INTRODUCTION TO SOCIO-CULTURAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS AND ISSUES

Prepared by Emmanuel J. Bacud

I.)

DECONSTRUCTING AN ISSUE AND A PROBLEM:

Think of the following case:
-Extrajudicial killings of the government VS. Illegal Drug Trade in the Country. Which is the problem? Which is
an issue?
PROBLEM
-A problem has adverse effect to a group of people.

*Social Problem/ Social Pathology: According to Reab and Selznick (1961), a social problem is a
problem in human relationships which seriously threatens the society or impedes the important aspirations
of many people. (Social Constructivist View- there is a social problem if the society (group of people)
perceive that it is really a problem).
GENERAL COMPONENTS OF A SOCIAL PROBLEM (Mckee and Robertson, 1975):
A.) Social Problems involve the subjective perception of an objective condition.
1.) Objective Component: refers to the negative consequences to the significant group of people.
2.) Subjective Component: generally perceived as a problem
*Recall Sociological Imagination by C. Wright Mills (1959) it is the most fruitful form of
self-consciousness because it enables us to grasp history and biography and the interaction between
them.
*Trouble: is a private matter (happens within the domain of the individual)
* Issue: or can be understood now as a SOCIAL PROBLEM, is a public matter
B.) Social problems involve a gap between ideals and social reality
C.) Social problems must be perceived as problems by a significant number of people or by a number
of significant people.
D.) Social problems must be regarded as capable of solution through collective action.
*In a democratic society: Pressure of Public Opinion is necessary to provoke specific changes.
THEORETICAL APPROACHES IN UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL PROBLEMS:
1.) Functionalism: Social problem weakens the stability of the society but does not reflect
fundamental faults in how the society is structured. Solution to social problem should take the form
of gradual social reforms rather than sudden and far-reaching range. Social problem is functional
for a society to develop and to become more functional.
***APPROACH IN SOLVING SOCIAL PROBLEM: Through socialization and social integration
(Emile Durkheims conceptualizations): Socialization helps us learn societys rules and the need to
cooperate, as people end up generally agreeing on important norms and values, while social integration,
or our ties to other people and to social institutions such as religion and the family, helps socialize us
and integrate us into society and reinforce our respect for its rules.

2.) Conflict: Social problems arise from fundamental faults in the structure of a society and both
reflect and reinforce inequalities based on social class, race, gender, and other dimensions.
Successful solutions to social problems must involve far-reaching change in the structure of
society.

ISSUE
-An issue is a
condition
when
members of
the
society
have
adversarial
positions or
sentiments
toward
something.
-Adversarial
groups
are
present. An
issue when
unsolved
could create
disintegration
and instability.
*Social
Issues:
*Psychologica
l Issue:

***APPROACHES IN SOLVING SOCIAL PROBLEM: Through class consciousness and

revolution. Drastic movements in the society could eliminate all structures that perpetuating the
social problems and could create a new societal order.
3.) Symbolic Interactionism (Herbert Blumer in 1969 at University of Chicago): Social problems
arise from the interaction of individuals. People who engage in socially problematic behaviors often
learn these behaviors from other people. Individuals also learn their perceptions of social problems
from other people.
***APPROACHES IN SOLVING THE SOCIAL PROBLEM: Rationalization of social interactions that
aims to eliminate negative behaviors and value-system.
THE NATURAL HISTORY OF SOCIAL PROBLEM (Political Sociology of Social Problems)
Stage 1: Emergence and Claims-making
Possible Way of Solving the Social Problem: In step 1, informal controls about the perceived social
problem is manifested. Informal controls would refer to the value-system reorientation or any group actions
performed by group of individuals.
Stage 2: Legitimacy and Political Actions
Possible Way of Solving the Problem: Through formal controls to be exhibited by the formal institutions
such as the government.
Stage 3: Renewed Claims-making
Stage 4: Development of Alternative Strategies
Relate to the following cases:
-Poverty in the Philippines
-Sexual Abuse in United States
*Psychological Problem: ( In line with the discipline of ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY)
-The psychological problem tends to be a behavioral condition of an individual whose behavior is moving
away from the societys expectation. (ABNORMAL Behavior that is deviating and creating harm for others
IS A PSYCHO-SOCIAL PROBLEM). *Abnormal behavior is defined as behavior that is inconsistent with
the individuals developmental, cultural, and societal norms, creates significant emotional distress, or
interferes with daily functioning. Behavior must always be considered in context. Context includes culture as
defined by both individual and social spheres of influence as well as cultural traditions. It also includes
consideration of developmental age, physical and emotional maturity, and socioeconomic status.
INDIVIDUAL-LEVEL: The 3 criteria governing the existence of a psychological disorder are DISTRESS,
IMPAIRMENT IN DAILY LIFE AND RISK OF HARM (Rosenberg & Kosslyn, 2011). If the psychological
disorder greatly affect the process within the society; then, PSYCHO-SOCIAL problems may be greatly
perceived (Drastic Behavior + Cultural Context (Perception of the group as a problem) ) .
e.g. drug addictions (macro-level)
MODELS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS:
-The biological model of abnormal behavior assumes that abnormal behavior is rooted in a persons
biology. The basis may be a genetic abnormality, abnormal brain structures, or abnormal brain functioning.
-Within the psychological model are several distinctive approaches, including modern psychoanalytic,
behavioral, and cognitive models. Rather than looking to biology as the basis for psychological disorders,
these models assume that environmental events and the way we interpret and react to them play a
causal role in the onset of abnormal behavior.

- Sociocultural models are based on a broader perspective, proposing that broad social and cultural forces
(not individual or unique environmental events) contribute to the onset of psychological disorders.
-The biopsychosocial perspective incorporates a diathesis-stress model, in which biology is thought to
lay the foundation for the onset of the disorder through the presence of biological abnormalities.
However, biology alone is insufficient; environmental, social, and cultural factors are always part of
the equation that leads to the onset of psychological disorders.
*AGGRESSION AS UNIT OF ANALYSIS IN EXPLAINING PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS:
Even in the experimental tradition, different researchers have used different measures for the same term.
Consider the following experimental measures of aggression:
punching an inflated plastic doll (Bandura, Ross & Ross, 1963);
pushing a button that is supposed to deliver an electric shock to someone else (Buss, 1961);
pencil-and-paper ratings by teachers and classmates of a childs level of aggressiveness (Eron, 1982);
written self-report by institutionalised teenage boys about their prior aggressive behavior (Leyens, Camino,
Parke & Berkowitz, 1975);
a verbal expression of willingness to use violence in an experimental laboratory setting (Geen, 1978).
Each of these measures has been used as an analogue, or substitute, for the real thing. The major
reason for this is ethical, since it is extremely difficult to justify an actual physical assault against a person in
an experimental setting.
THEORIES OF AGGRESSION:
A.) Biological theories of aggression
First, we consider the nature of an instinct and the way it has been used to account
for aggression in the discipline known as ethology. This leads us to discuss modern developments in
evolutionary theory, and to look briefly at some limitations of purely biological approaches.
An instinct refers to an innate tendency of living things to behave in a particular way. The behavior has
these characteristics. It is: unlearned; directed to a goal and terminates when it is reached (e.g. an attack);
beneficial to the individual and to the species; adapted to a normal environment; shared by members of the
species; and develops as the individual matures.
Three major views that deal with human aggression have shared most, if not all, of these biological
attributes. All argue cogently that aggressive behavior is an inherent part of human nature, that we are
programmed at birth to act in that way.
The oldest is based on psychodynamic theory and dates back to the early part of
the twentieth century. More influential in the long term were ideas developed next in ethology, focusing on
the behavior of animals in their natural habitat, and in the more recent and startling field of evolutionary
social psychology.
1.) Psychodynamic theory
In Beyond the Pleasure Principle (1920/1990), Freud proposed that human aggression stems from an
innate death instinct, which is opposed to a life instinct. The death instinct is initially directed at selfdestruction, but as a child develops it becomes redirected outwards at others. Freuds background as a
physician heavily influenced his theorizing; his notion of the death instinct was partly a response to
the large-scale destruction of the First World War. Like the sexual urge, which stems from the life instinct, an
aggressive urge from the death instinct builds up from bodily tensions, and needs to be expressed. This is
essentially a one-factor theory: aggression builds up naturally and must be released. Freuds ideas were
revised by later theorists sympathetic to his position who viewed aggression as a more rational, but
nonetheless innate, process whereby people sought a healthy release for primitive survival instincts that are
basic to all animal species. We can note that Freud was considerably influenced by Charles Darwins theory
of evolution, which was also a precursor to later contributions by the ethologists.

2.) Ethology
In the 1960s, three books made a strong case for the instinctual basis of human aggression by comparing
people with animals: Konrad Lorenzs On Aggression (1966), Robert Ardreys The Territorial Imperative
(1966) and Desmond Morriss The Naked Ape (1967). Ethology is a branch of biology devoted to the study
of instincts, or fixed action patterns, found among all members of a species when
living in their natural environment. Ethologists stressed the positive, functional aspects of aggression, but
they also recognized that, while the potential or instinct for aggression may be innate, actual
aggressive behavior is elicited by specific stimuli in the environment, known as releasers. Lorenz invoked
evolutionary principles to propose that aggression has survival value. An animal is considerably more
aggressive towards other members of its species, which serves to distribute the individuals and/or family
units in a way that makes the most efficient use of available resources, such as sexual selection and mating,
food and territory. Most of the time, intraspecies aggression may not even result in actual violence, as one
animal will display instinctual threat gestures that are recognized by the other animal, which can then depart
the scene the Rottweiler growls so the chihuahua runs. Even if fighting does break out, it is unlikely to
result in death, since the losing animal can display instinctual appeasement gestures that divert the victor
from actually killing: for example, some animals will lie on the ground belly up in an act of subordination.
Over time, in animals such as monkeys that live in colonies, appeasement gestures can help to establish
dominance hierarchies or pecking orders. This is a two-factor theory: (1) there is an innate urge to aggress,
which (2) depends upon appropriate stimulation by the environmental releasers. Lorenz extended the
argument to humans, who must also have an inherited fighting instinct. Unfortunately, its survival value is
much less clear than is the case for other animals. This is largely because humans lack well-developed
killing appendages, such as large teeth or claws, so that clearly recognizable appeasement gestures seem
not to have evolved. (This may give you a partial answer to the second focus question.) Ethology implies
that: (1) once we start being violent, we do not seem to know when to stop; and (2) in order to kill we
generally need to resort to weapons. The advanced technology of our times has produced frightful devices
that can slaughter people in large numbers. Furthermore, this can be accomplished at a great distance, so
that even the visual and auditory feedback cues of the victims anguish are not available to persuade the
victor to desist. In short, humans have the ability to harm others easily, and with very little effort.
3.) Evolutionary theory
Evolutionary social psychology developed out of evolutionary theory and a field known as
sociobiology. It is an ambitious approach that not only assumes an innate basis for aggression but also
claims a biological basis for all social behaviour. It is typified in David Busss book, Evolutionary Psychology:
The New Science of the Mind (1999). The evolutionary argument is provocative: specific behavior has
evolvedbecause it promotes the survival of genes that allow the individual to live long
enough to pass the same genes on to the next generation. Aggression is adaptive because it must be linked
to living long enough to procreate. As such, it is helpful to the individual and to the species. Consider the
situation where danger threatens the offspring of a species. Most animals, and usually the mother, will react
with a high level of aggression, often higher than they would normally exhibit in other situations. A mother
bird, for example, may take life-threatening risks to protect her young. In common with the ethological view,
being aggressive also increases access to resources. For humans, the goals for which aggressive
behaviour is adaptive include social and economic advantage, either to defend the resources that we
already have or to acquire new ones.
B.) Social theories of aggression
While social psychologists generally have not favoured theories of aggression defined in terms of instinct,
modern evolutionary psychology has stimulated a renewed interest in a biological account. We now
consider approaches that emphasise the critical role of learning and of the social context. Some of these
nevertheless incorporate a biological element and we refer to them as biosocial theories. The two outlined
below propose that a drive (or state of arousal) is a precondition for aggression, although they differ in how
internal and external factors are thought to interact to promote aggressive reactions.

