Assaying:

Analysis (as of an ore) to determine the presence, absence, or quantity of one or more
components in a given sample.
The exploration geologist must keep three main factors in mind in order to select a method of
analysis:
1. Sensitivity
2. Precision
3. Cost.
Spectrometric methods are mostly applied for multi elemental analyses. Spectroscopy is the
study of interaction of light with matter.
Nature of light:
Max plank = Light is having particle nature
Hugense = Light is having wave nature
Einstine = Light is having both (particle and wave) nature
As an atom the smallest part of light is called as photon. It can be imagined as an
energy packet
Speed of light = 3.0 x 108m/sec

Light comes from sun in the form of electromagnetic waves. It consists of a range of
wavelengths. Only small region of electromagnetic radiation is visible to us which is called
visible region.
Electromagnetic Spectrum:
Different regions of electromagnetic radiation categorized on the basis of energy, frequency
or wavelength is called electromagnetic spectrum.
According to Bohrs atomic model, electrons revolve around the nucleus in definite orbits.
Electron does not absorb or emit energy as long as it remains in an orbit. It emits or absorbs
energy only when it goes from one orbit to another orbit. The amount of energy absorbed or
emitted is given by Planks equation.
E=hf=hc/
Ephoton =Ef -Ei
According to another postulate of Bohrs atomic model only those orbits exist which has
angular momentum nh/2.
Where n=1,2,3,..
Hence energy difference between different energy levels is fixed. Atoms of different elements
has different differences of energy between different energy levels.

Absorption Spectrum:
When the energy of incident photon of light matches with energy difference between two
energy levels, it is absorbed by electron and electron goes from ground state to excited state.
The spectrum thus obtained is called absorption spectrum.
Emission spectrum:
The spectrum obtained when an electron in some excited state comes to ground state by
emission of photon of light is called emission spectrum.
There are following possibilities when light is targeted to an object:
1. Transmission (if the object is transparent)
2. Absorption (if the object is liquid/gas or capable of absorption)
3. Reflection (if an opaque material is placed)
4. Refraction (if medium is changed during the path of light)
5. Scattering (if the surface is rough)
Monochromatic Light:
Light consisting of only single wavelength.
Beer-Lambert Law:
The amount of light absorbed by a sample is directly proportional to the concentration and
length of sample in light path (path length).

A= cl
C= conc. In g/cm3, l=path length in cm, =constant
If I0 is the intensity of incident light and I is the intensity of transmitted light then
T=I/I0
A= -logT = log I0/I
Colorimetry:
Determination of nature of given sample and concentrations of different components in it by
measuring the wavelength and the intensity of electromagnetic radiation in the visible region
of the spectrum is called colorimetry.
Wavelength measurement tells us the nature of our sample (qualitative analysis).
Intensity of light tells us the concentration of an analyte in a sample (quantitative
analysis).

Light source:
It produces light of required wavelength. It may be incandescent lamp for simple colorimetry.
Collimator:
It is used to focus light at a point.
Monochromator:
It may be a prism or a grating which separates different wavelengths of light.
Wavelength selector:
It may be a filter which transmits one color and absorbs the remaining.
Sample cell:

It is made up of glass or quartz which holds sample and kept in light path.
Detector:
A part of light is absorbed by the sample and remaining is transmitted. The transmitted light
falls on a photocell which converts it into electrical signal.
Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS):
This techniques is specifically used for detection of metals at ppm and ppb level. This
technique is very useful for quantitative analysis but it is a poor qualitative technique.

Single beam instrument.

Double beam instrument.

Light source:
Light source consists of a hollow cathode which is made up of that metal which is going to be
analyzed.
Chopper:
It splits light beam into to equal parts.
Atomizer:

Sample in solution form injected which is converted into tiny droplets with the help of
nebulizer. Fuel is burnt with the help of an oxidant and resulting flame is used to first
evaporate and then atomize the sample. The sample in atomic form absorbs light coming
from hollow cathode lamp and got excited.
Monochromator:
Monochromator is used to remove the interferences caused by absorption of matrix atoms.
Dectector:
It is a device which conterts light into electric current which is measured.
X-ray based techniques:
X-ray fluorescence XRF;
When x-rays cause the material to glow is called x-ray fluorescence. When xrays falls on a
material secondary xrays are produced which are characteristic of that material.
X-ray Diffraction XRD;
When light falls on regularly arranged crystal it is diffracted. This is called XRD.
Transmission X-ray;
This technical is used for medical purposes.

Inductively coupled plasma ICP:

Plasma is produced at very high temperature. The high temperature is used to evaporate,
atomize and ionize the sample.
ICP torch is used to produce plasma.

 ICP is used in combination with atomic emission spectroscopy and Mass spectroscopy.

Atomic Emission spectroscopy (AES):

When an excited electron comes to ground state it emits light which is the basis of AES.
Mass Spectrometry (MS):
Mass spectrometry (MS) is an analytical technique that ionizes chemical species and sorts the
ions based on their mass to charge ratio.