member forces can be evaluated at a joint by the method of joints,
explain.
In the method of joints, section is taken around the joint to isolate it. Since the joint is
subjected to a concurrent, coplanar force system, two conditions of equilibrium, H=0 and
V=0, are available for the joint from which two unknown forces can be determined. The
commonly used graphical method is the graphic equivalent of the method of joints. We will
discuss a number of methods which use different techniques but the basic principle is the
joint equilibrium.
As mentioned earlier, there are 2j equations for a frame with j joints, but only (2j-3)
members. Three equations can be used for finding reactions or for checking. The reactions
can also be determined from the equilibrium conditions for the frame as a whole, i.e H=0,
V=0 for the loads and reactive forces. The following examples illustrates the conventional
method of joints.
Plane truss and Space truss
A plane truss is a two dimension truss structure composed of number of bars hinged
together to form a rigid framework, all the members are lie in one plane. Eg: Roof truss in
industries.
A space truss is a three dimension truss structure composed of number of bars hinged
together to form a rigid framework, the members are lie in different plane. Eg: Transmission
line towers, crane parts.
Methods used to analyze the plane & space frames

Analytical method.
1. Method of joints
2. Method of sections (Method of moments)
3. Tension coefficient method.
Graphical method.

Assumptions made in the analyze of a truss


1. In a frame or truss all the joints will be pin jointed.
2. All the loads will be acting at the joints only.
3. The self-weight of the members of the truss is neglected. Only the live load is
considered.
4. The frame is a perfect one.
Cantilever truss
If anyone of the member of the truss is fixed and the other end is free, it is called a

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cantilever truss. There is no reaction force at the fixed end.


Simply supported truss
If the members of the truss are supported by simple supports, then it is called simply
supported truss. Reaction forces are at the simply supported ends.
Hints to be followed while analyzing a cantilever truss using method of joints

There is no need to find the support reactions.


The analysis is to be started from the free end where there is a maximum of
two unknown forces, using the condition of equilibrium Fx = 0, and Fy =
0.
All the members are assumed to be tensile.
Consider tensile forces as positive and compressive as negative.
The force convention is, upward force assigns positive sign and downward
force assigns negative sign.

Hints to be followed while analyzing a simply supported truss using method of joints
The support reactions are determined first.

The analysis is to started from the free end where there is a maximum
of two unknown forces, using the condition of equilibrium Fx = 0, and Fy = 0
.
All the members are assumed to be tensile.
Consider tensile forces as positive and compressive as negative.
The force convention is, upward force assigns positive sign and downward
force assigns negative sign.

Relation between the numbers of members and joints in a truss


n = 2j 3, Where, n = number of members, j = number of joints. This relation is used
to find the type of the frames. Perfect frame is only solved by method of joints.
Primary and secondary stresses in the analysis of a truss
If the stresses are produced due to direct loads like tension, compression and torsion
then the stresses are called primary stress. If the stresses are produced due to expansion,
compression and temperature variation then the stresses are called secondary stress.
Statically indeterminate structure:
The simple equations are not sufficient to solve some problems. Such problems are
called statically indeterminate structures.
For solving statically indeterminate problems, the deformation characteristics of the
structure are also taken into account along with the statical equilibrium equations. Such
equation, which contain the deformation characteristics, are called compatibility equations.
Statically indeterminate structures.
If the forces on the members of a structure cannot be determined by using conditions

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of equilibrium (Fx = 0 and Fy = 0 and M = 0), it is called statically indeterminate


structures.
Example: Fixed beam, continuous beam
Types of statically indeterminate structures:
1. Simple statically indeterminate structures
2. Indeterminate structures of equal lengths
3. Composite structures of equal length
Continuous beam:
A beam, which is supported on more than two supports, is called a continuous beam.
Such a beam, when loaded will deflect with convexity upwards, over the intermediate
supports and with concavity upwards over the mid of the spans. The intermediate supports of
a continuous beam are always subjected to some bending moment. The end supports, if
simply supported will not be subjected to any bending moment. But the end supports, if fixed,
will be subjected to fixing moments and the slope of the beam, at the fixed ends will be zero.
1. Beams of unsymmetrical sections
2. Beams of uniform strength
3. Flitched beams
A square bar of 20 mm side is held between two rigid plates and loaded by an axial
force P equal to 450 kN as shown in fig,

Find the
reactions
at the ends A and C and the extension of the portion AB. Take e=200 GPa.
Solution : Given : area of bar (A) = 20 20 = 400 mm2 ; Axial force (P) = 450 kN = 450
103 N; Modulus of elasticity (E) = 200 GPa = 200 103 N/mm2 ; Length of AB (lAB) = 300
mm and length of BC (lBC) = 200 mm.
Reaction at the ends
Let

RA = reaction at A, and
RC = reaction at C.

Since the bar is held between the two rigid plates A and C, therefore, the upper portion will be
subjected to tension, while the lower portion will be subjected to compression as shown in
fig.

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Moreover, the increase of portion AB will be equal to the decrease of the portion BC.
We know that sum of both the reaction is equal to the axial force, i.e
RA + RC = 450 103
(1)
Increase in the portion AB,
R A l AB R A 300

AE
AE
And decrease in the portion BC,
l AB

l AB

R A l BC R C 200

AE
AE

(2)

Since the value lAB is equal to that of lBC therefore equating the equations (1)and (2),
R A 300 RC 200

AE
AE
RC

R A 300
1.5 R A
200

Now substituting the value of RC in equation (2)


R A 1.5 R A 450
RA
and

450
180 kN
2.5

or 2.5 Ra 450
Ans.

RC=1.5 RA = 1.5 180 = 270 kN Ans.

Prove the clapeyrons theorem of three moments.


It state, if a beam has n supports, the end ones being fixed, then the same number of
equations required to determine the support moments may be obtained from the consecutive
pairs of spans i.e AB-BC, BC-CD, CD-DE and so on.
Proof :
Consider a continuous beam ABC, fixed at A and C and supported at B as shown in fig.
Let
l1 = Span of the beams,
l1 = Moment of inertia of the beam in span AB,
l2, l2 = Corresponding value for the span BC,
MA, = Support moment at A,
MB = Support moment at B,
MC = Support moment at C,

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Fig.
x= Bending moment at any section X, considering the beam between
two
support as simply supported and
x = fixing moment at any section X, of the beam,
We know that in the span AB, the bending moment at any section X at a distance x from A,
M x x 'x

EI 1

M d2y
... Q 2
EI dx

d2y
x 'x
2
dx

Multiplying the above equation by x and integrating the same for the whole span AB i.e, from
0 to I1.
l
l
l
x.d2 y
EI
x.x.dx x. x '.dx
dx
0
0
0
4

dy
EI1 x.
y
a1 x1 a'1 x '1
dx 0
or EI[l1iB y B ) 0(iA y A )] a1 x1 a '1 x '1
EI[l1 iB y B ] a1 x1 a '1 x '1
Since yB is equal to zero, therefore
EI1 l1 iB = a1 x1 a '1 x '1
a1 = Area of the diagram in the span AB,
x1 = distance of centre of gravity of diagram from A in the span AB,
a '1 x '1 = Corresponding values for the diagram and
iB = Slope of the beam AB at B.
we know that the shape of the diagram is trapezoidal, having end ordinates equal to MA

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and MB as shown in fig. therefore splitting up this trapezium into two triangles,
l l
l 2l

a '1 .x '1 MA 1 1 MB 1 1
2 3
2 3

(MA 2MB )

l12
6

Substituting this value of a1. x '1 in equation (2)


EI1 l1 iB a1 x1 (MA 2MB )
or EI1 iB
E . iB

l12
6

a1 x1
l
(MA 2MB ) 1
l1
6

(3)

a1 x a
l
(MA 2MB ) 1
I1 l1
6I1

Similarly, in the span BC, taking C as the origin and x positive to the left,
a1 x 2
l
(MC 2MB ) 1
(4)
I2 l1
6I2
a2 = area of the diagram in the span BC,
'
x 2 = Distance of centre of gravity of diagram from C in the span
EiB' =

Where,
BC,

a '2 = Area of the diagram in the span BC,


'
x 2 = Distance of the centre of gravity of the diagram from C in the

span BC and
i'B = Slope of the beam BC at B,
Since iB is equal to iB, therefore E . iB is equal to E . IB
or

a x2
a1 x1
l
l
(MA 2MB ) 1 2 (MC 2MB ) 2
I1 l1
6I1
6I2
I2 l2
l
l
6a x1 6a x 2
(MA 2MB ) 1 (MC 2MB ) 2 1 2
I1
I2
I1 l1
I2 l2
6a1 x1 6a2 x 2
l1
l
l
l
2MB 1 MC 2 2MB 2

I1
I1
I2
I2
I2 l2
I1 l1

MA

6a1 x1 6a 2 x 2
l1
l1 l 2
l2

2MB MC
I
l
I2 l2
l2
I1 I 2
I2
1
1

MA

Flexural Rigidity of Beams.

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The product of youngs modulus (E) and moment of inertia (I) is called Flexural
Rigidity (EI) of Beams. The unit is N mm2.
Constant strength beam.
If the flexural Rigidity (EI) is constant over the uniform section, it is called Constant
strength beam.

Composite beam.
A structural member composed of two or more dissimilar materials jointed together to
acts as a unit. The resulting system is stronger than the sum of its parts. The composite
action can better utilize the properties of each c constituent material.
Example : Steel Concrete composite beam, Steel-Wood beam.
Application of the theorem of three moments to a fixed beam:
Sometimes, a continuous beam is fixed at its one or both ends. If the beams is fixed at
the left end A, then an imaginary zero span is taken to the left of A and the three moments
theorem is applied as usual. Similarly, if the both beam is fixed at the right end, then an
imaginary zero span is taken after the right end support and the three moments theorem is
applied as usual.
Carry over factor:
Consider a beam Av fixed at A and simply supported at B, let a clockwise moment be
applied at the support B of the beam as shown in fig below.
Let

l = Span of the beam


= Clockwise moment applied at B (i.e MB) and
MA = Fixing moment at A.

Since the beam is not subjected to any external loading, therefore the two reactions - must
be equal and opposite as shown in fig.

Fig.
Taking moments about a and equating the same.
R.l = MA +

(1)

Now consider any section X, at a distance x from A. we know that the moment at X.

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AE6403 - AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I

Mx = MA-R.x
Or

EI

d2 y
MA R.x
dx 2

d2 y
... Q M=EI 2
dx

Integrating the above equation,


EI

dy
Rx 2
MA .x
C1
dx
2

Where C1 is the first constant of integration, we know that when x = 0, then

dy
=0. therefore
dx

C1=0.
Or

EI

dy
Rx 2
MA .x
dx
2

(2)

Integrating the above equation once again,


EI.y

MA .x 2 Rx 3

C2
2
6

Where C2 is the second constant of integration. We know that when x=0, then y=0. therefore
C2=0.
Or

EI.y

MA .x 2 Rx 3

2
6

(3)

We also know that when x = l, then y=0. Therefore substituting these values in equation (3)
0

MA .l2 R.l3

2
6

Rl3 MA .l3

6
2

or R.l=3MA
Substituting the value in equation (1)
3MA MA
or MA

MB

2
2 y

MA 1

MB 2

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It is thus obvious, that carry over factor is on-half in this case,


We see from equation (2) that
dy
Rl2
EI
MA.x
dx
2
Now for slope at B, substituting x= in the above equation,
EI.ib MA.l

Rl2
2

...( Q R.l=.MA )

3
MA.l MA.l
2
=-

MA.l
l

2
4
iB
=
=

l
4EI

l
4EI

... Q MA
2

(Minus sign means that the tangent at B makes an


angle with AB in the negative or anticlockwise
direction)

4EI.iB
l

Define the term Carry over factor, derive a relation for the stiffness factor for a beam
simply supported at it both ends.
Consider a beam AB simply supported at A and B. let a clockwise moment be applied at the
support B of the beam as shown in fig.