Frustration and aggression

The link between these concepts was first spelled out in the frustrationaggression hypothesis, according to
which aggression is a response to an antecedent condition of frustration. It derived from the work of a group
of psychologists headed by John Dollard at Yale University in the 1930s and grew from a marriage between
Freudian concepts and principles of animal learning theory (Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer & Sears, 1939).
The theory, proposed that aggression was always caused by some kind of frustrating event or situation;
conversely, frustration invariably led to aggression.
Frustrationaggression hypothesis
The underlying psychodynamic assumption that a fixed amount of psychic energy is available for the human
mind to perform psychological activities, and that the completion of a psychological activity is cathartic: that
is, it dissipates aroused energy and returns the system to psychological equilibrium. (We return to the notion
of catharsis later in this chapter.) Seeking our personal goals entail the arousal of psychic energy, and if we
reach them our achievement is cathartic. However, if we are blocked we become frustrated; but psychic
energy remains activated, and our psychological system is in a
state of disequilibrium that can be corrected only by aggression. In other words, frustration instigates us to
aggress, and this is the only way to achieve catharsis. Our target is usually the perceived agent of
frustration, but in many cases the agent of frustration is amorphous (e.g. a bureaucracy), indeterminate (the
economy), too powerful (someone very big and strong wielding a weapon), unavailable
(a specific individual bureaucrat), or someone you love (a parent). Consequently, our attempt to aggress is
inhibited, but there is a solution: we can displace our aggression, which has been induced by frustration,
onto an alternative target. This can be a person or an inanimate object that can be legitimately aggressed
against without fear. In other words, a scapegoat is found. The frustrationaggression hypothesis has
received considerable criticism over the years. A major obstacle is that frustration is neither necessary nor
sufficient for aggression. Aggression can occur in the absence of frustration, and frustration does not
necessarily result in aggression. In an attempt to rescue the frustrationaggression hypothesis, Berkowitz
(1962) proposed three major changes:
1. The probability of frustrationinduced aggression actually being vented is increased by the presence of
situational cues to aggression, including past or present associations of a specific group (scapegoat) with
conflict or dislike.
2. It is not objective frustration that instigates aggression but the subjective (cognitive)
feeling of being frustrated.
3. Frustration is only one of a large number of aversive events (e.g. pain, extreme temperatures and other
noxious stimuli) that can instigate aggression.
Despite Berkowitzs efforts, the debate has continued. Let us agree that frustration can make people
angry. The same argument can also be true of being in a bad mood. For example, unpleasant music can
have this effect think of a genre that you really dont like. If this were to put you in a bad mood
unpleasant thoughts are more likely, i.e. negative stimuli become more accessible in memory. Anger
is a more accurate predictor than frustration for later aggression. Finally, there is little clear evidence that
displacement of aggression will occur onto a scapegoat, someone not responsible for the original frustration.
In defense of Dollard and his colleagues, we should note that their main aim was to explain intergroup
aggression specifically, the violence and aggression associated with prejudice. An archival study by
Hovland and Sears (1940) provides some support for this sort of analysis. They correlated an economic
index of frustrated ambitions (the price of cotton) with an index of racial aggression in the southern United
States over a fifty-year period. The two indices were negatively correlated: as the price of cotton fell
(frustration), the number of lynchings increased (displaced aggression). The links here have appeal but are
also diffuse. More recently, John Dutton and his colleagues have argued that social and economic
deprivation was a fact in the ethnic cleansing of the Kurds in Iraq and of non-Serbs in Bosnia. Despite an
intrinsic appeal, the application of the frustration aggression hypothesis is at an intergroup level has other
limitations. What needs to be accounted for is how the attitudes and behavior of a large number of people
are regulated and directed in a uniform way against a specific target group. Critics have argued that the
hypothesis has generally not worked well in this way. The reason for this is that it is a reductionist approach

that tries to account for group behavior by aggregating the emotional states of individuals who, apparently,
do not even communicate with each other.
4.) Arousal and aggression
A later approach that featured a drive concept is Dolf Zillmanns (1979) excitationtransfer
model, based on his research in both communication and psychology.
Aggression follows when the following elements are in place:
a learned aggressive behavior;
arousal (excitation), which can be from any source;
the persons interprets this arousal in a way that it seems appropriate to be aggressive. This arousal can
persist for some time and carries over from the original situation to another potentially provoking one,
making an aggressive response likely. Look at the example, A student has been exercising at the gym and is
still physically aroused when driving to the local supermarket. Here, another customers
car sneaks forward into the parking space that the student is trying to reverse into. Although the event might
ordinarily be mildly annoying, this time the residual excitation from the gym session (now forgotten) triggers
verbal abuse from the student (not you, of course!). Perhaps you can think of situations where this model
makes sense. Heightened arousal can often lead us to be more aggressive than we are normally: for
example, making gestures while driving in stressful traffic conditions; exclaiming with annoyance at our
partner when we are already upset about dropping some crockery in the kitchen; severely scolding a young
family member who gets lost in a department store. An extreme level of excitement at a football match can
erupt in violence between rival groups of fans, as John Kerr (2005) has noted. All of these instances make
some sense in terms of Zillmanns theory. It can be applied to the experience of sexual arousal as well, or to
any kind of former stimulation whose effects linger over time. With respect to our discussion of frustration
and aggression in the last section, we could now argue that frustration can indeed lead to negative mood
states, either acutely (e.g. right now) or chronically (over an extended period of time). As it turns out, it is
also possible that arousal which precipitates later aggression can be quite general its cause may be
pleasant, unpleasant or neither.
Learning to be aggressive
The gradual control of aggressive impulses in an infant depends upon an extensive learning process.
Social learning theory is a wide-ranging behavioral approach in psychology that was also applied by Albert
Bandura (1973) to an understanding of the origins of antisocial behavior. Although he acknowledged that
biological factors provide a basis, Banduras central proposition was that experience was crucial to when
and how aggression is expressed. Through socialization, children learn
to aggress because either they are directly rewarded or someone else appears to be rewarded for their
actions. Experience can be direct or vicarious. The idea of learning by direct experience is based on
reinforcement principles: a behavior is maintained by rewards and punishments actually experienced by the
child. For example, if Jonathan takes Margarets biscuit from her, and no one intervenes, then he is
reinforced by now having the biscuit. The idea of learning by vicarious experience is a particular
contribution of social learning theory: learning occurs by modelling and imitating other people. There is a
proviso in social learning theory: the act to be imitated must be seen to be rewarding in some way. Some
models, such as parents, siblings and peers, are more appropriate for the child than others. The learning
sequence of aggression can be extended beyond direct interactions between people to include media
images, such as on television. It can also be applied to understanding how adults learn in later life.
Modelling by children
Children readily mimic the aggressive acts of others. An adult makes a potent model, no doubt
because children perceive their elders as responsible and authoritative figures. It is even more disturbing
that modelling has been demonstrated when an adult model was seen acting violently on television. The
most telling was the live sequence. However, the finding that the cartoon and videotaped conditions also
increased imitative aggression in children provided fuel for scientific and popular audiences who argued that
graphic presentations of violence in the media could seriously affect childrens later behavior. More recently,

social learning theory has been blended to an extent with work conducted in social cognition with a
particular kind of cognitive schema the script.
Children learn rules of conduct from those around them, such as when and how to aggress. These
rules become internalised. Rowell Huesmann has shown that an aggressive sequence that has been
established in childhood is persistent. It can even become a way of life, which is likely to repeat itself by
imitation across generations. The social learning approach has touched a popular chord. If violence is
learned, exposure to aggressive and successful models leads people to imitate them. This does not mean
that change is impossible. If aggression can be learned, it may be modified and remedied. This is the basis
of behavior modification programs, such as anger management, used by clinical and community
psychologists to help people to find more peaceful ways of dealing with others. We deal with the effects of
models and action sequences portrayed in the media can have on others, in particular
in the visual media. These effects apply to adults as well as children, and can involve both short-term and
long-term behavior and attitudes.

Situations that trigger aggression

Two factors in the physical environment have been implicated in levels of aggression, heat and crowding.
We deal with each of these below.
Feeling hot
Aggression is linked to ambient temperature. Even our metaphors refer to body temperature: we can be hot
under the collar or simmering with rage, or tell someone else to cool down. As the temperature rises,
studies show that domestic and collective violence increase, and frustrated motorists honk horns.
Graphically, the line fit between heat and aggression follows an inverted U: as
the temperature increases, so does aggression until it peaks. When it gets very hot, aggression levels out
and then declines, a trend suggesting that extreme heat saps our energy. The critical variable is the ambient
temperature. Ellen Cohn and James Rotton (1997) tracked an inverted U-curve when they related assault
rates to temperature throughout each day for two years in Minneapolis, 198788.
Assaults were more frequent in the later evening. Most people in Minneapolis work in temperaturecontrolled environments during the day; as a result, the effects of ambient temperature did not show up until
people left work. Further analysis revealed that it is temperature per se that accounts for the curvilinear
trend, and not simply by time of day. There was also a link with alcohol consumption.
When people used alcohol in the evening to quench their thirst, it was a mediating variable leading to
aggression.
Feeling crowded
Crowding that leads to fighting has long been recognised in a variety of animal species, as the ecologist
John Calhoun (1962) observed. For humans, crowding is a subjective state and is generally characterised
by feeling that ones personal space has been encroached Although the concepts of personal space and
population density are distinct, in practical terms they also overlap. Urbanization puts a premium on living
space and elevates stress. Wendy Regoeczi (2003) noted that Torontos population density as a gross
measure contributed to the overall level of crime. However, variables crucial to feeling crowded are more
finely grained, such as household density (persons per house) and neighbourhood density (detached
housing versus high-rise housing). Both measures of density correlated positively with peoples feelings of
aggression and of withdrawal from strangers. In a British study, Claire Lawrence and Kathryn Andrews
(2004) confirmed a consistent finding in prison contexts: feeling crowded made prisoners more likely to
perceive events as aggressive and protagonists as more hostile and malevolent.

