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DOI 10.1007/s00126-013-0455-6
ARTICLE
Received: 26 August 2011 / Accepted: 15 January 2013 / Published online: 5 February 2013
# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013
654
Introduction
Lagunas Norte (756 S, 7815 E) is one of the most recent
discoveries of world class epithermal gold deposits in northern Peru and is, in contrast to other important epithermal
deposits of the region (e.g., Pierina: Rainbow 2009;
Yanacocha: Longo et al. 2010), not only hosted in volcanic
rocks but also in Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous
quartzites. The limited reactivity of the quartzites resulted
in important challenges in mapping of the alteration and
consequently the relatively recent discovery of the deposit
(Araneda et al. 2003), despite the fact that it is well exposed
at surface.
In this article, we present a genetic model of the Lagunas
Norte deposit on the basis of the paragenetic evolution,
mineralization, and alteration and its relationship with the
rocks that host the mineralization. We also present stable
isotope data for pyrite, barite, and three types of alunite,
commonly in textural equilibrium with auriferous pyrite,
which constrain the origin of the mineralizing fluids and
allow documentation of the evolution of the magmatichydrothermal system of Lagunas Norte.
Exploration history and reserves
Prior to the discovery of the Lagunas Norte AuAg deposit,
significant coal mining had been carried out in the Alto
Chicama area since the end of the nineteenth century.
Between 1880 and 1931, Compaia Minera Northern
exploited the Callacuyan coal deposit, located 5 km to the
NW of Lagunas Norte (Escudero 1979). Only small-scale
coal mining for local domestic use took place after 1931, as
larger scale operations were not profitable due to the high
sulfur content of the coal (Manrique 1986).
In 1999, Centromin-Per carried out preliminary studies
to evaluate the metallic mineral potential of the area, which
led to the identification of elevated gold values in stream
655
79
78
80
70
0
0
C o lo m b ia
Ecuador
PERU
T ru jillo
B ra s il
10
10
L im a
C usco
80
Yanacocha
70
CAJAMARCA
La Virgen
PA C IF IC
O CEAN
8
Quaternary
Lagunas
Norte
Miocene
Oligocene-Miocene
Callacuyan
TRUJILLO
Calipuy Gp.
volcanic rocks
Quiruvilca
Chim Fm.
Chicama Fm.
79
78
Fig. 1 Simplified geological map of northwestern Peru and locations of Lagunas Norte and other deposits of the Miocene metallogenetic belt of
Peru (modified from INGEMMET (1999) and Noble and McKee (1999))
656
Deposit geology
Mesozoic basement
The basement at Lagunas Norte is dominated by Mesozoic
pelitic and siliciclastic rocks belonging to the Chicama and
Chim Formations, respectively (Reyes 1980). These
Mesozoic rocks are thrusted and folded into NW striking
east-verging folds (the Maraon Fold and Thrust Belt:
Benavides-Cceres 1999) and are weakly metamorphosed to
slate and quartzite. Lower Miocene volcanic rocks assigned to
the Calipuy Group were deposited unconformably over the
folded Mesozoic strata. Gold mineralization is hosted by the
siliciclastic Chim Formation and the overlying volcanic strata. The deposit stratigraphy is described below in detail
(Figs. 2 and 3).
The Jurassic Chicama Formation (Stappenbeck 1929;
Cosso and Jan 1967) crops out to the west and north of the
mining operations (Fig. 2). Its thickness is unknown in the
study area but has been estimated to be up to 1,500 m thick
40 km S of Lagunas Norte (Cosso and Jan 1967; Jaillard and
Jacay 1989). It consists of a succession of dark carbonaceous
shale and siltstone with occasional thin beds of fine-grained
sandstone (see electronic supplementary data). The unit has
been weakly metamorphosed to slate and features an intense
cleavage subparallel to the bedding. The transition to the
overlying Chim Formation (see below) is gradual and characterized by increasing abundance of quartzite intercalations.
The Chicama Formation does not crop out at the deposit, but
its presence below the mineralized zone is evident from clasts
of slate in the Dafne breccia (see below) crosscutting the
Mesozoic strata.
The Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous Chim Formation
(Benavides-Cceres 1956) is the principal ore host (Figs. 2
and 3). It consists of compositionally mature quartz sandstone
(typically 95 % SiO2; see electronic supplementary data) but
contains occasional coal beds, which historically have been
exploited, as well as scarce siltstone and shale intercalations.
The sandstone has undergone weak metamorphism which
resulted in some recrystallization and cementation of quartz
grains to form quartzite. The thickness of the Chim
Formation is estimated to about 450600 m in the Lagunas
Norte area (Benavides-Cceres 1956).
Volcanic rocks of the Calipuy Group
A sequence of volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks assigned to
the Calipuy Group (Cosso and Jan 1967; Rivera et al. 2005;
Montgomery 2012) overlies the Mesozoic strata in an angular
unconformity. At Lagunas Norte, four subunits from oldest to
youngest, the Quesquenda, Dafne, Josefa, and Shulcahuanga
units, can be distinguished. The Josefa and Dafne units are
closely related to magmatic-hydrothermal breccia bodies
657
803000
803500
804000
804500
ALEXA
9122000
9122000
JOSEFA
9121500
9121500
9121000
9121000
DAFNE
C Shulcahuanga
9120500
9120500
Tectonic Breccias
Shulcahuanga Unit
Cenozoic
Josefa Unit
Dafne Unit
Chim Fm.
Mesozoic
Chicama Fm.
803000
Cross Section
Main Faults
Pit Limits
Grade/Thickness contour
(Au g/t x meters)
> 1000 g/T * m Au
9120000
9120000
Quesquenda Unit
250 g/T * m Au
L i 125 g/T * m Au
803500
804000
804500
Fig. 2 Geological map of the Lagunas Norte deposit based on Barricks regional and local mapping. The three principal ore zones are labelled
658
Shulcahuanga Unit
CENOZOIC
Josefa Diatreme
Dafne Diatreme
CALIPUY GROUP
QPF Unit
Quesquenda Unit
MESOZOIC
Chim Fm.
Chicama Fm.
Fig. 3 Generalized stratigraphic column showing the principal lithologic units of Lagunas Norte deposit and cross-cutting relationships
Table 1 Summary of lithofacies and distribution in the Dafne and Josefa diatremes
Characteristics
Dafne
Margin
Layered monomictic and
lithofacies polymictic breccias,
subrounded to subangular
clasts, crude stratification
parallel to breccia margin;
matrix and cement support;
advanced argillic alteration
Main
Polymictic breccias, matrix
body
supported, not stratified, chaotic
lithofacies distribution, subrounded to
rounded clasts; argillic
alteration
Crater
Massive body, polymictic, and
lithofacies matrix supported; rounded clast;
chaotic to crude stratification at
border; contains large andesite
blocks with striae on surfaces;
argillic alteration
Apron
Gently dipping tephra
lithofacies stratification; stratified,
polymictic, and clast, matrix,
and cement supported, rounded
to subrounded clast; advanced
argillic alteration
Characteristics
Josefa
Distribution
Interpretation
Polymictic breccias, matrix and In the central part of both Mainly phreatomagmatic
cement supported not stratified, diatremes
explosions which reworked
chaotic distribution,
matrix and clasts
subrounded to rounded clasts;
advanced argillic alteration
Massive body, polymictic,
In upper central part
Succession of violent
matrix, and cement supported;
of both diatremes
phreatomagmatic explosions,
rounded clast; crude
capable of ejecting large
stratification at border; contains
bedrock blocks
large quartzite blocks;
advanced argillic alteration
Gently dipping tephra
Located in the northwest
Succession of phreatic and
stratification; stratified,
part of the Dafne
phreatomagmatic events
polymictic and clast supported, diatreme; also similar
resulting in bedded succession;
rounded to subrounded clast;
facies in the southern part each bed representing an
advanced argillic alteration
of the Josefa diatreme
explosive event and airfall
deposition
659
Shulcahuanga dome
Fault
Shulcahuanga
andesite flows
Fault
Fault
Fig. 4 Panoramic view of the Dafne diatreme. Photograph shows the pit exposure in 2007, looking from the northeast
breccia is polymictic and matrix supported. Clasts are subangular to subrounded and juvenile clasts and quartz crystals are present in a tuffaceous matrix (Fig. 6c). As in the
marginal facies, quartzalunite cement is present.