Let
l
=
of the beam, and
= Clockwise moment at B.

Span

Since the beam is simply supported at A, therefore there will be no fixing moment at
A. moreover, as the beam is not subjected to any external loading, therefore the two reactions
must be equal and opposite as shown in fig.
Taking moments about A,
R.l =

(1)

Now consider any section X, at a distance x from a, we know that the moment at X,

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AE6403 - AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I

Mx R.x

d2 y
... Q M=EI 2
dx

d2 y
R.x
dx 2
Integration the above equation,
EI

EI

dy
Rx 2

C1
dx
2

(2)

Where C1 is the first constant of integration. Integrating the above equation once again,
Rx 3
EI.y
C1x +C2
6
Where C2 is the second constant of integration. We know that when x=0, then y=0. Therefore
C2=0.
EI.y

Or

Rx 3
C1x
6

(3)

We also know that when x=l, then y=0. therefore substituting these values in the above
equation,
Rl3
0
C1l
6
C1

Rl2 l

6
6

...( Q R.l =)

Substituting this value of C1 in equation (2),


EI

dy
Rx 2 l
Rlx 2 l

dx
2
6
2l
6

x 2 l

2l
6

...( Q R.l= )

Now for slope at B, substituting x=1 in the above equation,

l2 l
l l
l
EI.iB

2l 6
2 6
3
l
is
(Minus sign means that the tangent at B
3EI
makes an angle with AB in the negative or
=
=

l
3EI

anticlockwise direction)

3EI.iB
i

Stiffness factor.

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It is the moment required to rotate the end while acting on it through a unit rotation,
without translation of the far end being
(i) Simply supported is given by k = 3 EI / L
(ii) Fixed is given by k = 4 EI / L
Where, E = Youngs modulus of the beam material.
I = Moment of inertia of the beam
L = Beams span length.
It is the moment required to rotate the end, while acting on it, through a unit angle
without translation of the far end. We have seen that the moment on a beam having one end
fixed and the other freely supported,
4EI.iB
l

Stiffness factor for such a beam (substituting iB = 1),


k1

4EI
l

Similarly, we have that the moment on a beam having simply supported ends,

3EI.i B
l

Stiffness factor for such a beam (substituting iB = 1),


k2

3EI
l

Derive a relation for the stiffness factor for a beam fixed at the end simply supported at
the other.
Consider a beam AB fixed at A and simply supported at B. Let a clockwise moment be
applied at the support B of the beam as shown in fig.
Let

l = Span of the beam,


= Clockwise moment applied at B (i.e. MB) and
MA = Fixing moment at A.
Since the beam is not
subjected to any external
loading, therefore the
two reactions must be
equal and opposite as
shown in fig.

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Taking moments about A and equating the same,


R.l = MA +

(1)

Now consider any section X, at a distance x from A. we know that the moment at X,
Mx = MA R.x
Or

EI

d2 y
MA R.x
dx 2

d2 y
... Q M=EI 2
dx

Integrating the above equation,


EI

dy
Rx 2
MA .x
+C1
dx
2

Where C1 the first constant of integration. We know that when x=0, then

dy
0 . Therefore
dx

C1 = 0.
Or

EI

dy
Rx 2
MA .x
dx
2

(2)

Integrating the above equation once again.


EI.y

MA .x 2 Rx 2

2
6

Where C2 is the second constant of integration. We know that when x = 0, then y=0.
Therefore C2 = 0.
Or

EI.y

MA .x 2 Rx 3

2
6

(3)

We also know that when x=l, then y=0. Therefore substituting these values in equation (3)
MA .l2 R.l3
2
.
2
6

Rl3 MA .l2

6
2

or

R/l = 3MA

(4)

It is thus obvious, that carry over factor is one-half in this case,


We see from equation (2) that

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dy
Rl2
EI
MA .x
dx
2
Now for slope at B, substituting x = l in the above equation,
EI.iB MA .l

Rl2
2

...(R.l=3MA )

3
MA .l MA .l
2

iB
=

Ma .l
l

2
4

... Q M A
2

l
4EI

l
4EI

(Minus sign means that the tangent at B


makes an angle with AB in the negative or
anticlockwise direction)

4EI.iB
l

Distribution factor and importance in the moment distribution.


Sometimes, a moment is applied on a structural joint to produce rotation, without the
translation of its members. This moment is distributed among all the connecting member of
the joint in the proportion of their stiffness.
Consider four members OA, OB, OC and OD meeting at A. let the members OA and
OC be fixed at A and C, whereas the members OB and OD be hinged at B and d. let the joint
O be subjected to a moment as shown in fig.

Fig.

Let

l1 = length of the moment OA,


I1 = Moment of inertia of the member OA,
E1 = Modulus of elasticity of the member OA,
l1, I2, E2 = Corresponding values for the member OA,

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l3, I4, E3 = Corresponding values for the member OC,


l4, I4, E4 = Corresponding values for the member OD.
A little consideration will show that as a result of the moment , each member gets
rotated through some equal angle. Let this angle through which each member is rotated be .
We know that the stiffness of member OA,
4E1I1
k1
...( Q End A is fixed)
l1
3E2I2
k2
...( Q End B is hinged)
Similarly,
l2
4E3I3
k3
...( Q End C is fixed)
and
l3
3E 4I4
k4
...( Q End D is hinged)
and
l4
now total stiffness of all members,
k = k1+k2+k3+k4
and total moment applied at the joint,
= k
Moment on the member OA,
1 = k1

Similarly,
2 k 2 :

Similarly,

2 k 3

and 4 k 4

1 k1 k1

k k

k
2 k 2

k
; 3 3 and 4 4

1 k1
Similarly,
2 k 2

; 3 k 3
k
k

and 4 k 4

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k1 k 2 k 3
k
,
,
and 4 are known as distribution factors for the members OA,
k k k
k
OB, OC and OD respectively. The moments 1, 2, 3, 4 are known as distributed moments.
The quantities

Moment distribution method. (Hardy Cross Method).


It is widely used for the analysis of indeterminate structures. In this method, all the
members of the structure are first assumed to be fixed in position and fixed end moments due
to external loads are obtained.
Distribution factor.
When several members meet at a joint and a moment is applied at the joint to produce
rotation without translation of the members, the moment is distributed among all the
members meeting at that joint proportionate to their stiffness.
Distribution factor = Relative stiffness / Sum of relative stiffness at the joint
If there is 3 members, Distribution factors =

k1
k2
k3
,
,
k1 k2 k3 k 1 k2 k3 k1 k2 k3

Carry over moment and Carry over factor.


Carry over moment: It is defined as the moment induced at the fixed end of the beam
by the action of a moment applied at the other end, which is hinged. Carry over moment is
the same nature of the applied moment.
Carry over factor (C.O): A moment applied at the hinged end B carries over to the
fixed end A, a moment equal to half the amount of applied moment and of the same rotational
sense. C.O. = 0.5.
Five members OA, OB, OC, OD and OE meeting at O, are hinged at A and C and fixed
at B, d and E. the lengths of OA, OB, OC, OD and OE are 3m, 4m, 2m, and 5m and
their moments if inertia are 400mm4, 300mm4, 200mm4, 300mm4 and 250mm4
respectively. Determine the distribution factors for the members and the distributed
moments.
Solution :
Given Length OA=3m, Length OB = 4m, Length OC = 2m, Length OD = 3m; Moment of
inertia of OC = 200mm4 ; Moment of inertia of OD = 300 mm 4 ; Moment of inertia of OE =
250 mm4 and moment on D = 4000 kN-m.
We know that stiffness factor for OA,
kA
similalrly, k B

3EI 3 E 400

400E
I
4

...( Q Member is hinged at A)

4EI 4 E 300

I
4

...( Q Member is fixed at B)

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Now complete the column for stiffness for all the members, keeping in mind whether
the member is hinged or fixed at the end. Now find out the distribution factor and distribution
moments for each member as shown in the above chart.
Now from the above chart, we find that the distribution factors for OA, OB, OC OD and OE
1 3
3 1
1
,
,
and
respectively .
are ,
4 16 16 4
8
The moment of 4000 kN-m applied at the joint O will be distributed among the member as
obtained from the above in the following table.

OA

Length
(m)
3

M.I
(mm4)
400

OB

300

OC

200

OD

300

OE

250

Member

Stiffness (k)
3E 400
3
4E 300
4
3E 200
2
4E 300
3
4E 250
5

400
300
300
400
200

Distribution
factor
400E 1

1600E 4
300E
3

1600E 16
300E
3

1600E 16
400E 1

1600E 4
200E 1

1600E 8

Distributed
moments N-m
1
4000 1000
4
3
4000 750
16
3
4000 750
16
1
4000 1000
4
1
4000 500
8

Thus distributed moments for OA, OB, OC, OD and OE are 1000, 750, 750, 1000 and 500 Nm respectively.
Statically determinate structures and statically indeterminate structures:
Sl. No
1.
2.
3.

Statically determinate structures


Statically indeterminate structures
Conditions of equilibrium are sufficient Conditions of equilibrium are insufficient
to analyze the structure
to analyze the structure.
Bending moment and shear force is
independent of material and cross
sectional area.
No stresses are caused due to
temperature change and lack of fit.

Bending moment and shear force is


dependent of material and independent of
cross sectional area.
Stresses are caused due to temperature
change and lack of fit.

Continuous beam:
A Continuous beam is one, which is supported on more than two supports. For usual
loading on the beam hogging (- ive) moments causing convexity upwards at the supports and
sagging (+ ive) moments causing concavity upwards occur at mid span.
Advantages of Continuous beam over simply supported beam:
1. The maximum bending moment in case of continuous beam is much less than in case
of simply supported beam of same span carrying same loads.

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AE6403 - AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I

2. In case of continuous beam, the averaging bending moment is lesser and hence lighter
materials of construction can be used to resist the bending moment.
General form of Clapeyrons three moment equations for the continuous beam:

ll

A
A

M a 11 2 Mb 12 M c 12 (

L2

6 A1 x1 6 A2 x2

)
11
12

Where,
Ma = Hogging bending moment at A
Mb = Hogging bending moment at B
Mc = Hogging bending moment C
l1 = length of span between supports A, B
l2 = length of span between supports B, C
x1 = CG of bending moment diagram from support A
x2 = CG of bending moment diagram from support C
A1 = Area of bending moment diagram between supports A, B
A2 = Area of bending moment diagram between supports B, C
Clapeyrons three moment equations for the continuous beam with sinking at the
supports:

l1

l2

B
6 A1 x1

11

M a 11 2 Mb 12 M c 12

6 A2 x2
- 6EI
12

C
1 2

11 12

Where,
Ma = Hogging bending moment at A
Mb = Hogging bending moment at B
Mc = Hogging bending moment C
l1 = length of span between supports A, B
l2 = length of span between supports B, C
x1 = CG of bending moment diagram from support A
x2 = CG of bending moment diagram from support C
A1 = Area of bending moment diagram between supports A, B
A2 = Area of bending moment diagram between supports B, C
1 = Sinking at support A with compare to sinking at support B
2 = Sinking at support C with compare to sinking at support B.