Societal influences
Gender variation
We have referred to hormonal effects in the preceding section, so we should extend the line of
argument to cover a major issue: are men more aggressive than women, and if so, is this socialized? Roles
and gender Both social and developmental psychology emphasize that becoming socialized is closely

connected to gendered characteristics, such as homemaker versus worker.

According to John Archer (2004), this is a crucial point that sets off social role theory from sexual
selection theory, which is based in evolutionary social psychology. Does this apply to aggression? On
balance, yes there is a wealth of evidence confirming that men are more aggressive than women across
cultures and socioeconomic groups. However, the size of this difference varies according to the kind and
context of aggression. In a study of college students, Mary Harris (1992) reported that young men are more
likely than young women to be physically violent, whereas women are almost as likely as men to use verbal
attack in similar contexts, although the degree to which they aggress may be less. As children mature, girls
manipulate and boys fight the essential gender difference is that boys aggress directly whereas girls
aggress indirectly: for example, by gossip and social exclusion. A Canadian study by Michael Conway and
his colleagues noted that gender is often confounded with status in many studies of aggression, an issue
that becomes important when a malefemale interaction involves strangers (Conway, Irannejad &
Giannopoulos, 2005). Aggression is often directed at the weaker person, who may be female or simply of
lower status. Gender stereotypes have characterised men as being much more aggressive than women.
However, as gender roles in Western societies change, women have become less inhibited against
violence. Emancipation may be linked to crime: in most Western societies in recent decades it is correlated
with a rise in alcohol and drug abuse among women. The return of women to the workforce coincided with
widespread unemployment in a number of countries, a further trigger for increased offenses against persons
(and property). Although criminal violence is still more prevalent among men than women, the rate of violent
offending has increased more rapidly among women.
Domestic violence
Family violence is now recognized as a major public health issue with an important psychological
basis. Groups at risk are women, children and elders. It is partner abuse, however, that has come so much
into focus that a specialized journal Violence Against Women was founded in 1995. Already we can detect a
gender asymmetry here: the victims are mostly women. Data relating to partner abuse have
been available for many years. A survey of more than 2000 families by sociologist Murray Straus revealed
that an assault with intent to injure had occurred in three out of ten of married couples, and in one out of
six within the past year. The acts were pushing, hitting with the fist, slapping, kicking, throwing something
and beating up; and a few were threatened with a gun or knife. Here is a sobering statistic: about onequarter of those homicides where the killer knows the victim are spousal. According to Todd Shackelford
(2001), American women in cohabiting relationships incur about nine times the risk of being murdered as
women in marital relationships, a trend that is similar in Canada. Is there a gender asymmetry? Walter
DeKeseredy (2006) has pointed out that partner abuse, and domestic violence more generally, can work in
different ways according to ones gender and also ethnicity:
Most sexual assaults in heterosexual relationships are committed by men.
Much of womens use of violence is in self-defence against their partners assault.
Men and women in different ethnic groups do gender differently, including variations in perceptions of
when it is appropriate to use violence. Why do people want to hurt those closest to them? There are no
simple answers, but here are some influential factors:
learned patterns of aggression, imitated from parents and significant others,
together with low competence in responding non-aggressively; there is a generational
cycle of child abuse, and the chronic repetition of violence in some
families has been identified as an abuse syndrome.
The proximity of family members, making them either sources or targets of annoyance or frustration.
Stresses, especially financial difficulties, unemployment and illnesses (including
postnatal depression).
The division of power in traditional nuclear families, favoring the man.
A high level of alcohol consumption, a correlate of male abuse of a spouse.
These factors can interact to mean that, ironically, those we live closest to are the likeliest targets of our
aggression.

Cultural variation
If the tendency to aggress can be shaped through learning, it makes sense to extend this analysis to
cultures. Are some cultures more aggressive than others? Throughout history, there have always been
differences in cultural norms and values that have shaped some societies to be more aggressive and
some less aggressive than others. The reasons are usually evident. A history of repeated invasions, a
geography that made some settlements more competitive or more vulnerable, and a bio-evolutionary factor
of physique that permitted successful raids by some groups, have all in part shaped the social philosophies
of particular societies. These philosophies are dynamic and can change rapidly according to context.
Examples of this in recent decades are the development of both aggressive Zionism and a radical Islam.
There are some societies that actively practice a lifestyle of non-aggression. Bruce Bonta (1997) listed
twenty-five societies with a worldview based on cooperation rather than competition. Among these
are the Hutterite and Amish communities in the United States, the Inuit of the Arctic region and the Ladakhis
of Tibet. Such communities are small, sometimes scattered and relatively isolated, which suggests that
these may be necessary preconditions for peaceful existence. Of greater significance from a cultural
perspective is the variation of norms that support certain kinds of violence in certain contexts or certain subgroups in many societies. Since this often is colored by power, it applies frequently to women as victims of
male violence.

Culture of honor
Joseph Vandello and Dov Cohen (2003) studied the impact of a culture of honor on domestic
violence. Regions that put a value on violence to restore honor include some Mediterranean countries, the
Middle East and Arab countries, central and southern America, and the southern United States. They
compared samples in Brazil and southern US honor cultures with northern US samples. Their major
findings were:
female infidelity damages a mans reputation, particularly in honor cultures;
this reputation can be partly restored by using violence;
women in honor cultures are expected to remain loyal in the face of jealousy related violence.
Aggression against women is generally not a matter to display publicly. Zoe Hilton and her
colleagues have suggested that, in patriarchal cultures, men and boys are proud of male violence directed
at males but ashamed when it is directed at females. Other cultures sanction or even encourage special
forms of violence. For example, Bron Ingoldsby (1991) noted the existence of machismo among Latin
American families. Likewise, Giovanna Tomada and Barry Schneider (1997) reported that aggression is still
expected in adolescent boys from traditional Italian villages in the belief that it shows sexual prowess and
shapes a dominant male in the household. They also linked this to a higher rate of male bullying at Italian
schools than in England, Spain, Norway or Japan.
HISTORICAL RECORDS OF PSYCHO-SOCIAL PROBLEMS
*The utilization of trephination in which the portion of the skull is removed to release the evil spirit
(Egyptian practice).
-Healers in China in the 7th century B.C.E. viewed psychological disorders as a form of physical
illness, reflecting imbalances in the body and spirit. This view, which continues to be common in
China to this day, rests on the belief that all living things have a life force, called qi (pronounced
chee as in cheetah), which flows through the body along 12 channels to the organs. Illness results
when qi is blocked or seriously imbalanced. This is one of the oldest biological explanations of
psychological disorders. Even today, Chinese treatment for various problems, including some
psychological disorders, aims to restore the proper balance of qi. Practitioners use a number of
techniques, including acupuncture and herbal medicine.
*GENERAL OVERVIEW: Mental illness arose through an imbalance of four humors (that is, bodily fl uids):

black bile, blood, yellow bile and phlegm. Each humor corresponded to one of four basic elements: earth,
air, fi re, water. The ancient Greeks believed that differences in character reflected the relative balance of
these humors, and an extreme imbalance of the humors resulted in illnessincluding mental illness. Most
prominent among the resulting mental disorders were mania (marked by excess uncontrollability, arising
from too much of the humors blood and yellow bile) and melancholy (marked by anguish and dejection, and
perhaps hallucinations, arising from too much black bile). The goal of treatment was to restore the balance
of humors through diet, medicine, or surgery (such as bleeding, or letting some blood drain out of the body if
the person had too much of the humor blood).
*In Classical Greeks: Melampus of Philus introduced an organic model of illness and their
psychological symptoms. Including the natural way of curing them.
e.g.: Root extract for uterine melancholia & iron powder for traumatic impotence
*Asclepius a Greek God of healing, the Greek society build sanctuaries for mental illness or for other
physical deformities to honor him.
*Hippocrates- He produced both a diagnostic classification system and a model by which to explain
abnormal behavior. Hippocrates identified common psychological symptoms such as hallucinations (hearing
or seeing things not evident to others), delusions (beliefs with no basis in reality), melancholia (severe
sadness), and mania (heightened states of arousal that can result in frenzied activity). All of these symptoms
are still recognized today. He also introduced the term hysteria, now called conversion disorder. The term
hysteria was used to describe patients who appeared to have blindness or paralysis for which there was no
organic cause. Hippocrates, assuming incorrectly that the condition occurred only in women, attributed it to
an empty uterus wandering throughout the body searching for conception. The external symptoms indicated
where the uterus was lodged internally. He believed that the cure for hysteria was an environmental one:
marriage or pregnancy. Of course, with advanced understanding of human anatomy and physiology, the
wandering uterus theory was discarded. But even in very recent times, the term hysteria continued to
describe an intense, dramatic pattern of behavior once associated with women. Hippocrates believed that
other abnormal behaviors resulted when environmental factors (changes of seasons) and/or physical factors
(fever, epilepsy, and shock) created an imbalance in four bodily humors. In his model, the four humors were
yellow bile, black bile, blood, and phlegm. Blood was associated with a courageous and hopeful outlook on
life, and phlegm was associated with a calm and unemotional attitude. Excessive yellow bile caused mania,
and excessive black bile caused melancholia, which was treated with a vegetable diet, a tranquil existence,
celibacy, exercise, and sometimes bleeding (controlled removal of some of the patients blood). Hippocrates
advocated the removal of patients from their families as an element of treatment, foreshadowing the practice
of humane treatment and institutionalization.
-Galen: the personal physician of the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Although the terms we use today
differ from those used in ancient times, Galens writings (which still survive) indicate that his areas of
expertise included many fields of medicine: neurophysiology and neuroanatomy, neurology, pharmacology,
psychiatry, and philosophy. An important distinction can be made between Hippocrates and Galens
description of hysteria. Because Galen had studied human anatomy, he discounted the wandering uterus
theory. Galen attributed hysteria to a psychological cause, believing it to be a symptom of unhappiness in
women who had lost interest in and enjoyment of sexual activity.
-FALL OF ROMAN EMPIRE AND THE SPREAD OF DEMONOLOGY THEORY:
-Avicenna: the prince and chief of physicians. Wrote approximately 450 works, including the Canon of
Medicine, considered the most influential textbook ever written. Avicenna considered depression to result
from a mix of humors, and he believed that certain physical diseases were caused by emotional distress. He
stressed the beneficial effects of music on emotional disturbance. His approach to mental illness
foreshadowed what would take an additional 600 years to appear in Europehumane treatment of the
mentally ill.
MIDDLE AGES THROUGH RENAISSANCE
PRELIMINARY NOTIONS:

a.) Witchcrafts as the source of evil and abnormal behavior of persons thus when propagated can create
an evil society
-presence of mass hysteria (emotional contagion: mimicry)
-lycanthropy: possession of wolf spirit
-The Renaissance period (14th to 17th Century) marked a second time of enlightenment in the treatment of
mental illnesses in Europe. Much of this transformation can be traced back to the Dutch physician Johann
Weyer (15151588) and the Swiss physician Paracelsus (14931541). Weyer was the first physician to
specialize in the treatment of mental illness, and Paracelsus refuted the idea that abnormal behaviors were
linked to demonic possession. Paracelsus believed that mental disorders could be hereditary and that some
physical illnesses had a psychological origin
-The 19th Century and the MODERN Thought
**A turning point for the medical treatment of mental illness occurred during the late eighteenth century
when the French physician Philippe Pinel (17451826) and the English Quaker William Tuke (17321822)
radically changed the approach to treating mental illness. In 1793, Pinel was the director of Bictre, an
asylum for men. In his Memoir on Madness, he proposed that mental illness was often curable and that to
apply appropriate treatment, the physician must listen to the patient and observe his behavior. Both would
help the physician to understand the natural history of the disease and the events that led to its
development.
**At the same time, across the English Channel, William Tuke established the York Retreat a small country
house deliberately designed to allow people with mental illnesses to live, work, and relax in a
compassionate and religious environment. Instead of bars on the windows, Tuke used iron dividers to
separate the glass window panes and even had the dividers painted to look like wood. The Retreat was built
on a hill, and although it contained a hidden ditch and a wall to ensure confinement, the barriers could not
be seen from the buildings; this gave the illusion of a home rather than an institution.
(TWO APPROACHES: KINDNESS + OCCUPATION = MORAL TREATMENT)
Moral treatment in the United States is most commonly associated with Benjamin Rush (17451813) and
Dorothea Dix (18021887). Rush was a well-known physician at Pennsylvania Hospital and a signer of the
Declaration of Independence. He limited his practice to mental illness, which he believed had its causes in
the blood vessels of the brain Although this theory was later disproved, Rush believed that the human mind
was the most important area of study, and he became known as the father of American psychiatry.
In the United States, perhaps no name is more closely associated with humane care than that of
Dorothea Dix, the Boston schoolteacher who devoted her life to the plight of the mentally ill and the
need for treatment reform. Through her efforts, 32 institutions that included programs in psychiatric
treatment, research, and education were established. Dix believed that asylums, correctly designed and
operated, would allow for treatment and perhaps even cure. Although Dix brought the plight of the mentally
ill to public attention, moral treatment alone did not cure most forms of mental illness. In fact, mental
hospitals became associated with permanent institutionalization, custodial care, isolation, and very little
hope.
***During the late 1700s in Europe, the treatment of mental disorders went beyond providing rest and
humane care. The German physician Franz Anton Mesmer (1734 1815) hardly followed the conventional
medical establishment. His academic thesis explored the clinical implications of astrology. Mesmer
proposed that the body was a magnet and that using the physicians body as a second magnet
could achieve a cure for mental illness Mesmer believed that a substance called animal magnetism
existed within the body. When it flowed freely, the body was in a healthy state; however, when the flow of
this energy force was impeded, disease resulted. The cure involved magnetic passes of the physicians
hands over the body. Mesmerism was roundly criticized by a committee of scientists and physicians
that included Benjamin Franklin and the noted French chemist Antoine Lavoisier. Nonetheless,
Mesmers experiments constitute an important chapter in psychology. Although his theory of animal
magnetism and his flamboyant cures (including a cape, music, magic poles used to touch various parts of

the body, and magnetized water) were ultimately debunked, they illustrate the power of the placebo
effect in which symptoms are diminished or eliminated not because of any specific treatment but
because the patient believes that a treatment is effective. A placebo can be in the form of pills with inert
ingredients such as cornstarch. It can also be in the form of a therapist or physician who displays an attitude
of caring about the patient. However, it is important to add that although placebos may change how patients
feel, the effect is usually temporary. Placebos are not the same as actual treatment. A significant event for
establishing a biological basis for some psychological disorders occurred in the latter part of the
nineteenth century. Scientists discovered that syphilis (a sexually transmitted disease caused by a
bacterium) led to the chronic condition called general paresis manifested as physical paralysis and
mental illness and eventually death. The discovery that a physical disease could cause a psychological
disorder was a significant advance in understanding abnormal behavior, but we now know that bacteria are
not the cause of most psychological disorders, even though in some cases, psychological symptoms may
have a medical basis.
The work of the German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin (18561926) was another important chapter in
the history of abnormal behavior. During medical school, Kraepelin attended lectures in the laboratory of
Wilhelm Wundt, the founder of modern scientific psychology. He applied Wundts scientific methods to
measure behavioral deviations, hoping to provide the theoretical foundations that he considered to be
lacking in psychiatry (compared with general medicine and psychology). On Wundts advice, Kraepelin
began to study the abnormal. In 1899, after observing hundreds of patients, he introduced two diagnostic
categories based not just on symptom differentiation but also on the etiology (cause) and prognosis
(progression and outcome) of the disease. Dementia praecox, now called schizophrenia was
Kraepelins term for a type of mental illness characterized by mental deterioration. Manic-depressive
insanity was defined as a separate disorder with a more favorable outcome. Kraepelin was best known for
his studies of dementia praecox, which he believed resulted from autointoxication, the self-poisoning of
brain cells as a result of abnormal body metabolism. Although a biological or metabolic cause for
schizophrenia is not yet known, Kraepelins contributions, both in terms of a classification system and a
description of schizophrenia, cannot be overstated. Another physician interested in the brain was JeanMartin Charcot (18251893), who established a school of neurology at La Salptrire in Paris. Charcot was
interested in hysteria, and he believed that it was caused by degenerative brain changes. However, at the
same time, other researchers, Ambrose August Libeault (18231904) and Hippolyte Bernheim (1840
1919) in Nancy, France, were conducting experiments to determine whether hysteria was a form of selfhypnosis. Debate raged between Charcot and the physicians collectively called the Nancy School.
Eventually, most scientific data supported the views of the Nancy School. To his credit as a scientist, once
the data were established, Charcot became a strong proponent of this view. At about the same time, the
Viennese physician Josef Breuer (18421925) was studying the effect of hypnotism. Breuer used
hypnosis to treat patients with hysteria, including a young woman named Anna O., who had cared for her
ailing father until his death. Shortly thereafter, she developed blurry vision, trouble speaking, and difficulty
moving her right arm and both her legs. Breuer discovered that when under hypnosis, Anna O. would
discuss events and experiences that she was unable to recall otherwise. Furthermore, after discussing
these distressing events, her symptoms disappeared. Breuer called his treatment the talking cure, laying the
foundation for a new approach to mental disorders.

The 20th Century

-Psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud (18561939) was trained as a neurologist. His career in psychiatry
began in France, where he worked with Charcot. After settling in Vienna, Freud published Studies in
Hysteria in 1895 with Josef Breuer. He introduced psychoanalysis, a comprehensive theory that attempts to
explain both normal and abnormal behavior. Freud believed that the roots of abnormal behavior were
established in the first 5 years of life. Because they happened so early, he believed that the person would
retain no conscious memory of themyet the unconscious memories would exert a lifelong influence on
behavior. Psychoanalytic theory has three important aspects: the structure of the mind, the strategies
used to deal with threats to the stability of the mind, and the stages of psychosocial development
crucial for the development of normal (or abnormal) behavior. In psychoanalytic theory, the mind

consists of three regions: the id, ego, and superego. Basic instinctual drives and the source of psychic
energy, called libido, are found in the id. Always seeking pleasure, the id is totally unconscious, so its urges
and activities are outside our awareness. Think of the id as a professional athlete I want a big salary; I
want a signing bonus. The ego develops when the id comes in contact with reality. Think of the ego as a
sports agent who mediates between the ids impulses (the athletes desires) and the demands and
restrictions of reality (the owners contract offer). Rather than always seeking pleasure, the ego copes with
reality, or as Freud put it, the ego obeys the reality principle. The ego has both conscious and unconscious
components, so we are often aware of its actions. The third region of the mind is the superego. Similar to a
conscience, the superego imposes moral restraint on the ids impulses (particularly those of a sexual or an
aggressive nature). Think of the superego as the team owner or the league commissioner who doles out
monetary fines for breaking team or league rules. When moral rules are violated, the superego punishes
with guilt feelings. Like the ego, the superego is partly conscious and partly unconscious and tries to
manage or inhibit the ids impulses. Because these three intrapsychic forces are constantly competing, there
is ever-changing conflict, creating a dynamic, in this case, a psychodynamic system. Freud proposed that
through the use of defense mechanisms, the minds negative or distressing thoughts and feelings were
disguised to emerge to consciousness in a more acceptable form.
Some defense mechanisms prevented the onset of abnormal behavior. Other defense mechanisms
(such as regression) may result in abnormal or age-inappropriate behaviors. Some of the defense
mechanisms identified by Freud are presented. Almost as well known as the id, ego, and superego are
Freuds stages of psychosexual development. According to the theory, each person passes through these
stages between infancy and 5 years of age. How a child copes with each stage has important effects on
psychological development. The oral phase occurs during the first 1 1/2 years of life. Sucking and chewing
are pleasurable experiences; aggressive impulses emerge after the development of teeth. The anal phase
(from age 11 2 to 3 years) coincides with toilet training. During this time, parents emphasize discipline and
control issues, and power struggles develop. Aggressive impulses on the part of the child could lead to
personality traits of negativism and stubbornness as well as the emergence of hostile, destructive, or
sadistic behaviors. During the phallic phase (ages 3 to 5), psychosexual energy centers on the genital area
and children derive pleasure from touching or rubbing the genitals. During this phase, children may develop
romantic fantasies or attachments toward their opposite-sex parent. The two additional stages, the latency
phase (the formant stage of psychosexual development when children are disinterested in the opposite sex)
and the genital phase (the mature stage of psychosexual development), are considered to play a more
limited role in abnormal behavior. In psychoanalytic theory, anxiety and depression are caused by negative
experiences. Depending on the age at which the experience occurs, individuals become fixated (stalled) at a
stage of psychosexual development. This leaves a psychological mark on unconscious. For example, harsh
parenting during toilet training results in a toddler who withholds his feces as a reaction. As an adult, this
person will be stingy with money or gifts. In psychoanalytic theory, even though the individual is unaware of
the early experience, it still influences daily functioning. In short, the individual behaves psychologically at
the stage of development when the fixation occurred. The goals of psychoanalysis, the treatment Freud
developed, include insight, bringing the troubling material to consciousness, and catharsis, releasing
psychic energy. Several techniques are used to achieve these goals. In free association, the person
minimizes conscious control and without selection or censorship, tells the analyst everything that comes to
mind, allowing the analyst to draw out information regarding unconscious conflicts. In dream analysis,
individuals are encouraged to recall and recount their dreams, which are discussed in the analytic sessions.
Freud called dreams the royal road to the unconscious. He believed that dream content included many
symbolic images that revealed the meaning of unconscious conflict. Another technique is interpretation. In
psychoanalytic treatment, the analysts silence encourages the patients free association. The analyst offers
interpretations about the patients associations to uncover the patients resistance to treatment, to discuss
the patients transference feelings, or to confront the patient with inconsistencies. Interpretations may focus
on present issues or draw connections between the patients past and the present. The patients dreams
and fantasies are also sources of material for interpretation. Freuds ideas were very controversial. His belief
that much of human behavior was controlled by unconscious, innate biological and sexual urges that existed
from infancy outraged Viennese Victorian society. Freud believed that the first 5 years of life were very