The crater lithofacies in the upper part of the Josefa
diatreme is characterized by large quartzite blocks up to
80 cm in diameter (Fig. 6d) in a tuffaceous matrix with
abundant quartz crystals and juvenile volcanic clasts.
The apron lithofacies is only partly preserved at the
southern margin of the diatreme where it consists of a
series of crudely stratified beds (Fig. 6e). These deposits
are overlain by pyroclastic flow deposits which are
inferred to be related to the eruptive activity at Josefa,
on the basis of lithologic similarities of the juvenile
components in the diatreme. Two principal units have
been recognized: a quartz feldspar phyric unit (QFP
unit) and an overlying dacitic unit; the latter characterized by the absence of quartz phenocrysts. These volcanic units crop out at Josefa and Alexa as well as at
Dafne where they overlie the apron lithofacies breccias
(Figs. 2 and 3) and are generally affected by advanced
argillic alteration.
The QFP unit is characterized by monomictic breccias
containing quartzite clasts. The clast sizes increase towards
the Josefa diatreme (locally termed paleosurface breccia,
Fig. 7a). Overlying this breccia is a pyroclastic flow deposit
with small (<2 cm) altered pumice fragments and quartz
crystals up to 5 mm (Fig. 7b). This pyroclastic deposit is
overlain by lithic lapilli tuff containing small quartz crystals
and rare accretionary lapilli. The upper part of this tuff unit
shows planar stratification.
660
Shulcahuanga Unit
Tectonic breccias
Volcanic facies
Apron
Diatreme
Lithofacies
Crater
Main Body
Margin
Chim Fm.
Chicama Fm.
CJ
SP
E
L
CJ
A
G
L
CJ
A
Q
0
1cm
661
A
4090
E
D
4080
4070
4060
Analytical methods
The alteration paragenesis defined by previous workers
(Guerra 2001; Araneda et al. 2003; Macassi 2005; Ros
2005) has been refined on the basis of field observations
and detailed petrography. Mineral assemblages have been
identified by standard optical microscopy and, where appropriate, by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray
diffraction at the Universidad Catlica del Norte. These
analyses have been complemented by infrared spectroscopy
using a Portable Infrared Mineral Analyzer (PIMA) and
662
Fig. 7 Volcanic stratigraphy of
the Josefa volcanic unit. a
Monomictic breccia with
hydrothermal cement (by mine
geologists also referred to as
Paleosurface Breccia)
representing the basal portion. b
Detail of pyroclastic flow with
pumice fragments and tiny
quartz crystals, affected by
advanced argillic alteration. c
Pumice and quartzite clastbearing pyroclastic flow deposit
affected by advanced argillic
alteration. d Fine-grained
laminated ash fall deposit of the
upper volcanic member of the
Josefa volcanic unit, affected by
pervasive advanced argillic
alteration. e Remnant of a
carbonized tree (yellow arrow)
in upright position in the ash
fall deposit of the upper Josefa
volcanic unit. f Detail of
fossilized leaf present in an ash
fall deposit in the upper Josefa
volcanic unit
O and H and Caon Diablo Troilite for S isotopic compositions. Accuracy was monitored using standards calibrated to
NIST 8556 and 8557 for sulfur and oxygen and NIST 8538
biotite for hydrogen. Analytical precision for both 34S
a n d d 18 OSO4 v a l u e s i s 0 . 3 , f o r D 3 .
Paleotemperature for coexisting alunitepyrite pairs is
calculated using the following fractionation factors: 103
ln apyH2 S 0:40 106 T 2 (Ohmoto and Rye 1979) and
103 ln aalunSO4 H2 S 6:463 106 T 2 0:56 (Ohmoto and
Lasaga 1982).
One sample has been dated by the 40Ar/39Ar method at
the Pacific Centre for Isotopic and Geochemical Research.
Alunite was handpicked and analyzed as described in Bissig
et al. (2008). The data are included as digital appendix
(ESM).