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AE6403 - AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I

Clapeyrons three moment equations for the fixed beam


A

Ma 2 Mb

l
6 Ax

12

Where,
Ma = Hogging bending moment at A
Mb = Hogging bending moment at B
l = length of span between diagram from support A
x = CG of bending moment diagram from support A
A = Area of bending moment diagram between supports A, B
Clapeyrons three moment equations for the continuous beam carrying UDL on both
the spans.

l1

l2

6 A1 x1 6 A2 x2
w1l13 w2 l23


=
12
4
4
11

M a 11 2 Mb 12 M c 12
Where,

Ma = Hogging bending moment at A


Mb = Hogging bending moment at B
Mc = Hogging bending moment C
l1 = length of span between supports A, B
l2 = length of span between supports B, C
Values of (6A1 x1 / l1), (6A2 x2 / l2) values for different type of loading.
Type of loading
UDL for entire span
Central point loading
Uneven point loading

6A1x1 / l1
Wl3 / 4
(3/8)Wl2
(wa / l)/(l2 a2)

6A2x2 / l2
Wl3 / 4
(3/8)Wl2
(wb/l) / (l2-b2)

Procedure for analyzing the continuous beams with fixed ends using three moment
equations:
The three moment equations, for the fixed end of the beam, can be modified by
imagining a span of length 1 0 and moment of inertia, beyond the support the and applying
the theorem of three moments as usual.
Two conditions for the analysis of composite beam.
(i). Strain (Stress x E) in all the material are same (e 1 = e 2)
(e 1 = (Pl1 / A1 E1); e2 = (Pl2 / A2E2))
(ii). The total load = P1 + P2 + P3 (P1 = Stress x area)

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AE6403 - AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I

Distribution factor for the given beam.


A
A

Join

Member

AB
BA
BC
CB
CD
DC

B
C
D

B
Relative
stiffness
4EI / L
3EI / L
4EI / L
4EI / L
4EI / L
4EI / L

Sum of Relative stiffness

Distribution factor

4EI / L

(4EI / L)/(4EI / L) = 1
(3EI / L) / (7EI / L) = 3/7
(4EI / L)/ (7EI / L) = 4/7
4EI / L) / (8EI / L) = 4/8
4EI / L) / (8EI / L) = 4/8
(4EI / L)/(4EI / L) = 1

3EI / L + 4EI/L = 7EI / L


4EI/L + 4EI/L = 8EI / L
4EI / L

Distribution factor for the given beam.

Figure
Join

Member

Relative stiffness

AB
BA
BC
CB

4E (3I) / L
4E (3I) / L
4EI / L
4EI / L

B
C

Sum of Relative
stiffness
12 EI / L
12EI / L + 4EI / L =
16EI / L
4EI / L

Distribution factor
(12 EI / L) / (12EI / L) = 1
(12EI / L)/(16EI / L) =
(4EI / L) / (16EI / L) =
(4EI / L) /(4EI / L) = 1

Distribution factor for the given beam

Join

Member

Relative stiffness

Sum of Relative
stiffness

Distribution factor

BA
BC

0 (no support)
(4EI / L)

(4EI / L)

0
(4EI / L) / (4EI / L) = 1

CB
CD

3EI / L
4EI / L

DC

4EI / L

3EI / L + 4EI/L =
7EI / L
4EI / L

N.KALAIMANI, AP/AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING, MSAJCE

(3EI / L) / (7EI / L) = 3/7


(4EI / L) / (7EI / L) = 4/7
(4EI / L) /(4EI / L) = 1

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AE6403 - AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I

UNIT II
Strain Energy due to axial, bending and torsional loads
Castiglianos theorems
Maxwell's and Betis Reciprocal theorem
UNIT I load method
Application to beams, trusses, frames, rings, etc.
ENERGY METHODS
Strain Energy:
The strain energy of a member will be defined as the increase in energy associated
with the deformation of the member. The strain energy is equal to the work done by a slowly
increasing load applied to the member.
2. Define Strain energy density.
The strain-energy density of a material will be defined as the strain energy per unit
volume.
3. Define Modulus of toughness.
The area under the entire stress-strain diagram was defined as the modulus of
toughness and is a measure of the total energy that can be acquired by the material.
4. Define Modulus of resilience.
The area under the stress-strain curve from zero strain to the strain y at yield is
referred to as the modulus of resilience of the material and represents the energy per unit
volume that the material can absorb without yielding. We wrote

uy

2y
2E

5. Write the expression for strain energy under axial load.


If the rod is of uniform cross section of area A, the strain energy is

p2
dx
2AE

6. Write the expression for strain energy due to bending.

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For a beam subjected to transverse loads the strain energy associated with the normal
stresses is
2
L M
U
dx
0 2EI
where M is the bending moment and EI the flexural rigidity of the beam.
7. Write the expression for strain energy due to shearing stresses.
The strain energy associated with shearing stresses, the strain-energy density for a
material in pure shear is
2
u xy
2G
where txy is the shearing stress and G the modulus of rigidity of the material.
8. Write the expression for strain energy due to torsion.
For a shaft of length Land uniform cross section subjected at its ends to couples of
magnitude T the strain energy was found to be

T 2L
2GJ

Where J is the polar moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area of the shaft.
9. Explain strain energy for a general state of stress.
The strain energy of an elastic isotropic material under a general state of stress and
expressed the strain energy density at a given point in terms of the principal stresses a, b
and c at that point:
u

1
a2 b2 c2 2v ab bc c a
2E

The strain-energy density at a given point was divided into two parts: u, associated
with a change in volume of the material at that point, and u d, associated with a distortion of
the material at the same point. We wrote u = u + ud, where
u

1 2v
2
a b c
6E

ud

1
2
2
2
a b b c c a
12G

and

10. Define Castiglianos theorem.


In any beam or truss subjected to any load system, the deflection at any point r is
given by the partial differential coefficient of the total strain energy stored with respect to a

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force Pr acting at the point r in the direction in which the deflection is desired.

Figure
Figure shows a structure AB carrying a load system P1, P2, P3 .Pr, .Pn.
Let the deflection at the point r be yr.
Let We = External work done be the given load system
Wi = Corresponding strain energy stored.
We = Wi
Wi
Lim
yr = Pr 0 .
Pr
Wi
yr =
Pr
=Partial differential coefficient of the total strain energy stored with respect to Pr.
11. Define Maxwells reciprocal theorem.
In any beam of truss the deflection at any point D due to a load W at any other point C
is the same as the deflection at C due to the same load W applied at D.
Figure (i) shows a structure AB carrying a load W applied at any point C. Let the
deflection at C be c. Let the deflection at another point D be d.
Figure (ii) shows the same structure AB carrying the same load W at D. Let the
deflections at C and D be c and d respectively.

Figure
12. Give the relation between number of joints and the number of members in a perfect
frame.
Let there be n members and j joints in a perfect frame, Fig. (a)

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Fig. (a)
Suppose we remove three members AB, BC and CA and the three joints A, B and C.
We are now left with (n 3) members and (j 3) joints.
Studying this remaining part of the frame (Fig. (b)), we find that the number of
members in such that, for each joint, there are two members.
Hence for the (j 3) joints we have 2(j 3) members.

Fig. (b)

n 3 = 2 (j 3)
n = 2j 3

Hence for a stable frame the minimum number of members required = twice the
number of joints minus three.
13. Derive the expression for Strain Energy under Axial Loading.
Strain Energy under Axial Loading
When a rod is subjected to centric axial loading, the normal stresses x can be
assumed uniformly distributed in any given transverse section. Denoting by A the area of the
section located at a distance x from the end B of the rod and by P the internal force, we write
x = P/A.

Figure

P
dV
2EA 2

or, setting dV = A dx,

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P2
dx
2AE

In the case of a rod of uniform cross section subjected at its ends to equal and
opposite forces of magnitude P.

Figure

P2L
2AE

14. A rod consists of two portions BC and CD of the same material and same length, but
of different cross sections. Determine the strain energy of the rod when it is subjected to
a centric axial load P, expressing the result in terms of P, L, E, the cross-sectional area A
of portion CD, and the ratio n of the two diameters.

Figure

Un

1
1
L P2
L

P2L
1
2 2

2AE
n2
2 n2 A E 4AE

P2

or

Un

1 n2 P2L
2n2 2AE

We check that, for n = 1, we have

P2L
U1
2AE
which is the expression given in equation for a rod of length L and uniform cross section of
area A. We also note that, for n > 1, we have U n < U1; for example, when n = 2, we have U 2 =
5
8 U1. Since the maximum stress occurs in portion CD of the rod and is equal to max = P/A,

it follows that, for a given allowable stress, increasing the diameter of portion BC of the rod

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results in a decrease of the overall energy-absorbing capacity of the rod. Unnecessary


changes in cross-sectional area should therefore be avoided in the design of members that
may be subjected to loadings, such as impact loadings, where the energy-absorbing capacity
of the member is critical.
15. Derive the expression for strain energy in bending.
Strain Energy in Bending
Consider a beam AB subjected to a given loading and let M be the bending moment at
a distance x from end A. Neglecting for the time being the effect of shear, and taking into
account only the normal stresses x = My/I,

Figure

M2 y 2
U
dV
dV
2E
2EI2
2
x

Setting dV = dA dx, where dA represents an element of the cross-sectional area, and recalling
that M2/2EI2 is a function of x alone, we have

M2
2EI2

y dA dx
2

Recalling that the integral within the parentheses represents the moment of inertia I of the
cross section about its neutral axis, we write

M2
dx
2EI

16. Determine the strain energy of the prismatic cantilever beam AB taking into account
only the effect of the normal stresses.

Figure
The bending moment at a distance x from end A is M = - P x. Substituting this
expression we write

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P2 x 2
P2L3
dx
2EI
6EI

17. Derive expression for strain energy due to torsion.


Strain Energy in Torsion
Consider a shaft BC of length L subjected to one or several twisting couples.
Denoting by J the polar moment of inertia of the cross section located at a distance x from B
and by T the internal torque in that section, we recall that the shearing stresses in the section
are xy = T/J. Substituting for xy we have

2xy
2G

dV

T 22
dV
2GJ2

Setting dV = dA dx, where dA represents an element of the cross-sectional area, and


observing that T2/2GJ2 is a function of x alone, we write

T2
2GJ2

dA dx
2

Recalling that the integral within the parentheses represents the polar moment of inertia J of
the cross section, we have

T2
dx
2GJ

Figure
In the case of a shaft of uniform cross section subjected at its ends to equal and
opposite couples of magnitude T yields.

T 2L
2GJ

18. A circular shaft consists of two portions BC and CD of the same material and same
length, but of different cross sections. Determine the strain energy of the shaft when it is
subjected to a twisting couple T at end D, expressing the result in terms of T, L, G, the
polar moment of inertia J of the smaller cross section, and the ratio n of the two

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diameters.

Figure

Un

1
1
L T 2 L
T 2L
1
2 2

1 4

4
2GJ
4GJ
n
2G n J

T2

or

Un

1 n4 T 2L
2n4 2GJ

We check that, for n = 1, we have


T 2L
U1
2GJ
Which is the expression given in equation for a shaft of length L and uniform cross section.
17
We also note that, for n > 1, we have U n < U1; for example, when n = 2, we have U 2 =
32
U1. Since the maximum shearing stress occurs in the portion CD of the shaft and is
proportional to the torque T, we note as we did earlier in the case of the axial loading of a rod
that, for a given allowable stress, increasing the diameter of portion BC of the shaft results in
a decrease of the overall energy-absorbing capacity of the shaft.
19. Find the deflection at the free end of a cantilever carrying a concentrated load at the
free end. Assume uniform flexural rigidity.
Solution:Figure shows a cantilever carrying a point load P at the free end A. The bending
moment at any section distant x from the free end is given by
M = - Px
Strain energy stored by the cantilever
Wi

Wi

M2 dx
P2 x 2dx P2 l3

.
2EI
2EI
2EI 3
0

p2 l3
6EI

By the first theorem of Castiglione, the deflection in the line of action of the forceP,

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AE6403 - AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I


3
Wi 2P l
Pl3

P
6EI
3EI

20. Find the central deflection of a simply supported beam carrying a concentrated load
at mid span. Assume uniform flexural rigidity.
Solution:Figure shows a beam AB simply supported at A and B and carrying a central load P.
Each reaction
P

2
The bending moment at any section in AC, distant x from the end A is given by,
P
M x
2

Figure
Strain energy stored by the beam
M2dx
Wi
2
2EI

Wi

1/2

p2 x 2 dx
4 2EI

23

p 1 l
pl
. .
4EI 3 8 96EI

p2l3
96EI

The deflection in the line of action P is given by


Wi 2pl3

P 96EI
pl3

48EI

21. A simply supported beam carries a point load P eccentrically on the span. Find the
deflection under the load. Assume uniform flexural rigidity.
Solution:Figure shows a beam AB of span l which carries a load P at C.