important and events that occurred during that time could even influence adult behavior. He was one of the
first theoreticians to highlight the role of environmental factors in abnormal behavior, but he considered the
early environment to consist almost exclusively of ones mother and father. This belief sometimes led to
detrimental and undeserved blaming of parents as the cause of abnormal behavior. For Freud, the key
therapeutic ingredient was the achievement of insight. Overcoming psychological difficulties meant
understanding their causes and meaning. Unlike Breuer, Freud did not view hypnosis as necessary to
achieve insight, but he did believe in the talking cure, a lengthy relationship between therapist and patient.
*Behaviorism: In 1904, Ivan Pavlov (18491936) received the Nobel Prize for his research on the
physiology of dog digestion, which in turn led to his discovery of conditioned responses. A landmark moment
for psychology was Pavlovs discovery of classical conditioning, in which an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
produces an unconditioned response (UCR). For example, you touch a hot stove (UCS) and immediately
withdraw your hand (UCR). A conditioned stimulus (CS) is something neutral that does not naturally produce
the UCR. In the classical conditioning paradigm, the UCS is repeatedly paired with a CS, resulting in the
UCR. After sufficient pairings, the CS, presented alone, becomes capable of eliciting a conditioned response
(CR), which is similar in form and content to the UCR. In Pavlovs paradigm, food powder was the UCS that
produced salivation (UCR) in his dogs. Pavlov paired a neutral stimulus, a ringing bell (CS), with the food

powder. After a sufficient number of pairings, the CS (the bell alone) produced salivation (CR). This
paradigm seems simple, but it is both powerful and more complex than it first appears. We will return to the
conditioning theory of emotional disorders later in the chapter. In 1908, John B. Watson (18781958), a
well-known animal psychologist, joined the faculty of Johns Hopkins University. Watson believed that the
only appropriate objects of scientific study were observable behaviors, not inner thoughts or feelings. This
view, known as behaviorism, is based on principles that consider all behavior (normal or abnormal) to be
learned as a result of experiences or interactions with the environment. Watson is most famous for his work
with his student Rosalie Rayner. In 1920, they published the case of Little Albert, which demonstrated that
emotional responses such as fear could be acquired through classical conditioning. In this case, Little
Alberts fear of a white rat was established by pairing the white rat with a loud, aversive noise. In addition,
not only was an extreme emotional response established but it generalized to other objects that, like the rat,
were white and furry (a rabbit, a Santa Claus beard). Unfortunately, Little Albert and his mother left Johns

Hopkins soon after the experiments were completed and for many years, psychologists were unsure about
his fate. We now know that Little Alberts real name was Douglas Merritte, and unfortunately, he died in
1925 from a condition known as acquired hydrocephalus, the condition in which the cavities of the brain
have an excess of cerebrospinal fluid. In Douglass case, this condition most likely resulted from diseases
such as encephalitis or meningitis, or the development of a brain tumor.
Theoretical Approach: All societies have social problems. All individuals experience psycho-social problems.
Utilize the discipline of social psychology in understanding socio-cultural and psychological factors that
affect the society. Social psychology is the part of psychology that studies human interaction: its manifestations, its causes, its consequences,
and the psychological processes involved. A widely used and more technical definition given by Gordon Allport is that social psychology is the
scientific investigation of how the thoughts, feelings and behaviors of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others

Difference: Social problems : problems of the society; MACRO that affect the individual (blaming the system approach)
Psychological problems: individual-level problems (behaviors that affect the society)- blaming the person approach
II.)

BRIEF DISCUSSION ON VARIOUS SOCIAL AND PYCHOLOGICAL ISSUES AND PROBLEMS

SOCIAL PROBLEMS AND ISSUES

1.) Population Growth,

Malnutrition

Poverty,

Famine

PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS AND ISSUES

&

1.) Alcoholism (Excerpt from: Alcoholism Is A Serious

Problem by Well Connected (Harvard Medical School)

A.) Population Growth

Current Situation: World= more than 7 billion
people

Alcoholism is a chronic disease, progressive and often fatal; it is a

primary disorder and not a symptom of other diseases or emotional
problems. The chemistry of alcohol allows it to affect nearly every type of
cell in the body, including those in the central nervous system. In the brain,
alcohol interacts with centers responsible for pleasure and other desirable
sensations. After prolonged exposure to alcohol, the brain adapts to the
changes alcohol makes and becomes dependent on it. For people with
alcoholism, drinking becomes the primary medium through which they can
deal with people, work, and life. Alcohol dominates their thinking,
emotions, and actions. The severity of this disease is influenced by factors
such as genetics, psychology, culture, and response to physical pain.

B.) Poverty (ADB, Poverty in the Philippines)

Causes of Poverty
-The main causes of poverty in the country are low to
moderate economic growth for the past 40 years;
-low growth elasticity of poverty reduction; weakness in
employment generation and the quality of jobs generated;
-failure to fully develop the agriculture sector;
-high inflation during crisis periods;
-high levels of population growth;
-high and persistent levels of inequality (incomes and assets),
which dampen the positive impacts of economic expansion;
and recurrent shocks and exposure to risks such as
economic crisis, conflicts, natural disasters and
environmental poverty.
1. Economic growth did not translate into
poverty reduction in recent years. While the country has
experienced moderate economic growth in recent years,
poverty reduction has been slow. Inequality has remained
high, which mitigates the positive impact of growth on poverty
reduction. Chronic poverty has become a major constraint in
attaining high levels of sustained growth and the countrys
overall development. Finding a solution to poverty is thus of
public interest; benefits will accrue not only to the poor, but
also to society as a whole.

What Causes Alcoholism?

People have been drinking alcohol for perhaps 15,000 years. Just drinking
steadily and consistently over time can cause a sense of dependence and
withdrawal symptoms during periods of abstinence; this physical
dependence, however, is not the sole cause of alcoholism. To develop
alcoholism, other factors usually come into play, including biology and
genetics, culture, and psychology.
Loss of Control

Alcoholism can develop insidiously; often there is no clear line between

problem drinking and alcoholism. The only early indications of alcoholism
may be the unpleasant physical responses to withdrawal that occur during
even brief periods of abstinence. Sometimes people experience long-term
depression or anxiety, insomnia, chronic pain, or personal or work stress
that lead to the use of alcohol for relief, but often no extraordinary events
have occurred that account for the drinking problem.

Brain Chemistry and Genetic Factors

The craving for alcohol during abstinence, the pain of
withdrawal, and the high rate of relapse are due to the brains
adaptation to and dependence on the changes in its own chemistry

2. Poverty levels vary greatly by region.

Poverty incidence has been persistently high in some regions
(Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao, Caraga, Region
IV-B, Region V, and Region IX). Regions with the most
number of poor people are regions
IV-A, V, VI, and VII.
3. Poverty remains a mainly rural phenomenon,
though urban poverty is on the rise. The majority of the
poor are still found in rural areas and in the agriculture sector,
primarily as farmers and fishers. However, there is an
increasing number of poor households in urban areas,
typically found in the informal sector.
4. Poverty levels are strongly linked to educational
attainment. Two-thirds of poor households are headed by
people with only an elementary school education or below.
Access to quality education is identified as a key pathway out
of poverty.
5. The poor have large families, with six or
more members. Population management will be critical for
an effective poverty reduction strategy.
6. Many Filipino households remain
vulnerable to shocks and risks. This is highlighted by the
escalating conflict in Mindanao and the current global
financial crisis. An effective poverty strategy must incorporate
social protection.
7. Governance and institutional constraints remain.
Measures to address such constraints must be an
important focus in formulating a revised government strategy
for poverty reduction.
8. Local government capacity for implementing
poverty programs is weak.
Effective delivery of basic social services and povertyrelated programs at the local level will improve poverty
reduction programs.
9. Deficient targeting in poverty programs.
This is related to unreliable, inaccurate, and untimely
poverty information, especially at the local level, and to
governance challenges in program design and
implementation.
10. There are serious resource gaps for poverty
reduction activities and attainment of the
MDGs by 2015. Resource mobilization and protection of
budgets for social sector and poverty reduction programs is
needed.

caused by long term use of alcohol. Alcohol causes relaxation and

euphoria but also acts as a depressant on the central nervous
system. Even after years of research, experts still do not know
exactly how alcohol affects the brain or how the brain affects
alcoholism. Alcohol appears to have major effects upon the
hippocampus, an area in the brain associated with learning and
memory and the regulation of emotion, sensory processing,
appetite, and stress. Alcohol breaks down into products called fatty
acid ethyl esters, which appear to inhibit important
neurotransmitters (chemical messengers in the brain) in the
hippocampus. Of particular importance to researchers of alcoholism
are the neurotransmitters gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA),
dopamine, and serotonin, which are strongly associated with
emotional behavior and cravings. Research indicates that
dopamine transmission, particularly, is strongly associated with the
rewarding properties of alcohol, nicotine, opiates, and cocaine.
Investigators have focused on nerve-cell structures known as
dopamine D2 receptors (DRD2), which influence the activity of
dopamine. Mice with few of these receptors show low interest in
and even aversion to alcohol. In people with severe alcoholism,
researchers have located a gene that alters the function of DRD2.
This gene is also found in people with attention deficit disorder, who
have an increased risk for alcoholism, and in people with Tourettes
syndrome and autism. One major study, however, found no
connection
at all between the DRD2 gene and alcoholism. More work in this
area is needed. Researchers are also investigating genes that
regulate certain enzymes known as kinases that affect alcohol
uptake in the brain as well as genes that affect
serotonin. Even if genetic factors can be identified, however, they
are unlikely to explain all cases of alcoholism. In fact, lack of
genetic protection may play a role in alcoholism. Because alcohol is
not found easily in nature, genetic mechanisms to protect against
excessive consumption may not have evolved in
humans as they frequently have for protection against natural
threats.
Risk Factors for Alcoholism
Who Becomes an Alcoholic?
General Risks and Age. Some population studies indicate that in a
single year, between 7.4% and 9.7% of the population are
dependent on alcohol, and between 13.7% and 23.5% of
Americans are alcohol-dependent at some point in their lives. A
1996 national survey reported that 11 million Americans are heavy
drinkers (five or more drinks per occasion on five or more days in a
month) and 32 million engaged in binge drinking (five or more
drinks on one occasion) in the month previous to the survey.
People with a family history of alcoholism are more likely to begin
drinking before the age of 20 and to become alcoholic. But anyone
who begins drinking in adolescence is at higher risk. Currently 1.9
million young people between the ages of 12 and 20 are
considered heavy drinkers and 4.4 million are binge drinkers.