50cm
The first hydrothermal event at Lagunas Norte is characterized by fine-grained yellowish to tan-colored aggregates of
quartz, pyrite, and minor rutile, which is referred to as silice
663
STAGE II
Chim Fm.
STAGE III
Chim Fm.
STAGE IV
Volcanic units
STAGE V
ChimFm. /
Volcanic units
Gold
Silice Parda
Alunite
Enargite
Pyrophylite
Stibnite
Arsenopyrite
Diaspore
Barite
Drusy Quartz
Sulfur
Pyrite
Digenite
Chalcopyrite
Rutile
Coarse
Disseminated
Massive
Carbonaceous layers
Jarosite
Scorodite
Hematite
Goethite
Fig. 8 Paragenetic sequence from Lagunas Norte deposit; thickness of lines shows the relative abundance of minerals
664
Fig. 9 Photographs showing
the principal characteristics of
the first stage of mineralization.
a Monomictic breccias with
tan-colored quartz cement
(silice parda, see text for
details). b Replacement of silty
layers of the Chim Formation
by silice parda. c Polished
section photograph of first stage
of mineralization showing the
granular texture of silice parda
and interspersed small pyrite
crystals (Py). d Detail of
polished section photograph of
pyrite crystals (Py) in digenite
(Di) present in quartzite (Qz)
D
Qz
Py
Di
Py
0,1mm
0,01mm
40
665
Qz
En
Py
1cm
0,25mm
Al
Al
Al
1mm
Stable isotopes
Stable isotopic compositions were obtained for each paragenetic stage. 34S values (Fig. 13) were obtained for
sulfides from all paragenetic stages, whereas 34S, D,
and d 18 OSO4 values were obtained for alunite from stages
III and IV (Fig. 14). The 34S values and 34Salupy
precipitation temperatures were calculated for alunite and
pyrite occurring in textural equilibrium at different locations in the deposit (Table 2 and Fig. 15).
Stage I
Three 34S values for sulfides were obtained. Pyrite has
values of 1.7 and 2.2, and coexisting digenite has a value
of 2.1. A maximum fluid temperature of 360 C is given by
34S thermometry on the digenitepyrite pair (Hubberten
1980).
666
D
Al
Al
Py
Qzt
Stage III
Both coarse and disseminated alunite from stage III was
analyzed. Coarse alunite is translucent to pale pink in color,
with a tabular crystal habit. Eight samples were analyzed
and show a range of 34S values between 24.8 and 29.4.
Six of these alunite samples are in textural equilibrium with
pyrite 34S values of 4 to 0.5 and locally with enargite
(34S=1.2). The temperatures calculated for alunite
pyrite pairs for this hydrothermal stage are between 190
and 270 C (Table 2 and Fig. 15); the highest temperatures
have been recorded near the diatremes at 200 m depth
Sample Lc5014: Stage III Alunite
30
1mm
20
10
MSWD = 1.4, probability=0.23
Includes 91.2% of the 39Ar
0
0
20
40
60
80
Cummulative 39Ar percent
100
Fig. 12 40Ar/39Ar age spectrum for alunite sample of stage III from
Lagunas Norte. Errors are given at the 2 level
667
Frequency
STAGE I
Pyrite
STAGE III
Digenite
10
IV
III
IV
III
IV
III
IV
III
III
III IV IV
III
III IV III IV III
IV III
IV III III IV III
III III III
IV III III III I
III I I III IV III III I I
-5
STAGE IV
III Pyrite
IV Pyrite
III Enargite
IV Alunite (massive)
IV Barite
IV Sulfur (native)
IV
10
15
34
IV
IV IV
III
IV
III
IV IV
III
III IV IV IV
IV III IV III IV IV IV
III IV IV III III III IV III IV IV
III III III III III III III III III III IV III IV
20
25
30
35
S ()
Fig. 13 Histogram of 34S values of sulfides and sulfates in the Lagunas Norte deposit. Alunite samples are colored according to paragenetic stages
Supergene stage
Two samples of supergene goethite were analyzed; they
have D values of 187 and 183 and 18O compositions
of 5.9 and 5.4. These values likely reflect the isotopic
composition of local meteoric water in equilibrium with
goethite well after hydrothermal processes ended.