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Figure
Let

AC = a and BC = b.

Pb
l
.Pa
Reaction at B =
l
The strain energy stored by the beam AB

Reaction at A=

Wi = strain energy stored by AC


+ strain energy stored by BC
a

dx Pa
Pb

x

x
l 2EI 0 l
0

Since

dx
2EI

p 2 b2 a 3 p2a 2b3 p 2a 2b 2

a b
6EIl 2
6EIl 2
6EIl 2

a+b=l
p2a 2 b 2
Wi
6EIl

Deflection under load P is given by


2 2
Wi . 2P a b
Pa 2 b 2

P
6EIl
3EIl
22. Define: Strain Energy

When an elastic body is under the action of external forces the body deforms and
work is done by these forces. If a strained, perfectly elastic body is allowed to recover slowly
to its unstrained state. It is capable of giving back all the work done by these external forces.
This work done in straining such a body may be regarded as energy stored in a body and is
called strain energy or resilience.
23. Define: Proof Resilience.
The maximum energy stored in the body within the elastic limit is called Proof
Resilience.
24. Write the formula to calculate the strain energy due to axial loads (tension).

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U
Where,

P2
dx
2 AE

limit 0 to L

P = Applied tensile load.


L = Length of the member
A = Area of the members
E = Youngs modulus.
25. Write the formula to calculate the strain energy due to bending.
U
Where,

M2
dx limit 0 to L
2 EI

M = Bending moment due to applied loads.


E = Youngs modulus
I = Moment of inertia
26. Write the formula to calculate the strain energy due to torsion
T2
U
dx
limit 0 to L
2GJ
Where, T = Applied Torsion
G = Shear modulus or Modulus of rigidity
J = Polar moment of inertia
27. Write the formula to calculate the strain energy due to pure shear
T2
dx
limit 0 to L
2GA
Where, V = Shear load
G = Shear modulus or Modulus of rigidity
A = Area of cross section
K = Constant depends upon shape of cross section.
U K

28. Write the down the formula to calculate the strain energy due to pure shear, if shear
stress is given.

2V
2G
Where, = Shear stress
G = Shear modulus or Modulus of rigidity
V = Volume of the material.

29. Write the down the formula to calculate the strain energy, if the moment value is
given
M2L
U
2 EI
Where, M = Bending moment

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L = Length of the beam


E = Youngs modulus
I = Moment of inertia

30. Write the down the formula to calculate the strain energy, if the torsion moment
value is given.
T2L
U
2GJ
Where, T = Applied Torsion
L = Length of the beam
G = Shear modulus or Modulus of rigidity
J = Polar moment of inertia
31. Write down the formula to calculate the strain energy, if the applied tension load is
given.
P2 L
U
2 AE
Where, P = Applied tensile load.
L = Length of the member.
A = Area of the member
E = Youngs modulus.
32. Write the Castiglianos first theorem.
In any beam or truss subjected to any load system, the deflection at any point is given
by the partial differential coefficient of the total strain energy stored with respect to force
acting at a point.
U

P
Where, = Deflection
U = Strain Energy stored
P = Load
33. What are the uses of Castiglianos first theorem?
1. To determine the deflection of complicated structure.
2. To determine the deflection of curved beams, springs.
34. Define: Maxwell Reciprocal Theorem.
In any beam of truss the deflection at any point A due to a load W at any other
point C is the same as the deflection at C due to the same load W applied at A.

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35. Define: Unit load method.


The external load is removed and the unit load is applied at the point, where the
deflection or rotation is to found.
36. Give the procedure for unit load method.
1. Find the forces P1, P2, . in all the members due to external loads.
2. Remove the external loads and apply the unit vertical point load at the joint if the
vertical deflection is required and find the stress.
3. Apply the equation for vertical and horizontal deflection.
37. Compare the unit load method and Castiglianos first theorem.
In the unit load method, one has to analyze the frame twice to find the load and
deflection. While in the latter method, only one analysis is needed.
38. Find the strain energy per unit volume, the shear stress for a material is given as 50
N/mm2. Take G = 80000 N/mm2.

2
per unit volume.
2G
= 50 2 / (2 x 80000).
= 0.015625 N / mm2. per unit volume.
39. Find the strain energy per unit volume, the tensile stress for a material is given as
150 N/mm2. Take E = 2 x 10 N/mm2.
U

f2
Per unit volume
2E
= (150)2 / (2 (2x 10 2)
= 0.05625 N/mm 2 per unit volume.

40. Define: Modulus of resilience.


The proof resilience of a body per unit volume. (ie) The maximum energy stored in
the body within the elastic limit per unit volume.
41. Define Trussed Beam?
A beam strengthened by providing ties and struts is known as Trusted Beams.

UNIT III
Columns with various end conditions
Eulers Column
Rankines formula

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Column with initial curvature


Eccentric loading
Southwell plot
Beam column, Short column, Long column, Stability of columns.
PART A
1. Define crippling load.
The compression members which we come across do not fail entirely by crushing.
These members are considerably long in comparison with their lateral dimensions. Hence,
these members start bending, i.e buckling when the axial load reaches a certain critical value.
Once a member shows signs of buckling it will lead to the failure of the member. This load at
which the member just buckles is called buckling load or critical load or crippling load. The
buckling load is less than the crushing load. The value of the buckling load is low for the long
members and relatively high for short members. The value of the buckling load for a given
member depends upon the length of the member and the least lateral dimension.
2. Define effective length of a column.
The effective length of a given column with given end conditions is the length of a
equivalent column of the same material and section with hinged ends having the value of the
crippling load equal to that of the given column.
3. Write the relation between effective length and actual length for various end
conditions of column.
Actual length of column = l, effective length = L
Case 1 Both ends hinged
L=l
Case 2 One end fixed, One end free
L = 2l
Case 3 Both ends fixed
l
L
2
Case 4 One end fixed, one end hinged
l
L
2

4. What are the assumption made in Eulers theory?


Eulers formula for the cripping load is based on the following assumption :
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)

The column I initially perfectly straight and is axially loaded.


The section of the column is uniform.
The column material is perfectly elastic, homogeneous and isotropic and obeys
Hookes law.
The length of the column is very large compared to the laternal dimensions.
The direct stress is very small compares with bending stress corresponding to the
buckling condition.
The self-weight of the column is ignorable.
The column will fail by buckling alone.

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5. Define slenderness ratio of the column.


The ratio

L
effectiveness length

is called the slenderness ratio of the column.


K least radius of gyration

6. Write Rankines formula for colum.


Let P be the actual crippling load. Rankine stated his empirical formula
1 1 1

P Pc Pc
Where

Pc = Fc A = crushing load
Pe = Buckling load according to Eulers formula
2EI
= Eulerian load =
L2

7. Define factor of safety for column.


This is the ratio of the critical load to the safe load on the column.
8. Define Column
A structural member, subjected to an axial compressive force is called a strut. A strut
may be horizontal, inclined or even vertical. But a vertical strut used in buildings or frames
is called a column and whose lateral dimensions are small as compared to its height.
9. What are the types of column failure?
1. Crushing failure:
The column will reach a stage, when it will be subjected to the ultimate
crushing stress, beyond this the column will fail by crushing. The load corresponding to the
crushing stress is called crushing load. This type of failure occurs in short column.
2. Buckling failure:
This kind of failure is due to lateral deflection of the column. The load at
which the column just buckles is called buckling load or crippling load or critical load. This
type of failure occurs in long column.
10. What is slenderness ration (buckling factor)? What is relevance in column?
It is the ratio of effective length of column to the least radium of gyration of the cross
sectional ends of the column.
Slenderness ration = 1 eff / r
1 eff = effective length of column

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r = least radius of gyration


Slenderness ratio is used to differentiate the type of column. Strength of the column
depends upon the slenderness ratio, it is increased the compressive strength of the column
decrease as the tendency to buckle is increased.
11. What are the factors affect the strength column?
1. Slenderness ratio
Strength of the column depends upon the slenderness ratio, it is increased the
compressive strength of the column decrease as the tendency to buckle is increased.
2. End conditions: Strength of the column depends upon the end conditions also.
12. Differentiate short and long column
Short column
1. It is subjected to direct compressive
stresses only.
2. Failure occurs purely due to crushing
only.
3. Slenderness ratio is less than 80.
4. Its length to least lateral dimension is
less than 8. (L / D < 8)

Long column
It is subjected to buckling stress only.
Failure occurs purely due to buckling
only.
Slenderness ratio is more than 120.
Its length to least lateral dimension is
more than 30. (L / D > 30)

13. What are the assumptions followed in Eulers equation?


1. The material of the column is homogeneous, isotropic and elastic.
2. The section of the column is uniform throughout.
3. The column is initially straight and load axially.
4. The effect of the direct axial stress is neglected.
5. The column fails by buckling only.
14. What are the limitations of Eulers formula?
1. It is not valid for mild steel column. The slenderness ratio of mild steel column is
less than 80.
2. It does not take the direct stress. But in excess of load it can withstand under direct
compression only.
15. Write the Eulers formula for different end conditions.
1. Both ends fixed.
PE

2 EI
(0.5 L)2

2. Both ends hinged

2 EI
( L) 2
3. One end fixed, other end hinged.
2 EI
PE
(0.7 L)2
PE

L = Length of the column

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4. One end fixed, other end free.