11. Multidimensional responses to poverty

reduction are needed. The poverty problem is
multidimensional, and thus the response should involve
multiple agencies, sectors, and stakeholders. Convergence
has been the right approach and should be scaled up
and practiced more extensively.
12. Further research on chronic poverty is
needed. There are very few micro studies on chronic poverty
and how the poor escape poverty traps.
C.) Famine and Malnutrition
The World Health Organization cites malnutrition as the greatest
single threat to the world's public health. The world produces
enough food to feed everyone. World agriculture produces 17
percent more calories per person today than it did 30 years ago,
despite a 70 percent population increase. This is enough to provide
everyone in the world with at least 2,720 kilocalories (kcal) per
person per day according to the most recent estimate that we could
find.(FAO 2002,. The principal problem is that many people in the
world do not have sufficient land to grow, or income to purchase,
enough food.
Poverty is the principal cause of hunger. The
causes of poverty include poor people's lack of
resources, an extremely unequal income distribution
in the world and within specific countries, conflict,
and hunger itself. As of 2008 (2005 statistics), the
World Bank has estimated that there were an
estimated 1,345 million poor people in developing
countries who live on $1.25 a day or less.3 This
compares to the later FAO estimate of 1.02 billion
undernourished people. Extreme poverty remains an
alarming problem in the worlds developing regions,
despite some progress that reduced "dollar--now
$1.25-- a day" poverty from (an estimated) 1900
million people in 1981, a reduction of 29 percent over
the period. Progress in poverty reduction has been
concentrated in Asia, and especially, East Asia, with
the major improvement occurring in China. In SubSaharan Africa, the number of people in extreme
poverty has increased.

2.) Unemployment and Underemployment

** In the Philippines: RA 10911 (Anti-Age
Discrimination in Employment Act)
Philippines unemployment rate fell to 4.7 percent in the
fourth quarter of 2016 from 5.4 percent in the September
quarter. It was the lowest figure on record, as the number of
unemployed declined to 2,040 persons from 2,335 in the
previous period while the number of employed went up to
41,664 from 40,974. Meanwhile, the labor force participation

Although alcoholism usually develops in early adulthood, the elderly

are not exempt. In fact, in one study, 15% of men and 12% of
women over age 60 drank more than the national standard for
excess alcohol consumption. Alcohol also affects the older body
differently; people who maintain the same drinking patterns as they
age can easily develop alcohol dependency without realizing it.
Physicians may overlook alcoholism when evaluating elderly
patients, mistakenly attributing the signs of alcohol abuse to the
normal effects of the aging process.
Gender. Most alcoholics are men, but the incidence of alcoholism in
women has been increasing over the past 30 years. About 9.3% of
men and 1.9% of women are heavy drinkers, and 22.8% of men are
binge drinkers compared to 8.7% of women. In general, young
women problem drinkers follow the drinking patterns of their
partners, although they tend to engage in heavier drinking during
the premenstrual period. Women tend to become alcoholic later in
life than men, and it is estimated that 1.8 million older women suffer
from alcohol addiction. Even though heavy drinking in women
usually occurs later in life, the medical problems women develop
because of the disorder occur at about the same age as men,
suggesting that women are more susceptible to the physical
toxicity of alcohol.
Family History and Ethnicity. The risk for alcoholism in sons of
alcoholic fathers is 25%. The familial link is weaker for women, but
genetic factors contribute to this disease in both genders. In one
study, women with alcoholism tended to have parents who drank.
Women who came from families with a history
of emotional disorders, rejecting parents, or early family disruption
had no higher risk for drinking than women without such
backgrounds. A stable family and psychological health were not
protective in people with a genetic risk. Unfortunately, there is no
way to predict which members of alcoholic families are most at risk
for alcoholism. Irish and Native Americans are at increased risk for
alcoholism; Jewish and Asian Americans are at decreased risk.
Overall, there is no difference in alcoholic prevalence between
African Americans, whites, and Hispanic people. Although the
biological causes of such different risks are not known, certain
people in these population groups may be at higher or lower risk
because of the way they metabolize alcohol. One study of Native
Americans, for instance, found that they are less sensitive to the
intoxicating effects of alcohol. This confirms other studies, in which
young men with alcoholic fathers exhibited fewer signs of
drunkenness and had lower levels of stress hormones than those
without a family history. In other words, they held their liquor
better. Experts suggest such people may inherit a lack of those
warning signals that ordinarily make people stop drinking. Many
Asians, on the other hand, are less likely to become alcoholic
because of a genetic factor that makes them deficient in aldehyde
dehydrogenase, a chemical used by the body to metabolize ethyl
alcohol. In its absence, toxic substances build up after drinking

rate increased to 63.6 percent from a 63.3 in the preceding

three months. Among employed persons, workers in the
services sector made up 54.9 percent of the total, followed by
those in the agriculture sector (27.9 percent) and industry
(17.2 percent). Unemployment Rate in Philippines averaged
8.63 percent from 1994 until 2016, reaching an all time high
of 13.90 percent in the first quarter of 2000 and a record low
of 4.70 percent in the fourth quarter of 2016.

3.) Age Discrimination

Mentality)

&

Racism

(Colonial

Racism is the belief that a particular race is superior or inferior

to another, that a persons social and moral traits are
predetermined by his or her inborn biological characteristics.
Racial separatism is the belief, most of the time based on
racism, that different races should remain segregated and apart
from one another.

Racial Separatism

Racism has existed throughout human history. It may be

defined as the hatred of one person by another -- or the belief
that another person is less than human -- because of skin
color, language, customs, place of birth or any factor that
supposedly reveals the basic nature of that person. It has
influenced wars, slavery, the formation of nations, and legal
codes.
During the past 500-1000 years, racism on the part of
Western powers toward non-Westerners has had a far
more significant impact on history than any other form of
racism (such as racism among Western groups or among
Easterners, such as Asians, Africans, and others). The most
notorious example of racism by the West has been slavery,
particularly the enslavement of Africans in the New World
(slavery itself dates back thousands of years). This
enslavement was accomplished because of the racist belief
that Black Africans were less fully human than white
Europeans and their descendants.
This belief was not "automatic": that is, Africans were not
originally considered inferior. When Portuguese sailors first
explored Africa in the 15th and 16th centuries, they came
upon empires and cities as advanced as their own, and they
considered Africans to be serious rivals. Over time, though,
as African civilizations failed to match the technological

alcohol and rapidly lead to flushing, dizziness, and nausea. People

with this genetic susceptibility, then, are likely to experience
adverse reactions to alcohol and therefore not become alcoholic.
This deficiency is not completely protective against drinking,
however, particularly if there is added social pressure, such as
among college fraternity members. It is important to understand
that, whether it is inherited or not,
people with alcoholism are still legally responsible for their actions.
Emotional Disorders. Severely depressed or anxious people are at
high risk for alcoholism, smoking, and other forms of addiction.
Major depression, in fact, accompanies about one-third of all cases
of alcoholism. It is more common among alcoholic women (and
women in general) than men.
Interestingly, one study indicated that depression in alcoholic
women may cause them to drink less than nondepressed
alcoholic women, while in alcoholic men, depression has the
opposite effect. Depression and anxiety may play a major role in
the development of alcoholism in the elderly, who are often subject
to dramatic life changes, such as re-tirement, the loss of a spouse
or friends, and medical problems. Problem drinking in these cases
may be due to self-medication of the anxiety or depression. It
should be noted, however, that in all adults with alcoholism these
mood disorders may be actually caused by alcoholism and often
abate after withdrawal from alcohol.
Personality Traits. Studies are finding that alcoholism is strongly
related to impulsive, excitable, and novelty-seeking behavior, and
such patterns are established early on, if not inherited. People with
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, a condition that shares these
behaviors, have a higher risk for alcoholism. Children who later
become alcoholics or who abuse drugs are more likely to have less
fear of new situations than others, even if there is a risk for harm. In
a test of mental functioning, alcoholics (mostly women) did not
show any deficits in thinking but they were less able to inhibit their
responses than non-alcoholics. It was once thought that a family
history of passivity and abnormal dependency needs increased the
risk for alcoholism, but studies have not borne out this theory.
Socio-economic Factors. It has been long thought that alcoholism is
more prevalent in people with lower educational levels and in those
who were unemployed. A thorough 1996 study, however, reported
that the prevalence of alcoholism among adult welfare recipients
was 4.3% to 8.2%, which was comparable to the 7.4% found in the
general population. There was also no difference in prevalence
between poor African Americans and poor whites. People in lowincome groups did display some tendencies that differed from the
general population. For instance, as many women as men were
heavy drinkers. Excessive drinking may be more dangerous in
lower income groups; one study found that it was a major factor in
the higher death rate of people, particularly men, in lower
socioeconomic groups compared with those in higher groups. .

advances of Europe, and the major European powers began

to plunder the continent and forcibly remove its inhabitants to
work as slave laborers in new colonies across the Atlantic,
Africans came to be seen as a deficient "species," as
"savages." To an important extent, this view was necessary to
justify the slave trade at a time when Western culture had
begun to promote individual rights and human equality. The
willingness of some Africans to sell other Africans to
European slave traders also led to claims of savagery, based
on the false belief that the "dark people" were all kinsmen, all
part of one society - as opposed to many different, sometimes
warring nations.
One important feature of racism, especially toward
Blacks and immigrant groups, is clear in attitudes
regarding slaves and slavery. Jews are usually seen by
anti-Semites as subhuman but also superhuman: devilishly
cunning, skilled, and powerful. Blacks and others are seen by
racists as merely subhuman, more like beasts than men. If
the focus of anti-Semitism is evil, the focus of racism is
inferiority -- directed toward those who have sometimes been
considered to lack even the ability to be evil (though in the
20th century, especially, victims of racism are often
considered morally degraded).
In the second half of the 19th century, Darwinism, the
decline of Christian belief, and growing immigration were
all perceived by many white Westerners as a threat to
their cultural control. European and, to a lesser degree,
American scientists and philosophers devised a false racial
"science" to "prove" the supremacy of non-Jewish whites.
While the Nazi annihilation of Jews discredited most of these
supposedly scientific efforts to elevate one race over another,
small numbers of scientists and social scientists have
continued throughout the 20th century to argue the inborn
shortcomings of certain races, especially Blacks. At the same
time, some public figures in the American Black community
have championed the supremacy of their own race and the
inferiority of whites - using nearly the identical language of
white racists.
All of these arguments are based on a false understanding of
race; in fact, contemporary scientists are not agreed on
whether race is a valid way to classify people. What may
seem to be significant "racial" differences to some people skin color, hair, facial shape - are not of much scientific
significance. In fact, genetic differences within a so-called
race may be greater than those between races. One
philosopher writes: "There are few genetic characteristics to
be found in the population of England that are not found in
similar proportions in Zaire or in China.those differences
that most deeply affect us in our dealings with each other are
not to any significant degree biologically determined."