Discussion
Most high-sulfidation epithermal deposits are related to
magmatic-hydrothermal activity affecting volcanic or igneous rocks (e.g., Cooke and Simmons 2000), but Lagunas
Norte differs because part of the mineralization is hosted in
unreactive quartzites. Four different hydrothermal stages
have been defined.
0
VV
-20
MW
L
-40
INI
TE
L
Alunite fluids
(200to 280C)
-60
OL
()
INE
FMW
KA
Fluids
-80
STAGE III
STAGE IV
Coarse Alunite
Disseminated Alunite
Massive Alunite
-100
-15
-5
15
OSO
18
()
25
668
Table 2 Summary of isotopic
data for coexisting alunitepyrite
pairs. T is calculated using the
following fractionation factors: 1
03 ln apyH2 S 0:40 106 T 2
(Ohmoto and Rye 1979); 103 ln
aalunSO4 H2 S 6:463 106
T 2 0:56 (Ohmoto and
Lasaga 1982)
Sample name
Type
Alunite 34S
Pyrite 34S
34Salupy
T (C)
LD6-006
LD6-196
LD6-104
LD6-070
LD6-176
LD7-178
LD6-111
LC5-014
LD7-002
LD6-177
LD6-101
LD6-112
LD6-068
LD7-168
Coarse
Coarse
Coarse
Coarse
Coarse
Coarse
Disseminated
Disseminated
Disseminated
Massive
Massive
Massive
Massive
Massive
28.93
25.7
24.82
27.39
25.65
23.39
25.25
26.82
22.7
25.48
23.88
24.64
19.13
27.19
0.76
0.52
2.61
0.33
0.59
4.43
0.73
2.01
4.34
1.39
1.43
1.77
1.37
2.02
28.17
26.22
22.21
27.06
26.24
27.82
25.98
24.81
27.04
26.87
22.45
26.41
20.5
25.17
195
213
256
205
213
198
215
227
205
207
253
211
278
223
The main stage hydrothermal alteration and mineralization (stage III) affected the volcanic rocks as well as the
underlying Mesozoic basement. The alteration mineralogy
and sulfide assemblages are generally as expected for highsulfidation epithermal deposits (e.g., Simmons et al. 2005).
The distribution of gold and the alteration zonation are
mainly controlled by the permeability of the host rock.
However, a number of deviations from the norm exist and
can be related to host rock characteristics. For example,
locally in silty beds where organic carbon is present, the
assemblage pyritearsenopyrite and stibnite is present. This
sulfide assemblage would be expected in a low-sulfidation
environment (e.g., Cooke and Simmons 2000; Einaudi et al.
2003), but at Lagunas Norte, it can readily be explained by
the locally strong reducing conditions.
The d 18 OSO4 values for disseminated alunite from the
volcanic levels reflect a large component of magmatic fluid
which is common for Andean high-sulfidation systems (Rye
2005; Deyell et al. 2005; Rainbow et al. 2005). However, near
the periphery of the deposit, the hydrothermal fluid had a
meteoric component. The coarse alunite samples from depths
of more than 80 m below the current surface have 34S of 24.8
to 29.4, values consistent with a H2S-dominated fluid,
which again is typical for Andean high-sulfidation systems
(Baumgartner et al. 2009; Rainbow 2009; Rye 1993, 2005).
The observed sulfide and alteration assemblage indicates
803000
804000
Vuggy quartz
Quartz+Alunite
SampleLocation
(Projected)
Alunite+Dickite+Kaolinite
Cross Section
Pit Limit
WeaklyAltered (argillic-propylitic)
Fault
9122000
9122000
669
ALEXA
JOSEFA
9121000
9121000
DAFNE
803000
804000
A
4200
4100
Sample Location
Projected Sample
Location
Open Pit limit
Oxide/Sulfides limit
Main Faults
4000
Silice parda
Shulcahuanga Unit
Josefa Unit
256
3900
Dafne Unit
Quesquenda Unit
Santa-Carhuaz Fm.
253
?
Chim Fm.
Chicama Fm.