2 EI
PE
(2 L)2
16. Define: Equivalent length of the column.
The distance between adjacent points of inflection is called equivalent length of the
column. A point of inflection is found at every column end, that is free to rotate and every
point where there is a change of the axis. i.e, There is no moment in the inflection points.
(Or)
The equivalent length of the given column with given end conditions, is the length of
an equivalent column of the same material and cross section with hinged ends, and having the
value of the crippling load equal to that of the given column.
17. What are the uses of south well plot? (Column curve).
The relation between the buckling load and slenderness ratio of various column is
known as south well plot.
The south well plot is clearly shows the decreases in buckling load increases in
slenderness ratio.
It gives the exact value of slenderness ratio of column subjected to a particular
amount of buckling load.
18. Give Rankines formula and its advantages.
PR

fC A
(1 a (1ef /r )2 )

Where , PR = Rankines critical load


fC = yield stress
A = cross sectional area
a = Rankines constant
leff = effective length
r = radius of gyration
In case of short column or strut, Eulers load will be very large. Therefore, Eulers
formula is not valid for short column. To avoid this limitation, Rankines formula is
applicable for both long and short column.
19. Write Eulers formula for maximum stress for a initially bent column?
max = P / A + ( M max / Z)
Pa
= P / A+
(1-(P/PE ))Z
Where, P = axial load
A = cross section area
PE = Eulers load
a = constant

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Z = section modulus
20. Write Eulers formula for maximum stress for a eccentrically loaded column?
max = P / A + ( M max / Z)
P Sec(1 eff/2) (P/EI)
= P / A+ e
(1 ( P /PE ))Z
Where, P = axial load
A = cross section area
PE = Eulers load
e = eccentricity
Z = section modulus
EI = flexural rigidity
21. What is a beam column? Give examples.
Column having transverse load in addition to the axial compressive load are termed as
beam column.
Eg: Engine shaft, Wing of an aircraft.
22. Write the expressions for the maximum deflection developed in a beam column
carrying central point load with axial load, hinged at both ends.

max = O /(1 ( P /PE ))


Where, O = QL3 / 48EI
Q = central point load
P = axial load
PE = Eulers load
23. Write the expressions for maximum bending moment and max. Stress developed in
a beam column carrying central point load hinged at both ends.
[1 0.18( P /PE )]
[1 ( P /PE )]
max = P / A + ( M max / Z)
M max = MO
Where,
MO = QL / 4
Q = central point load
P = axial load
PE = Eulers load
Z = section modulus

24. Write the expressions for the maximum deflection developed in a beam column
carrying uniformly distributed load with axial load, hinged at both ends.

max O /(1 ( P /PE ))


Where,

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O = 5w L4 / 384 EI
w = uniformly distributed load / m run.
P = axial load
PE = Eulers load.
25. Write the expressions for the maximum bending moment and max, stress developed
in a beam column carrying uniformly distributed load with axial load, hinged at both
ends.
[1 0.03( P /PE )]
[1 ( P /PE )]
max = P / A + ( M max / Z)
M max = MO
Where,
MO = wL2 / 8
w = uniformly distributed load / m run
P = axial load
PE = Eulers load
Z = section modulus
26. Write the expressions for the deflection developed in a beam column carrying
several point loads at different distance with an axial load, hinged at both ends.
y sin kx [ Q1 sin kc1 Q2 Sin kc 2 Q3 sin kc 3........ ] ( x /PL)[Q1c1 Q2c2 Q3c 3...... ]Pk sin kL
sin k( L x)[Q2 sin k(L-c 2 ) Q3 sin k( L c3 )] (( L x) /PL))[Q2 ( L c2 ) Q3 ( L c 3 )]Pk sin kL
27. Write the general expressions for the maximum bending moment, if the deflection
curve equation is given.
BM = - EI (d2y / dx2)
PART B
1. Derive the expression for crippling load when both ends of the column are hinged.
Case 1 : when both ends of the column are pinned or hinged.
The following fig. shows a column AB of the length l and uniform sectional area a, hinged at
both the ends A and B. let P be the crippling load at which the column has just buckled.
Consider any section at a distance x from the end B. let y be the deflection (lateral
displacement) at the section.
The bending moment at the section is given by,

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El

d2 y
Py
dx 2

d2 y
El 2 Py 0
dx

fig.

d2 y P

y0
dx 2 El
The solution to the above differential equation is

P
P
y C1 cos x

C
sin
x

EI
EI

Where C1 and C2 are constants of integration.


At B, the deflection is zero.
At
x = 0, y = 0

C1 = 0
A also, the deflection is zero.
i.e at

x = l, y = 0

0 = C2 sin l

EI
Since C1 = 0 we conclude that C2 cannot be zero.
This is because if both C1 and C2 are zero the column will not bend at all.

Hence sin l

P
0
EI

P
0, , 2,3 ,4
EI

Considering the least practical value,


l

EI

P=

2EI
l2

2. Derive the expression for crippling load when one end of a column is fixed and other
is free.
Case 2 : when one is fixed and the other is free.

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The following fig. shows a column AB of length l whose lower end B is fixed, the
upper end A being free. Let due to the crippling load P the column just buckle. Let a be the
deflection at the top end.
d2 y
El 2 P(a y)
dx
Where y is the deflection at X.
d2 y
Py Pa
dx 2

EI

d2 y P
Pa
y
2
dx
EI
EI

The solution to the above differential equation is

P
P
y C1 cos x
C2 sin x

a
EI
EI

Fig.

Where C1 and C2 are constants of integration.


At B, the deflection is zero.
At

x = 0, y = 0
0 = C1 + 0

C1 = -a

The slope at any section is given by

P
dy
P
P
P
C1
sin x

C
cos
x

dx
EI
EI
EI
EI

At B the slope is zero,


At

dy
0
dx
P
0= C2
EI
C2 = 0
x = 0,

At A the deflection is a
AAt

x = l, y = a

P
a = -a cos l
a
EI

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P
cos l
0
EI

Considering the least practical value,


l

EI 2

P=

2EI
4l2

3. Derive the expression for crippling rod when both ends of the column are fixed.
Case 1 : when both ends of the column are fixed.
The following fig. shows a column AB of the length l whose ends A and are both fixed.
Obviously there will be a restraint moment say M0 at each end. Let P be the crippling load.
Consider any section X distance x from the lower end B. The bending moment
at the section X, is given by.
El

d2 y
M0 Py
dx 2

El

d2 y
Py M0
dx 2

fig.

M
d2 y P
y 0
2
dx
El
EI

The solution to the above differential equation is

P
M0
P
y C1 cos x

C
sin
x

EI
EI
P

(1)

Where C1 and C2 are constants of integration. The slope at any section is given by

P
dy
P
P
P
C1
sin x

C
cos
x

dx
EI
EI
EI
EI

N.KALAIMANI, AP/AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING, MSAJCE

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At B, the deflection is zero.


At

x = 0, y = 0
C1 = 0

0 C1

M0
P

C1

M0
P

At B, the slope is zero,


dy
0
dx
P
0= C2
C2 0
EI

At

x = 0,

At A, the deflection is zero


At

x = l, y = 0

M0
M
P
cos l
0

P
P
EI

P
1 cos l
0
EI

M0
P

P
cos l
1
EI

P
0, 2 4,6, ... ....
EI

Considering the first practical value,


l

P
2
EI

P=

42EI
l2

4. Derive the expression for crippling load when one end of the column is
fixed and the other end is hinged.
Case 4 : when one end of the column is fixed and other end is pinned or hinged.
The following fig. shows a column AB of the length l whose upper end A is
hinged while its lower end B is fixed.
Let P be the crippling load. Studying the nature of bending we realize that there

N.KALAIMANI, AP/AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING, MSAJCE

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will be a restraint moment Mb at the lower fixed end.


The existence of the restraint moment therefore justifies the need for
horizontal force also at the top end a without
which no bending moment can occur at B.
hence the hinge at A must exert a horizontal force H at A.
Consider any section X at a distance x from the lower fixed end B.

The bending moment at the section is given by,


El
El

d2 y
Py H(l x)
dx 2
d2 y
Py H(l x)
dx 2

fig.

d2 y P
H
y (l x)
2
dx
El
EI

The solution to the above differential equation is

P
P
H
y C1 cos x

C
sin
x

P (l x)
EI
EI

(1)

Where C1 and C2 are constants of integration. The slope at any section is given by,

P
dy
P
P
P
H
C1
sin x

C
cos
x

dx
EI
EI
EI
EI
P

(2)

At B, the deflection is zero.


At

x = 0, y = 0
H
H
0 = C1 + l C1 l
P
P

At B, the slope is zero,


At

dy
0
dx
P H
0= C2
EI P
x = 0,

C2

H EI
P P

At A, the deflection is zero

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AE6403 - AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I

At

x = l, y = 0

Simplifying we get,

tan l


P
H
P H EI
lcos l

sin
l

P
EI P P
EI

P
P

EI
EI

The solution to this equation is


l

P
4.5 radians
EI

l2P
=(4.5)2 20.25
EI
20.25 EI
P
l2

Approximately 20.25 = 22

22 EI
l2

5. Calculate the safe compressive load on a hollow cast iron column (one end rigidly
fixed and the other hinged) of 150 mm external diameter and 100 mm internal diameter
and 10m in length. Use Eulers formula with a factor of safety of 5 and E = 95 K N/mm2.
Solution :
D = 150 mm d = 100 mm
l
10
L

5 2m 5 2 1000 mm
2
2
=5000

2 mm
I=

(150 4 100 4 ) 1.994 10 7 mm 4


64

P
safe load=

2EI 2 95 1.994 107

373.92 kN
L2
(5000 2)2

373.92
74.78 kN
5

6. A hollow alloy tube 5 metre long with external and internal diameters equal to 40 mm
and 25 mm respectively was found to extend by 6.4 mm under a tensile load of 60 kN.
Find the buckling load for the tube, when used as a column with both ends pinned. Also
find the safe compressive load for the tube, with a factor of safety of 4.
Solution :

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Area of the section = A

(402 252 )mm2 765.76 mm2


4

When subjected to tension


Extension

Wl
AE

WL 60 103 5 103

61213.6 N/mm2
A
765.76 6.4

I
(40 4 25 4 ) 106489 mm 4
When used as a column
64
P

Buckling load

2Ei 2 61213.6 106489

2573.43 N
L2
50002

Safe load, with a factor of safety of 4

5573.43
643.36 N
4

7. A bar of length 4 meters when used as a simply supported beam and subjected to a
uniformly distributed load of 30 kN/m. Over the whole span deflects 1.5 mm at the
centre. Determine the crippling loads when it is used as a column with the following
conditions:
i)
Both ends pinjointed
ii)
One end fixed and the other hinged,
iii)
Both ends fixed
Solution :
Analysis as a beam

w = 30 kN/m = 30 N/mm
l = 4000 mm, = 15 mm.
5 wl4

384 EI
5 wl4
5
30 (4000)4 2
EI
.

1013 Nmm2
384
384
15
3

Analysis as a column
i)

When both ends are hinged

Crippling load
ii)

2EI
2
1
2 1013
= 412335 N=4112.335kN
2
l
3
(4000)2

When one end is fixed and the other end is hinged.

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Crippling load
iii)

22EI
P 2 2 4112.335 =8224.67 kN
l

When both ends are fixed

Crippling load

42EI
4 4112.335 =16449.34 kN
l2

8. Determine the ratio of the buckling strengths of two circular columns one hollow
and the other solid. Both the columns are made of the same material and have the same
length, cross-sectional area and end conditions. The internal diameter of the hollow
column is half of its external diameter.
Solution :
D1 = External diameter of the hollow column
D2 = 0.5 d1 = internal diameter of the hollow column
D = Diameter of the solid column
Since both the columns have the same area
2
D2
2
(D1 0.25D1 )
4
4
D12 4

D2 3
2EIh
L2
2E Is
Buckling load for the solid column = Ps
L2
1
D14 D14
4
4
Ph Ih D1 D2
16

Ps Is
D2
D4
Buckling load for the hollow column= Ph=

15 D14 15

.
.
16 D4 16

4
5

3
3

9. Derive the expression for load when column subjected to eccentric loading.
Rankines Method: Consider a short column subjected to an eccentric load P. let e be the
eccentricity from the geometric axis. Let A be the sectional area of the member.
P P.e
P P.e
Maximum compressive stress =Pmax
yc
yc
A
I
A AK 2

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P=

ey
P
1 2c

A
k
Pmax A
ey
1 2c
k

Let f be the safe stress for the column material


Safe load for the column at the eccentricity e is given by
fA
P
ey c

1 k2

If the effect of buckling be also included, the safe eccentric load


fA
P
ey c
L2

k2
k 2


Where l = effective length of the column
ii) Eulers Method:
Consider a column AB of length l subjected to an eccentric load O at eccentricity e.
let the top of the column be free and the bottom of the column be fixed. Let y be the
deflection at any section X distant x from the fixed end B. let a be the deflection at A.
The bending moment at the section X is given by
EI

d2 y
P(a e y)
dx 2

d2 y P
P(a e)
y
2
dx
EI
EI
fig.
The solution to the above differential equation is given by,
y C1 cos x