4.) Terrorism (Anthony Giddens)

The word terrorism. has its origins in the French
Revolution of 1789. Thousands of people - originally aristocrats, but
later many more ordinary citizens - were hunted down by the
political authorities and executed by the guillotine. The term 'terror'
was not invented by the revolutionaries themselves, but by the

Violence and Death

How Serious Is Alcoholism?
About 100,000 deaths a year can be wholly or partially attributed to
drinking, and alcoholism reduces life expectancy by 10 to 12 years.
Next to smoking, it is the most common preventable cause of death
in America. Although studies indicate that adults who drink
moderately (about one drink a day) have a lower mortality rate than
their non-drinking peers, their risk for untimely death increases with
heavier drinking. Any protection that occurs with moderate alcohol
intake appears to be confined to adults over 60 who have risks for
heart disease. The earlier a person begins drinking heavily, the
greater their chance of developing
serious illnesses later on. Alcoholism can kill in many different
ways, and, in general, people who drink regularly have a higher
rate of deaths from injury, violence, and some cancers. Overdose.
Alcohol overdose can lead to death. This is a particular danger for
adolescents who may want to impress their friends with their ability
to drink alcohol but cannot yet gauge its effects.
Accidents, Suicide, and Murder. Alcohol plays a major role in more
than half of all automobile fatalities. Less than two drinks can impair
the ability to drive. Alcohol also increases the risk of accidental
injuries from many other causes. One study of emergency room
patients found that having had more than one
drink doubled the risk of injury, and more than four drinks increased
the risk eleven times. Another study reported that among
emergency room patients who were admitted for injuries, 47%
tested positive for alcohol and 35% were intoxicated.
Of those who were intoxicated, 75% showed evidence of chronic
alcoholism. This disease is the primary diagnosis in one quarter of
all people who commit suicide, and alcohol is implicated in 67% of
all murders.
Domestic Violence and Effects on Family. Domestic violence is a
common consequence of alcohol abuse. Research suggests that
for women, the most serious risk factor for injury from domestic
violence may be a history of alcohol abuse in her male partner.
Alcoholism in parents also increases the risk for violent behavior
and abuse toward their children. Children of alcoholics tend to do
worse academically than others, have a higher incidence of
depression, anxiety, and stress and lower self-esteem than their
peers. One study found that children who were diagnosed with
major depression between the ages of six and 12 were more likely
to have alcoholic parents or relatives than were children who were
not depressed. Alcoholic households are less cohesive, have more
conflicts, and their members are less independent and expressive
than households with nonalcoholic or recovering alcoholic parents.
In addition to their own inherited risk for later alcoholism, one study
found that 41% of children of alcoholics have serious coping
problems that may be life long. Adult children of alcoholic parents
are at higher risk for divorce and for psychiatric symptoms. One

counter-revolutionaries: the people who despised the French

Revolution and what it stood for, and who believed that the bloodletting which went on was a form of terrorizing the population
(Laqueur 2003). 'Terror', in the sense of the use of violence to
intimidate, was used extensively in the twentieth century for
example, by the Nazis in Germany or the Russian secret police
under Stalin.
However, this kind of use of violence also predates the
origins of the term in the French Revolution. Although the term
'terror' was not coined until the eighteenth century, the phenomenon
of terrorizing people through violence.
Old terrorism
We can draw a distinction between old- and new-style terrorism.
Old terrorism was dominant for most of the twentieth century
and still exists today. This kind of terrorism is largely associated with
the rise of nationalism and with the establishment of nations
as sovereign, territorially bonded entities, which predominantly
occurred from the late eighteenth century onwards in Europe,
as we discussed above. In all nations, boundaries are fixed
somewhat arbitrarily, either as lines on a map, as they were by
Western colonizers in Africa and Asia, or through conquest, battle
and struggle. Ireland, for example, was brought into the United
Kingdom in 1800, leading to independence struggles, which
resulted in the partition of the country into North and South in the
early 1920s. A patchwork of nations mapped out by colonial
administrators, or founded on force, has led in various cases to
nations that do not have their own state - that is, nations with a
claim to having a common cultural identity, but without the territorial
and state apparatus which normally belongs to a nation. Most forms
of old-style terrorism are linked to nations without states.
The point of old-style terrorism is to establish states in areas
where nations do not have control of the territory'S state
apparatus. This is true, for example, of Irish nationalists, such as
the Irish Republican Army (IRA), and Basque nationalists, such as
ETA, in Spain. The main issues are territorial integrity and identity in
the formation of a state. Old-style terrorism is found where there
are nations without states and where terrorists are prepared to
use violence to achieve their ends. Old-style terrorism is
fundamentally local because its ambitions are local. It wants to
establish a state in a specific national area.
In recent years, old-style terrorism has also often had an
international component to it as it draws on support from outside
countries. For example, Libya, Syria and some Eastern European
countries, as well as groups within the United States, have, in
varying degrees, supported the terrorist acts of the IRA in Northern
Ireland and Basque separatists in Spain. But although old-style
terrorism might involve a wider global network of supporters for its
funding or in filtering arms or drugs to buy weaponry, its
ambitions are local.
New terrorism
New terrorism differs from old terrorism in several ways - first, in
respect of the scope of its claims. One ofthe distinguishing features
of al-Qaeda's view of the world, for example, is that it has global
geopolitical aims: it seeks to restructure world society. Parts of the
alQaeda leadership have wanted to reconstruct an Islamic society
stretching from the Indian subcontinent into Europe. This would

study concluded that the only events with greater psychological

impact on children are sexual and physical abuse.
2.) Drug Abuse (*cite the attached article)
In addition (Philippines):
The most common date rape drugs -- also called "club drugs"
-- are flunitrazepam (Rohypnol), also called roofies; gamma
hydroxybutyric acid (GHB), also called liquid ecstasy; and
ketamine, also called Special K. These drugs may come as
pills, liquids, or powders.

3.) Crime & Cybercrime

A.) Crimes- crimes usually are defined as acts or
omissions forbidden by law that can be punished by
imprisonment and/or fine. Murder, robbery, burglary,
rape, drunken driving, child neglect, and failure to pay
your taxes all are common examples. However, as
several eminent criminologists recently have noted
(e.g. Sampson and Laub 1993; Gottfredson and Hirschi
1990), the key to understanding crime is to focus on
fundamental attributes of all criminal behaviors rather
than on specific criminal acts. Instead of trying to
separately understand crimes such as homicide,
robbery, rape, burglary, embezzlement, and heroin use,
we need to identify what it is they all have in common.
Much past research on crime has been confounded by
its focus on these politico-legal rather than behavioral
definitions. The behavioral definition of crime focuses
on, criminality, a certain personality profile that causes
the most alarming sorts of crimes. All criminal
behaviors involve the use of force, fraud, or stealth to
obtain material or symbolic resources. As Gottfredson
and Hirschi (1990) noted, criminality is a style of
strategic behavior characterized by self-centeredness,
indifference to the suffering and needs of others, and
low self-control. More impulsive individuals are more
likely to find criminality an attractive style of behavior
because it can provide immediate gratification through
relatively easy or simple strategies.

IN THE PHILIPPINES: (Revised Penal Code)

-Crimes Against Persons:
They are classified into three general categories:
1. Destruction of Life
Homicide - when used in its general sense it denotes that the
death of a person was not due to a suicide or because of an
accident or to natural causes but because of the act of a
person. The term homicidal death refers to a death which
was caused by another either intentionally or by negligence.
The following are the terms used depending on who the victim
was:
a). Parricide- the killing of ones father
b). Matricide- the killing of ones mother
c). Filicide- the killing of a child
d). Fratricide- the killing of ones brother or sister

involve establishing Islamic governments throughout the Middle

East and the recapture of North Africa. AI -Qaeda's supporters
argue that over the last millennium the West has expelled Islamic
groups from those areas to which it has a legitimate claim. These
areas include the Balkans and those parts of Spain that were
previously ruled by the Moors (Muslims originally from North Africa
who controlled much of Spain between the eighth and the fifteenth
(century). Large expanses of what we now regard as Europe were
previously Islamic, ruled either by the Ottoman Empire or from
North Africa. Al-Qaeda aims to re-establish the global role of Islam
in these regions and areas. So whereas old-style terrorism is local
and linked to particular states normally quite small states - newstyle terrorism is global in its ambitions. It wants to reverse the tide
of world power. There is a characteristic tension between
modernism and anti-modernism in the world-view of al-Qaeda
and similar terrorist organizations. In attempting to reestablish the
Islamic dominance of large parts of Europe)
5.) Prostitution and STIs
For the so called new-abolitionists, the widespread
violence experienced in prostitution leads to the
conclusion that prostitution constitutes a particular form of
violence against women and should be eliminated. The
European Womens Lobby started a campaign in 2011 for
a Europe free of prostitution12 which is on-going.
Recently, among others, Members of the European
Parliament signed the corresponding Brussels Call .
Equally, the European Parliament stated in its Resolution
of 5 April 2011 on priorities and outline of a new EU policy
framework to fight violence against women
(2010/2209(INI))14 that prostitution is a form of genderbased violence.

Number of Prostitutes in the world: At least 13,828,700

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

China: 5 Million
India: 3 Million
United States: 1 Million
Philippines:: 800,000
Mexico: 500,000
Germany: 400,000
Brazil: 250,000 children
Thailand: 250,000
Bangladesh: 200,000
South Korea: 147,000 *www.havocscope.com

Prostitution Customers:

99 percent of prostitution customers in France are

male. 41 percent of them are married.
10,000 men in Israel visit prostitutes each month.
260,000 to 285,000 men in Denmark admitted to
visiting a prostitute.
9.1 percent of men in the United States stated in

e). Uxoricide- the killing of ones wife

f). Prolicide- the killing of ones offspring
g). Hosticide- the killing of an enemy
h). Hospiticide- the killing of ones host or guest
i). Feminicide- the killing of a woman
j) Infanticide- the killing of an infant
k). Suicide- the killing of ones self
l) Regicide- the killing of a king or queen
m). Genocide- the massacre of a people
2. Physical Injuries
a. Mutilation
b. Serious
c. Less Serious
d. slight
3. Rape
NOTE: (People of the Philippines V. Campuhan, 2000)
Judicial depiction of consummated rape has not been confined to
the oft-quoted "touching of the female organ,"[17] but has also
progressed into being described as "the introduction of the male
organ into the labia of the pudendum,"[18] or "the bombardment of
the drawbridge."[19] But, to our mind, the case at bar merely
constitutes a "shelling of the castle of orgasmic potency," or as
earlier stated, a "strafing of the citadel of passion."
a. Simple
b. Qualified
***Art. 335 of the Revised Penal Code, which provides
Art. 335. When and how rape is committed. - Rape is committed by
having carnal knowledge of a woman under any of the following
circumstances:
1. By using force or intimidation;
2. When the woman is deprived of reason or otherwise
unconscious; and
3. When the woman is under twelve years of age, even
though neither of the circumstances mentioned in the
two next preceding paragraphs shall be present.
The crime of rape shall be punished by reclusion perpetua.