670
-24
Al Kao
HSO
T=230 oC
S=0.01 m
K=0.01 m
-26
-28
SO4
-30
2-
Log
O2
-32
Hem
-34
En
-36
Tn
Py
-38
-40
Mag
-42
Po
-44
H S0
2
-46
-2
HS
10
12
pH
Fig. 16 Log fO2pH diagram at 230 C and saturated vapor pressure,
showing the stability fields of alunite (Al, gray box), kaolinite (Kao),
enargite (En), tennantite (Tn), hematite (Hem), magnetite (Mag), pyrrhotite (Po), pyrite (Py), and sulfur species from Lagunas Norte deposit. The
probable fluid composition for stage III is indicated by the gray box
Conclusions
The Lagunas Norte deposit is a high-sulfidation epithermal
system that is hosted in both normally unreactive rocks (quartzite of the Chim Formation) and dacitic to rhyolitic volcanic
rocks (Miocene). It is at 17 Ma likely the oldest high-sulfidation
deposits in the middle Miocene metallogenic belt of Peru. The
magmatic and hydrothermal evolution was controlled by at
least two diatremes (Dafne and Josefa), which cut the basement
composed of quartzite of the Chim Formation and in the case
of Dafne also slate of the Chicama Formation.
At Lagunas Norte, four hydrothermal stages are recognized, and most of the gold and silver were introduced
during stages I and III. Stage I is restricted to quartzite,
where the gold is associated to pyritedigenite chalcopyrite in a quartz rutile (silice parda) gangue assemblage
mainly in fractures and faults, as well as replacing some
siltstone levels. Isotopic data are consistent with a magmatic
origin of the sulfur. The second stage is the emplacement of
the Dafne and Josefa diatremes, in addition to the volcanic
rocks and their products. This phreatic and phreatomagmatic
activity was instrumental for enhancing fracture-controlled
permeability of the otherwise impermeable quartzitic host
rock.
Stage III contains the bulk of the alteration and mineralization. In rocks of the Chim Formation, coarse alunite
enargitepyrite precipitated in fractures, but alteration is
restricted to traces of kaolinite and pyrophyllite in some
beds within the quartzite. Locally, where coal is present,
stibnite and arsenopyrite are observed. In contrast, the breccias and Miocene volcano-sedimentary units overlying the
Cretaceous rocks have been affected by alteration assemblages typically described for high-sulfidation epithermal
systems. The alteration and mineralization is largely controlled by permeability. The central portion of the Dafne
diatreme is relatively impermeable due to the matrix being
largely composed of milled slate of the Chicama Formation,
whereas quartzite clasts are dominant at Josefa which
resulted in better permeability for the fluids.
Isotopic compositions of alunitepyriteenargite and alunitepyrite from stages III and IV, respectively, indicate
that these alteration minerals, and by inference the gold,
precipitated from fluids that were acidic, H2S dominant,
and largely magmatic in origin. Fluid temperatures based
on 34Salupy thermometry range between 190 and 280 C,
with the highest values near the diatremes which are interpreted to be the focus of hydrothermal activity.
Acknowledgments This research is part of the PhD research of Luis
Cerpa. Funds for this study were provided by Minera Barrick
Misquichilca S.A., with additional support of the Hugh E. McKinstry
Students Research Fund from the Society of Economic Geologists.
This research would not have been possible without the experience and
knowledge of Lagunas Norte staff, particularly Nick Teasdale, Jose
671
Nizama, and several geologists from Servicios Tcnicos of Lagunas
NorteBarrick. Sulfur and oxygen analysis was carried out in collaboration with Kerry Klassen and QFIR Lab in Queens University,
which is supported by NSERC Discovery, CFI, and OIT grants to
Kurt Kyser. Teresa Velardes continuous assistance in spectrometric
data is very much appreciated. Vctor Carlotto, Luis Miguel Muoz,
GR-13 team, and my co-workers of Regional Geology from Geological
Survey of Per (INGEMMET) have greatly helped with this project,
and their continuing enthusiasm and support are appreciated.
Discussions with Allan Montgomery, Amelia Rainbow, Huayong
Chen, and Fernando Tornos have greatly helped with this project and
reviewers Regina Baumgartner, Noel White, and David Cooke as well
as Editor Bernd Lehmann are thanked for their constructive reviews.
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