P
P
C2 sin x
(a e) ..(i)
EI
EI

The slope ay any section is given by


dy
P
P
P
P
C1
sin x
C2
cos x
dx
EI
EI
EI
EI
At B,

x = 0 and y = 0, and

dy
0
dx

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0 = C1 + (a+e)

and

0 = C2

At A,

x = l and y = a

a = - (a+e) cos l

P
EI

P
(a e)
EI

P
a = (a+e) 1 cosl
EI

P
(a+e) cos l
e
EI

a + e = e sec l

P
EI

The maximum bending moment for the column occurs at B and is equal to P (a+e)

Max.B.M. = M = Pe sec l

P
EI

Hence the maximum compressive stress for the column section at B

P

A

Pe sec l

P
EI

If both ends of the column had been hinged, it can be shown that the maximum bending
moment
L P
M Pe sec
2 EI
10. A column of circular section made of cast iron 200 mm external diameter and 20 mm
thick is used as a column 4 metres long. Both ends of the column are fixed. the column
carries a load of 150 kN at an eccentricity of 25 mm from the axis of the column. Find
the extreme stresses on the column section.
Find also the maximum eccentricity in order there may be no tension anywhere on the
section. Take E = 94000 N/mm2.
Solution :
Area of the column = A

(2002 160 2 ) 11310 mm2


64

Moment of inertia of the section about a diameter

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= I

(20 4 16 4 ) 4.637 107 mm7


64

4.637 107
4.637 105 mm3
100

Section modulus

Effective length of the column L

l 4
2 metres = 2000 mm
2 2
L P
2 EI

Maximum bending moment M Pe sec


Let us determine the angle

L P
2 EI

L P
150 1000
1000
0.1855 radian
2 EI
94000 4.637 107
=1063=1038' say 1040'
sec 1040'=1.017
Maximum bending moment M = 150 1000 25 1.017 = 3813750 N mm
Maximum compressive stress = Pmax
=

P M

A Z

150 1000
3813750

13.26 8.22
11310
4.637 105

= 21.48 N/mm 2
If tension is just to be avoided corresponding to the maximum eccentricity.
P M

A Z
P

Pe sec

L P
2 EI

150 1000 150 e 1.1017

11310
4.637 105
e

4.637 105
40.3 mm
11310 1.017

11. Derive the expression for maximum compressive stress if column with initial
curvature.

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The following fig. shows a column AB of length l with both its ends pinned. The column
has an initial curvature having a central deflection a.
Let at a distance x from the end B the initial deflection be y. For purpose of analysis
let us assume a sine curve for the initial deflection be y. For purpose of analysis let us
assume a sine curve for the initial profile of the centre line of the column,
So that,
y'=a' sin

x
l

dy' a '
x

cos
dx
l
l

d2 y '
2a '
x
2 sin
2
dx
l
l

...(i)

When the loading on the column reaches the critical value P, the column will deflect
to the form ACB, so that the deflection at x changes from y to y. this happens due to the
bending moment Py.
d2 (y y ')
Py
dx 2

Ei

d2 (y y ')
P
y
2
dx
EI

d2 y P
d2 y '
2a '
x

sin
2
2
dx
EI
dx
l
l

..(ii)

Let the solution to the above differential equations be given by


y Ca' sin

x
l

Where c is a constant of integration.

dy
x
x
Ca ' cos
dx
l
l

and

d2 y
2
x
Ca' 2 sin
2
dx
l
l

Substituting the expressions for y and

d2 y
in equation (ii) we have,
dx 2

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2
x P
x
2a '
x
Ca ' 2 sin
Ca' sin
2 sin
l
l EI
l
l
l
2 P
2
C 2 2
EI
l
l

C=

2
l2

2
l
EI
2

1
1

2
P
Pl
1
1 2
P0
EI

Hence the equation to the deflected form of the column is given by


y

Pe

a ' sin
Pe P
l

...(iii)

The deflection will be a maximum at the mid-section C.


Let a be the central deflection
l

At
x= , y=a
2
a=

Pe
a'
Pe P

Maximum B.M.=M=B.M. at the mid section =Pa


=

PPe
a'
Pe P

Maximum compressive stress =Pmax P0 Pb


=

P M P My e

A Z A AK 2

PPe
y
P

a' c 2
A Pe P AK

Pe
a' y
Pe a ' y e
P
2 c P0 1
.
1

A
Pe P
K
Pe P k 2

Pe a ' y c
= P0 1
.

p0 P K 2

or rearranging,

Pmax
P
a' y
1 1 0 2 c

K
P0

Pe

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UNIT IV
Maximum Stress theory
Maximum strain theory
Maximum shear stress theory
Distortion Theory
Maximum strain energy theory
Simple problems of shaft under combined loading.
Maximum stress theory:
This theory states that the failure of a material occurs when the maximum principal
(tensile) stress reaches the elastic limit stress of the material in simple tension or the
maximum principal stress (that is, the maximum principal compressive stress) reaches the
elastic limit stress in simple compression.
Maximum strain theory:
This theory states that the failure of a material occurs when the maximum principal
tensile strain in the material reaches the strain at the elastic limit in simple tension or when
the minimum principal strain (i.e. maximum principal compressive strain) reaches the elastic
limit strain in simple compression.
Maximum shear stress theory.
This theory states that the failure of a material occurs when the maximum shear stress
in the material reaches the maximum shear stress at the elastic limit in simple tension.
Distortion energy theory.
According to this theory, the elastic failure of a material occurs when the distortion
energy of the material reaches the distortion energy at the elastic limit in simple tension.
Maximum strain energy theory.
This theory states that the failure of a material occurs when the maximum strain
energy in the material reaches the maximum energy of the material t the elastic limit in
simple tension.
Maximum principal stress theory.
This theory states that the failure of a material occurs when the maximum principal
(tensile) stress reaches the elastic limit stress of the material in simple tension or the
maximum principal stress (that is, the maximum principal compressive stress) reaches the
elastic limit stress in simple compression.
In this theory, the maximum or the minimum principal stress is taken as the criterion
of failure. Minimum principal stress is actually the maximum compressive principal stress.

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Mathematically, the failure condition is


1
|3
|3| means the numerical values of 3

(only if 1 is tensile)
(only if 3 is compressive)

To prevent failure, 1 <


|3| <
At the point of failure, 1 =
|3| =

(1)
(2)

The above theory is in good agreement with experimental results of brittle materials such as
C.I
The above theory I contradicted in the following cases.
i)
In simple, tension test on mid steel sliding occurs approximately 45 to the axis of
the specimen, showing that the failure in this case is due to maximum shear stress
rather than the direct tensile stress.
ii)
A material even though weak in simple compression has been found to sustain
hydrostatic pressure far in excess of the elastic limit in simple compression.
In design problems and in equations (1) and (2) are replaced by the safe values of
stresses obtained by diving the elastic limit stress (or the limit of proportionally or yield point
stress or the ultimate stress) by a factor of safely. Let these safe stresses be t and c(1 = safe
tensile stress and c = safe compressive stress).

and

For design purposes : 1 = t


|3|= c

Principal stresses in a M.S. body are +40 MN/m 2 and -100 MN/m2, the third principal
stress being zero. Find the factor of safety based on the elastic limit if the criterion of
failure for the material is the maximum principal stress theory. Take the elastic limit
stress in simple tension as well as in simple compression to be equal to 210 MN/m 2.
Solution : here 1 = 40 MN/m2, 2 = 0 and 3 = -100 MN/m2
Now

1 = t

Or

1 =

f.o.s
210
5.25
f.o.s=
1
40

Also

|3 | c

or

|3 |

'
f.o.s

f.o.s=

210
2.1
100

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So the material, according to the maximum principal stress theory, will fail due to
compressive principal stress.
f.o.s = 2.1
Principal stresses in a c.I. body are + 35 MN/m 3 and 80 MN/m2, the third principal
stress being zero. Find the f.o.s based on the elastic limit if the criterion of failure is the
maximum principal stress theory. Take the elastic limit stress in simple tension as 70
MN/m2 and in simple compression as 500 MN/m2.
Solution :

Here 1 = 35 MN/m2, 2 = and 3 = -80 MN/m2

Now

1 = t

Or

1 =

f.o.s
70
2
f.o.s=
1 35

Also

|3 | c

f.o.s=

'
f.o.s

'
500

6.25
|3 | 80

The material will fail due to tensile principal stress.


f.o.s = 2
maximum principal strain theory:
This theory states that the failure of a material occurs when the principal tensile strain
in the material reaches the strain at the elastic limit in simple tension or when the minimum
principal strain (i.e. maximum principal compressive strain) reaches the elastic limit strain in
simple compression.
Now

1 = principal strain in the direction of principal stress1


1
= 1 (2 3 )
E
3 = Principal strain in the direction of the principal stress 3
1
3 (1 2 )
E

According to the maximum principal strain theory, the conditions to cause failure are

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and | 3 |

[ 1 must be positive]
'
E

[ 3 must be negative]

or

[3 (2 3 )]
E
E

and

1
'
| 3 (1 2 ) |
E
E

or

[1 ( 2 3 )

and

[3 (1 2 ) '

To prevent failure
[1 ( 2 3 )
and

[3 (1 2 ) '

At the point of elastic failure

and

[1 ( 2 3 )

(1)

[3 (1 2 ) '

(2)

In design in equation (1) and (2) are replaced by safe stresses which can be designated by
t, and c respectively.

For design purposes


[1 ( 2 3 )
[3 ( 1 2 ) c
The above theory is not used much in practice as it does not fit well with the
experimental results except for brittle materials for biaxial tension-compression state of stress
for which it is sometimes recommended.
Maximum shear stress theory:
This theory states that the failure of a material occurs when the maximum shear stress in the
material reaches the maximum shear stress at the elastic limit in simple tension.
Maximum shear stress =

1 3
2

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Maximum shear stress at the elastic limit in simple tension =

1 3
to prevent failure
2
2

or

1 3 to prevent failure

At the point of failure


1 -3 =

(1)

In actual design in the above equation is replaced by the safe stress t.


This theory gives good arrangement with experimental results on ducts materials for
which = approximately. This theory is quite simple to apply as compared to the other
theories (next two theories applicable to ductile materials and gives quite safe results. This
theory is very commonly used in machine design for ductile materials.
The above theory is contradicted in the following cases.
i.
The theory does not give agreement with experiments for materials for which is
quite different from . So it cannot be applied to brittle material such as C.I.
ii.
Under hydrostatic pressure or equal tensions in these direction, the maximum
shear stress is always equal to zero, meaning thereby that material will never fail
under hydrostatic pressure or equal tensions. This is physically impossible. Under
equal tensions in three principal directions, a brittle failure is expected and hence
the maximum principal stress theory must be more relevant in this case.
iii.
The theory does not give as close results as found by experiments on ductile
materials, However, it gives the safe results.
A M.S shaft 10 cm diameter is subjected to a maximum torque of 15 kNm and a
maximum bending moment of 10 kNm at a particular section. Find the f.o.s according
to the maximum shear stress theory if the elastic limit in simple tension is 240 MN/m2.

Solution :
b maximum bending stress =

maximum shear stress

M 10 1000 106 320

N / m2
3
Z

10
32 100

T
15 1000 240 106

3
3

10

16
16 100

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Principal stresses are given by


2

10 6 320
1
1 106 320
240
2
6
b b 4

10

2
2

106 320
480
1 1

320

160 10 6
(1 1.805)

148 10 6 or -41 106 N/m2


According to the maximum shear stress theory,
1-3 =
Here 1 148 10 6 , 2 0 and 3 41 10 6 N/m 2

(148+41) 106
=189 10 6 N/m2

f.o.s=

240 10 6
1.27 Ans.
189 106

Maximum strain energy theory:


This theory states that the failure of a material occurs when the maximum strain energy in the
material reaches the maximum energy of the material at the elastic limit in simple tension.
Mathematically, at the point of failure
V 2
2
1 22 23 2(12 23 31 )
V, giving
2E
2E
12 22 32 2(12 23 3 1

(1)

In actual design in the above equation is replaced by the allowable stress obtained by
dividing (or the ultimate stress or yield point stress) by a f.o.s.
The results of this theory are similar to the experimental results for ductile materials (i.e. the
materials which fail by general yielding) for which = approximately.
Also note that order of 1, 2 and 3 is immaterial here.
The theory does not apply to materials for which is quite different from .

ii. Under hydrostatic pressure 1 = -p, 2 p and 3 = -p, giving p


when
3(1 2 )
1, 2 and 3 are put in equation (1). It has been found that this result does not
agree with experiments. Actually much higher pressures can be applied than those

given by the equation p


.
3(1 2 )
i.

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iii. It does not give results exactly equal to the experimental results even for ductile
materials, even through the results are quite close to the experimental.
Distortion energy theory.
According to this theory, the elastic failure of a material occurs when the distortion energy of
the material reaches the distortion energy at the elastic limit in simple tension.

V
(1 2 )2 (2 3 )2 (3 1 )2
12G

and shear strain energy due to the elastic limit stress

V
V
(1 0)2 (0 0)2 (0 )2
2 2
12G
12G

Q 1 , 2 0 and 3 0

Equating the two energies, we get


(1 2 )2 (2 3 )2 (3 1 )2
2

(1)

or 2 12 22 32 (12 23 31 )

(2)

In actual design in equations (1) and (2) is replaced by safe equivalent stress t, in simple
tension.
The above theory has been to give best results for ductile for ductile materials for which =
approximately.
Note that order of 1, 2 and 3 is immaterial for this theory.
i.
The theory does not agree with the experimental results for the material for which
is quite different from .
ii.
For hydrostatic pressure or tension, the above theory gives = 0. This means that
the material will never fail under any hydrostatic pressure or tension and this is
obviously not correct. Actually when three equal tensions are applied in three
principal directions, brittle fracture occurs and as such maximum principal stress
theory will give reliable results in this case.
A solid shaft transmits 1000 kW at 300 r.p.m maximum torque is 2 times the mean. The
shaft is subjected to a bending moment, which is 1.5 times the men torque. The shaft is
of ductile material for which the permissible tensile and shear stresses are 120 MPa and
60 MPa respectively. Determine the shaft diameter using suitable theory of failure. Give
justification of the theory used. Find result by use of max. principal stress theory also.
(AMIE Sec B, Winter 94).
Solution : It is problem of combined bending and torque.
Principal Stresses :
b

32M
16T
, = 3
3
d
d

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1
1 32M 32
16

Principal Streses = b b2 4 2
3 M2 T 2 3 (M M2 T 2 )
3

2
2 d
d
d

16
16
M M2 T 2 , 2 0 and 3 3 (M M2 T 2 )
3
d
d

Best theory is the distortion energy theory, which gives,


12 32 13 2t
2

or

16
d3

or

16
d3

or

16
d3

i.e,

M
2M

4M

M T
2

2 16

M M T

3
d
2

16
M M T

2M2 2T 2 T 2 2t
3T 2

2t

32
3
M2 T 2
3
d
4

(1)

2NTmean
1000 103
60
2 300 Tmean
1000 103
60

Now
or

100 103 100

kNm

i.e

Tmean

T-Max.torque=

200
kNm

and

M=Max.B.M.=

150
kNm

Putting in equation (1) we get,


2

32 150 200

120 10 3

d

6

d3

10 3

32 103
3
32
3
(150)2 (200) 2
150 2 (200)2
6 2
2
3
120 10
4
120 10
4
3
3
or d 6.191 10
d=0.1836 m= 183.6 mm Ans.

Justification for the theory used: The theories generally used for ductile materials are (i)
maximum shear stress theory and (ii) distortion energy theory. Out of these theories,
distortion energy theory is best for ductile materials, as the experimental results for these
materials fit very well with this theory. Maximum shear stress theory gives results on safer

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side, that is a little more materials is used than the actual required as given by distortion
energy theory.

Maximum shear stress theory results:


M2 T 2

3
d t
32
2

200 150

3
d 120 10 6
32

or

10

or

32 (200 / )2 (150 / )2
d
10 3
6
120 10
3

This gives

d3=6.755 10-3

and

d = 0.189 m = 189 mm Ans.

Since t = 2 (given), the equivalent torque criterion gives same results.


Maximum principal stress theory :

i.e

or

1
3
M M2 T 2
d t
2
32
3
M+ M2 T 2
d t
16
2
2
150
150 200
3

103

d 120 10 6

16

or

2d3
150+ (150) (200) 3
120 10 6
10 16

or

150+ 150 2 200 2

or

d3 54.0379 10 4

2 120 103 d3
16

d=0.1755 m = 175.5 mm Ans.


15. What are the types of failures?
1. Brittle failure:
Failure of a material represents direct separation of particles from each other,
accompanied by considerable deformation.

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2. Ductile failure:
Slipping of particles accompanied, by considerable plastic deformations.
Theories of failure:
1. Maximum Principal Stress Theory. (Rakines theory)
2. Maximum Principal Strain Theory. (St. Venants theory)
3. Maximum Shear Stress Theory. (Trescas theory or Guests theory)
4. Maximum Shear Strain Theory. (Von-Mises-Hencky theory or Distortion energy
theory)
5. Maximum Strain Energy Theory. (Beltrami Theory or Haighs theory)
Maximum Principal Stress Theory (Rakines theory)
According to this theory, the failure of the material is assumed to take place when the
value of the maximum Principal Stress ( 1 = f y ).
Maximum Principal Strain Theory. (St. Venants Theory)
According to this theory, the failure of the material is assumed to take place when the
value of the maximum Principal Stain (e1) reaches a value to that of the elastic limit strain
(fy / E) of the material.
e 1 = fy / E
e1 1/E[ 1 (1/m)( 2 3 )] f y /E [ 1 (1/m)( 2 3 )] f y
In 3D
In 2D, 3 = 0 e1 1/E[ 1 (1/m)( 2 )] f y /E [ 1 (1/m)( 2 )] = fy
Maximum Shear Stress Theory. (Trescas theory)
According to this theory, the failure of the material is assumed to take place when the
maximum shear stress equal determined from the simples tensile test.
In 3D, ( 1 3 ) /2 fy /2 ( 1 3 )
In 2D, ( 1 2 ) /2 fy /2 ( 1 ) y

Maximum Shear Stress Theory. (Von-Mises-Hencky theory or Distortion energy theory)


According to this theory, the failure of the material is assumed to take place when the
maximum shear strain exceeds the shear strain determined from the simple tensile test.
In 3D, shear strain energy
[( 1 2 )2 ( 2 3 )2 ( 3 1 )2 ]

due

to

distortion

(1/

12G)

2
Shear strain energy due to simple tension, U = f y /6G
2
2
2
2
(1/ 12G) [( 1 2 ) ( 2 3 ) ( 3 1 ) ] = f y /6G

[( 1 2 )2 ( 2 3 )2 ( 3 1 )2 ] = 2 f y2
In 2D,

2
[( 1 2 )2 ( 2 0)2 (0 1 )2 ] = 2 f y

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Maximum Strain Energy Theory (Beltrami Theory)


According to this theory, the failure of the material is assumed to take place when the
maximum strain energy exceeds the strain energy determined from the simple tensile test.
In
3D,
strain
energy
due
to
2
2
2
1 2 3 (1/m)( 1 2 2 2 2 2 ) ]

deformation

(1/2E)

2
Strain energy due to simple tension, U = f y /2 E
2
2
2
2
(1/2E) [ 1 2 3 (2 /m)( 1 2 2 2 2 2 ) ]= f y /2 E
2
2
2
2
[ 1 2 3 (2 /m)( 1 2 2 2 2 2 ) ]= f y
2
2
2
In 2D, [ 1 2 (2 /m)( 1 2 )] f y
Theories used for ductile failures

1. Maximum Principal Strain Theory. (St. Venants theory)


2. Maximum Shear Stress Theory. (Trescas theory or Guests theory)
3. Maximum Shear Strain Theory. (Von-Mises-Hencky theory or Distortion energy
theory)
Limitations of Maximum Principal Stress Theory (Rakines theory)
1. This theory disregards the effect of other principal stresses and effect of shearing
stresses on other planes through the element.
2. Material in tension test piece slips along 45 to the axis of the test piece, where normal
stress is neither maximum nor minimum, but the shear stress is maximum.
3. Failure is not a brittle, but it is a cleavage failure.
Limitations of Maximum Shear Stress Theory. (Trescas theory).
This theory does not give the accurate results for the state of stress of pure shear in
which the maximum amount of shear is developed (in torsion test).
Limitations of Maximum Shear Strain Theory. (Von-Mises-Hencky theory or Distortion
energy theory)
It cannot be applied for the materials under hydrostatic pressure.
Limitations of Maximum Strain Energy Theory. (Beltrami Theory).
The theory does not apply to brittle materials for which elastic limit in tension and in
compression are quite different.
Failure theories and its relationship between tension and shear.
1. Maximum Principal Stress Theory. (Rakines theory) y = fy
2. Maximum Principal Strain Theory. (St. Venants theory) y = 0.8 fy
3. Maximum Shear Stress Theory. (Trescas theory or Guests theory) y =0.5 fy

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4. Maximum Shear Strain Theory. (Von-Mises-Hencky theory or Distortion energy


theory)y = 0.577 fy
5. Maximum Strain Energy Theory. (Beltrami Theory or Haighs theory) y = 0.817 fy
Octahedral Stresses:
A plane, which is equally inclined to the three axes of reference, is called octahedral
plane. The normal and shearing stress acting on this plane are called octahedral stresses.

oct 1/3 ( 1 2 )2 ( 2 3 )2 ( 3 1 )2
Plasticity ellipse:
The graphical surface of a Maximum Shear Strain Theory (Von-Mises-Hencky theory
or Distortion energy theory) is a straight circular cylinder. The equation in 2D is
12 1 2 22 f y 2 which is called the Plasticity ellipse

UNIT V

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Equilibrium and Compatibility conditions for elastic solids.


2D elasticity equations for plane stress, plane strain and generalized plane strain cases
Airys stress function.
Simple problems in plane stress / plane strain using Cartesian and polar coordinates.
Super position techniques.
Examples include (a) panels subjected to a Generalized plane strain Biaxial loading
(b) Uniform/Linearly varying edge loads on elastic half plane
(c) Thick cylindrical shells
1. Write the differential equations of equilibrium for two-dimensional problems?

2. Write the condition of compatibility for elastic solids?

3. Define
plane stress

and

plane strain.

4. Write
Airys stress

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function.

5. Write the components of stress and strain.

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6. Write the strain components by the method of superposition.

1. Explain the following (i) Notation for forces and stresses (ii) Components of stress (iii)
Components of strain.

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2. Explain the following (i) Plane stress and plane strain (ii) compatibility equations.

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3. Explain (i) St.Venants Principle (ii) Airys stress function.

4.Explain (i) Strain Rosette (ii) Compatibility equations.

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AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
PART A
1. Give the relation between the number of members and the number of joints in a truss and
explain its significance.
2. A solid cylinder 100 cm long and 5 cm in diameter is subjected to a tensile force of 80
kN. One part this cylinder of length L 1 is made of steel (E = 210 GPa) and the other part
of length L2 is made of aluminium (E = 70 GPa). Determine the length L 1 and L2 so that
the two parts elongate to an equal amount.
3. Write down three moment equation in the general form.
4. Define and the S.I. units for (a) Stiffness (b) Flexural rigidity
5. A cantilever beam of length L is subjected to a tip load P, find the deflection at the tip
using Castiglianos theorem.
6. State Reciprocal theorem. Give an example.
7. Find the slope at the support of a simply supported beam of length L and subjected to a
uniformly distributed load by unit load method.
8. Draw Eulers curve for a column and explain critical slenderness ratio.
9. Give the Rankines formula and its significance.
10. A solid cube of steel (G = 80 GPa) is subjected to a shear of 56 MPa. Find the strain
energy per unit volume.
PART B
11.
(a)
method.

Find the forces in the members of the truss shown in the figure by any one

Figure.

Or
(b)

Find the forces in the members of the landing gear tripod shown in the figure

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12.

(a)

Find the support moments and draw bending moment diagram of the continuous
beam shown in Fig using three moment equation.

Or
(b) Find the support moments and draw bending moment diagram of the continuous
beam shown in the figure using moment distribution method.
13.

(a)

Find the horizontal reaction of the frame shown in the figure using strain energy
method.

(b) Determine the forces in the system shown in the figure, assuming the cross
section area of all bars equal and taking the force X in the diagonal AD as the
statically indeterminate quantity.

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14.

(a)

The cross section of a hinged-hinged column 1 m long is Z with 3 cm x 2 mm


top and bottom flange and 5 cm x 2 mm middle web. Derive the formula used.
E = 70 GPa.
Or

(b) A beam-column made of steel simply supported at both ends is subjected to a


concentrated load of 1000 N at a distance 1 m from the right support and an
axial load of 1000 N. Find the deflection at mid-point and the maximum
deflection. Given: L = 4 m, b = 20 mm, E = 210 GPa, calculate the load the
column can carry. Derive the formula used.
15.

(a)

A simply supported beam column of length L is subjected to a axial load P and a


moment at M at one of the support. Find the slope at the supports.
Or

(b) A circular shaft of tensile yield strength 300 MPa is subjected to a combined
state of loading defined by a bending moment M = 15 kN-m and torque T = 20
kN-m. Calculate the diameter d which the bar must have in order to achieve a
factor of safety N = 3. Apply the following theories.
(i) Maximum shear stress theory
(ii) Maximum distortion energy theory
(iii)Octahedral shear stress theory.

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AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
PART A
1. Where are the truss-type structures found in an aircraft?
2. Define the carry-over factor used in the moment distribution method.
3. Transform the cross-section show in figure to a section made of aluminium alone. What
is the criterion used?

4. Write down the moment-curvature relationship for the section shown in figure.
5. Compute the strain energy stored in the bar indicated in the figure.

6. State Maxwells Reciprocal Theorem.


7. What is an ideal column?
8. The load carrying capacity of a column (increases/decreases/remains unchanged) because
of eccentricity?
9. State 2 failure theories applicable to brittle material.
10. What is the failure criterion according to the maximum shear stress theory?
PART B
11.

(a) Determine the forces in the members of the truss indicated in figure.

Or
(b) Look at the 3-element truss configuration shown in figure E = 70 GPa for the
material used. The cross-section area of each member is 5 cm 2. The length of
member (2) is 99.75 cm- this member is stretched so that a pin can be inserted at

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B to connect the 3 members together. Determine the forces induced in the


members. Determine also the vertical and horizontal displacement of point B.

12.

(a)

State and prove Clapeyrons 3 moment equation.


Or
(b) Determine all support reactions for the beam shown in figure Use Clapeyrons 3moment equation. Then, draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams.
EI is constant.

13.

(a)

(b)

14.

(a)

(b)

15.

(a)

(i) State the prove Castiglianos theorems.


(ii) Using energy methods, determines the slope at point B of the beam
shown in figure E = 210 GPa, I = 10- 4 m4.

Or
Determine all the support reactions of the beam shown in figure using energy
methods. Then draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams. E = 210
GPa, I = 10- 4 m4.

(i)

Derive and obtain the first 2 buckled shape and corresponding buckling
loads of a fixed-fixed column.
(ii) Explain Rankines hypothesis.
Or
Write notes on the following topics
(i) Inelastic column buckling.
(ii) The Southwell plot.
What is a beam-column? Where can a beam-column type of structure be

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found in an aircraft? Explain the structural analysis of a beam-column type of


structure, with an example.
Or
(b)

(i) Explain the maximum distortion energy failure theory. Refer figure Point
A is a critical point located on the top surface of the lever arm. Determine the
maximum load P0 according to the maximum distortion energy failure theory
using a factor of safety of 1.5. The shaft is made of steel with a yield stress
value of 300 MPa.

(ii) Explain the maximum principal stress theory of failure.

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AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
PART A
1. Differentiate between statically determinate and indeterminate trusses with examples.
2. What is equivalent rigidity of a composite beam? Explain with an example.
3. Explain unit load method with an example.
4. Define carry-over factor in moment distribution method.
5. State Castiglianos theorems.
6. State Reciprocal theorem.
7. Calculate the strain energy stored in a cantilever of length L, subjected to a tip load P.
8. Draw Eulers curve for a column and explain critical slenderness ratio.
9. What is South wells plot?
10. A solid cube of steel (G = 80 GPa) is subjected to a shear of 56 MPa. Find the strain
energy in per unit volume.
PART B
11.

(a)

(b)

Find the forces in the members of the truss shown in the figure by any one
method.

Or
The truss shown in figure is supported as cantilever at the joints A and H. Find
the forces in the members.

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12.

(a)

(b)
13.

(a)

(b)

14.

(a)

(b)

15.

(a)

Find the support moments and draw bending moment diagram of the
continuous beam shown in the figure and using three moment equation.

Or
Find the support moments and draw bending moment diagram of the
continuous beam shown in the figure and using moment distribution method.
A thin circular ring of radius R and bending rigidity EI is subjected to three
symmetric radial compressive loads lying in the plane of the ring structure.
Obtain the expression for the bending moment and plot its distribution.
Or
Calculate the vertical deflection of the point B and the horizontal movement of
D in the pin-jointed frame work shown in the figure. All members of the
frame work and linearly elastic and have cross sectional areas of 1800 mm 2.
E = 200 GPa.

Find the critical load and stress for the column made of Steel, (E = 210 GPa)
shown in the figure, assuming both ends are pinned.

Or
A beam column made of steel simply supported at the both ends is subjected to
a concentrated load of 1000 N at a distance 1 m from the right support and an
axial load of 1000 N. Find the deflection at mid-point and the maximum
deflection. Given : L = 4 m, b = 20 mm, d = 40 nm, E = 210 GPa, calculate
the load the column can carry. Derive the formula used. b is the width of the
cross section and d is the depth of the section.
Explain the various theories of failure and their relative merits and demerits.

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(b)

Or
A circular shaft of tensile yield strength of 350 MPa is subjected to a combined
state of loading defined by a bending moment M = 15 kN-m and torque T =
10 kN-m. Calculate the diameter d which the bar must have in order to
achieve a factor of safety N = 2. Apply the following theories.
(i) Maximum shear stress theory.
(ii) Maximum distortion energy theory.
(iii) Octahedral shear stress theory.

AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
PART - A
1.
2.

Explain the general criteria to determine whether a truss is statically determinate?


A 20 cm long steel tube 15 cm internal diameter and 1 cm thick is surrounded by a brass
tube of same length and thickness. The tubes carry an axial load of 150 kN. Estimate
the load carried by each. Es = 210 GPa, Eb = 100 GPa.

3.

Write down three moment equation in the general form.

4.

Define stiffness factor in moment distribution method.

5.

Explain unit load method with an example.

6.

State Reciprocal theorem.

7.

Differentiate between long and short column.

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8.

What is Southwells plot?

9.

A solid cube of steel (E = 210 GPa) is subjected to a tension 200 MPa, find the strain
energy per unit volume.

10. Explain Octahedral shear stress theory.


PART B
11.

(a)

(b)

12.

(a)

Find the axial loads in the members of the truss shown in the figure by any
one method.

Or
Find the axial loads in the members of the truss shown in the figure.

Find the support moments and draw bending moment diagram of the
continuous beam shown in the figure using three moment equation.

Or

13.

(b)

Find the support moments and draw bending moment diagram of the
continuous beam shown in the figure using moment distribution method.

(a)

In figure a vertical load P is supported by a vertical bar DB of length L and


cross-section A and by two equally inclined bars of length L and cross-section
area A1. Determine the forces in the bars and also the ration A1/A which will

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make the forces in all the bars numerically equal.

(b)

14.

(a)

(b)

15.

(a)

(b)

Or
For the truss shown in the figure, determine the horizontal reaction at A and B.

(i) State and prove Castiglianos theorem.


(ii) Find the defection at the point of load of a simply supported beam of
length L, subjected to a concentrated load P at a distance a from the left
end and b from the right end using unit load method.
Or
Find the buckling stress of a hinged-hinged column of length 100 cm and
having I-cross-section. The dimensions of the flange are 10 cm x 1 cm and
the web 12 cm x 1 cm. Derive the formula used. E = 70 GPa.
Derive an expression for the deflection curve of a beam-column simply
supported at both ends and subjected to a uniformly distributed load w and an
axial 1cap P.
Or
A circular shaft of tensile yield strength 300 MPa is subjected to a combined
state of loading defined by a bending moment M = 15 kN-m and Torque T =
15 kN-m. Calculate the diameter d which the bar must have in order to
achieve a factor of safety N = 2. Apply the following theories.
(i) Maximum strain theory.
(ii) Maximum shear stress theory.
(iii) Maximum distortion energy theory.

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AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES I
PART A
1. When is a structure said to be statically indeterminate?
2. What is the relationship between bending moment and shear force?
3. Sketch the bending moment diagram of a fixed-fixed beam of length L subject to a
concentrated moment Mo applied at x = L/2.
4. Define the carry-over factor.
5. Refer figure. What is the strain energy stored in the bar?
6. State Castiglianos second theorem.
7. What is the effective length of a column?

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8. What is an ideal column?


9. Name 2 failure theories suitable for ductile materials.
10. Give example of brittle materials. Name a failure theory suitable for a brittle material.
PART B
11.

Refer figure. Derive and obtain an expression for the mid-point slope and deflection
using moment-area theorems. Beam length is L and EI is constant.

12.

(a)

(b)

Refer figure. Beam length = 1.5 m. Cross-section is rectangular of size 2 x 0.5


cm. Material used is aluminium. Determine (i0 the reactions at the fixed end,
and (ii) the reaction and slope at the prop.
Or
Refer figure q = 20 kN / m. Determine all support reactions. Sketch the shear
force and bending moment diagrams. EI is constant.

Figure.
13.

14.

(a)

Refer figure. Derive and obtain an expression for the mid-point slope and
deflection using energy methods.
Or

(b)

Refer figure. Determine the axial force in the truss members. Determine also
the vertical and horizontal displacements of joint B. The material used has a
modulus of 70 GPa. The cross-section area of all the members is 3 sq. cm.

(a)

(i) Discuss the effect of initial imperfections in columns


(ii) Derive and obtain the Euler buckling load of a pinned-pinned column of
length L.
Or
(i) Explain the construction of a South well plot. What are its uses?
(ii) Describe how the buckling load of a given column can be estimated using
energy methods.

(b)

15.

(a)

(b)

(i) What are the typical materials used for aircraft construction? List the
criteria governing the selection of aircraft materials.
(ii) Explain the maximum principal stress failure theory.
(iii) Explain the maximum principal strain failure theory.
Or
(i) Explain the distortion energy failure theory.
(ii) A shaft is subjected to a maximum torque of 10 kNm and a bending
moment of 7.5 kNm at a particular section. The allowable stress in simple
tension is 160 MN/m2. Determine the shaft diameter using the distortion

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energy failure and a factor of safety of 2.

Figure.
*****************

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