B.) Cybercrimes as governed by RA 10175

(Cybercime Prevention Act of 2012)

2012 that they have paid for sex with a prostitute.

80,000 men are customers of the sex trade on the
island of Bali, Indonesia.
**Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are passed
from one person to another through unprotected sex or
genital contact.

Chlamydia

Cybercrimes are any crime that is committed using a

computer, a network, or hardware device. Attacks include keystroke
loggers, viruses, root kits or Trojan horses, phishing, pharming,
theft or manipulation of data or services via hacking or viruses,
identity theft and bank or e-commerce fraud. From the viewpoint of
the Council of Europe on the Convention on Cybercrime which is the only
binding international instrument on issue, cybercrime is one of the most
global of all transnational crimes and it poses major challenges for the law
enforcement and criminal justice systems (Council of Europe 2009).

Chlamydia is the most common STI in the UK and is easily passed

on during sex. Most people don't experience any symptoms, so
they are unaware they're infected. In women, chlamydia can cause
pain or a burning sensation when urinating, a vaginal discharge,
pain in the lower abdomen during or after sex, and bleeding during
or after sex or between periods. It can also cause heavy periods.
In men, chlamydia can cause pain or a burning sensation when
urinating, a white, cloudy or watery discharge from the tip of the
penis, and pain or tenderness in the testicles.
It's also possible to have a chlamydia infection in your rectum
(bottom), throat or eyes. Diagnosing chlamydia is done with a urine
test or by taking a swab of the affected area. The infection is easily
treated with antibiotics, but can lead to serious long-term health
problems if left untreated, including infertility.
Genital warts
Genital warts are small fleshy growths, bumps or skin changes that
appear on or around your genital or anal area. They're caused by
the human papilloma virus (HPV) and are the second most common
STI in England after chlamydia.
The warts are usually painless, but you may notice some itching or
redness. Occasionally, they can cause bleeding.
You don't need to have penetrative sex to pass the infection on
because HPV is spread by skin-to-skin contact.
Several treatments are available for genital warts, including creams
and freezing the warts (cryotherapy).
Read more about genital warts.
Genital herpes
Genital herpes is a common infection caused by the herpes simplex
virus (HSV), which is the same virus that causes cold sores.
Some people develop symptoms of HSV a few days after coming
into contact with the virus. Small, painful blisters or sores usually
develop, which may cause itching or tingling, or make it painful to
urinate.
After you've been infected, the virus remains dormant (inactive)

NETIQUETTE by Virginia Shea: (Internet etiquette)

Rule 1: Remember the Human
Rule 2: Adhere to the same standards of behavior online that you
follow in real life
Rule 3: Know where you are in cyberspace
Rule 4: Respect other people's time and bandwidth
Rule 5: Make yourself look good online
Rule 6: Share expert knowledge
Rule 7: Help keep flame wars under control
Rule 8: Respect other people's privacy
Rule 9: Don't abuse your power
Rule 10: Be forgiving of other people's mistakes

most of the time. However, certain triggers can reactivate the virus,
causing the blisters to develop again, although they're usually
smaller and less painful.
It's easier to test for HSV if you have symptoms. Although there's no
cure for genital herpes, the symptoms can usually be controlled
using antiviral medicines.
Gonorrhoea
Gonorrhoea is a bacterial STI easily passed on during sex. About
50% of women and 10% of men don't experience any symptoms
and are unaware they're infected.
In women, gonorrhoea can cause pain or a burning sensation when
urinating, a vaginal discharge (often watery, yellow or green), pain
in the lower abdomen during or after sex, and bleeding during or
after sex or between periods, sometimes causing heavy periods.
In men, gonorrhoea can cause pain or a burning sensation when
urinating, a white, yellow or green discharge from the tip of the
penis, and pain or tenderness in the testicles.
It's also possible to have a gonorrhoea infection in your rectum,
throat or eyes.
Gonorrhoea is diagnosed using a urine test or by taking a swab of
the affected area. The infection is easily treated with antibiotics, but
can lead to serious long-term health problems if left untreated,
including infertility.
Read more about gonorrhoea.
Syphilis
Syphilis is a bacterial infection that in the early stages causes a
painless, but highly infectious, sore on your genitals or around the
mouth. The sore can last up to six weeks before disappearing.
Secondary symptoms such as a rash, flu-like illness or patchy hair
lossmay then develop. These may disappear within a few weeks,
after which you'll have a symptom-free phase.
The late or tertiary stage of syphilis usually occurs after many years,
and can cause serious conditions such as heart
problems, paralysisand blindness.
The symptoms of syphilis can be difficult to recognise.
A simple blood test can usually be used to diagnose syphilis at any
stage. The condition can be treated with antibiotics, usually
penicillin injections. When syphilis is treated properly, the later
stages can be prevented.

4.) Teenage Relationships (Excerpts: Adolescent Romantic

Relationships by Sarah Sorensen)
Young people spend a great deal of time thinking
about, talking about, and being in romantic relationships
(Furman, 2002), yet adults typically dismiss adolescent
dating relationships as superficial. Young people do not
agree: half of all teens report having been in a dating
relationship and nearly one-third of all teens said they
have been in a serious relationship (Teenage Research
Unlimited, 2006). Although most adolescent relationships
last for only a few weeks or months, these early
relationships play a pivotal role in the lives of adolescents
and are important to developing the capacity for long-term,
committed relationships in adulthood. The quality of
adolescent romantic relationships can have long lasting
effects on self-esteem and shape personal values
regarding romance, intimate relationships, and sexuality
(Barber & Eccles, 2003). This article discusses the
importance of romantic relationships to youth and youth
development, including the benefits of healthy
relationships, the risks romantic relationships may pose to
adolescents, and the need for adults to support young
people in developing healthy relationships.
Risks of Adolescent Romantic Relationships
While healthy romantic relationships have many
potential benefits for youth, unhealthy relationships pose
risks that may have long-lasting impact. Youth are
particularly vulnerable to becoming involved in
relationships that include dating violence and risky sexual
activity. In fact, teens report dating abuse more often than
any other age group (National Center for Injury Prevention
and Control, 2006).
Abuse. Adolescents in dating relationships are at
great risk for experiencing verbal, emotional, and physical
abuse from their partners. A majority of teens (61 percent)
who have been in relationships report that a partner has
made them feel bad or embarrassed about themselves.
More than one-fourth (27 percent) of dating teens said that
they have a partner call them names or put them down.
Nearly one-third (30 percent) of teens who have been in
relationships said that they have worried about being
physically hurt by a partner and 15 percent said they have
been hit, slapped, or pushed by a partner (Teenage
Research Unlimited, 2006). Dating violence is not limited
to heterosexual youth. One study found that sexual
minority youth are more likely to have experienced dating
violence than other students (Massachusetts Department
of Education, 2003). Involvement in abusive relationships
can have lasting consequences for youth. Teens who have

Read more about syphilis.

experienced physical dating abuse are more likely to be

involved in intimate partner violence as adults (National
Center for Injury Prevention and Control, 2006).

HIV
HIV is most commonly passed on through unprotected sex. It can
also be transmitted by coming into contact with infected blood for
example, sharing needles to inject steroids or drugs.
The HIV virus attacks and weakens the immune system, making it
less able to fight infections and disease. There's no cure for HIV, but
there are treatments that allow most people to live a long and
otherwise healthy life.
AIDS is the final stage of an HIV infection, when your body can no
longer fight life-threatening infections.
Most people with HIV look and feel healthy and have no symptoms.
When you first develop HIV, you may experience a flu-like illness
with a fever, sore throat or rash. This is called a seroconversion
illness.
A simple blood test is usually used to test for an HIV infection.
Some clinics may also offer a rapid test using a finger-prick blood
test or saliva sample.
Read more about HIV and AIDS and coping with a positive HIV test.
Trichomoniasis
Trichomoniasis is an STI caused by a tiny parasite called
Trichomonas vaginalis (TV). It can be easily passed on through sex
and most people don't know they're infected.
In women, trichomoniasis can cause a frothy yellow or watery
vaginal discharge that has an unpleasant smell, soreness or itching
around the vagina, and pain when passing urine.
In men, trichomoniasis rarely causes symptoms. You may
experience pain or burning after passing urine, a whitish discharge,
or an inflamed foreskin. Trichomoniasis can sometimes be difficult
to diagnose and your GP may suggest you go to a specialist clinic
for a urine or swab test. Once diagnosed, it can usually be treated
with antibiotics.
Pubic lice
Pubic lice ("crabs") are easily passed to others through close genital
contact. They're usually found in pubic hair, but can live in underarm
hair, body hair, beards and occasionally eyebrows or eyelashes.
The lice crawl from hair to hair but don't jump or fly from person to
person. It may take several weeks for you to notice any symptoms.
Most people experience itching, and you may notice the lice or eggs
on the hairs.

STDs and Premature Pregnancy. Dating relationships

also put teens at risk of sexually transmitted infections and
pregnancy (Furman, 2002). The strongest predictor for
having sexual intercourse in 7th through 12th grades is
recent involvement in a romantic relationship (Bouchey &
Furman, 2003). A significant minority of teens in romantic
relationships report feeling pressure to engage in sexual
activity. One out of four teens report that having sex is
expected if you are in a relationship and almost one-third
of teen girls who had been in a relationship said that they
have been pressured to have sex or engage in sexual acts
when they did not want to. Additionally, nearly one-fourth
of teen girls reported that they have gone further sexually
in a relationship then they wanted to (Teenage Research
Unlimited, 2006). Sexual activity can, of course, have
long-term consequences. Almost one-third of sexually
active girls report having been pregnant (Suellentrop &
Flanigan, 2006) and one out of two sexually active young
people can expect to become infected with an STD by age
25 (Center for Health and Healthcare in Schools, 2004).
Acceptance of Unhealthy Relationships. Research
suggests that some teens are accepting of unhealthy
relationships. Over one out of four youth say that it is okay
for a significant other to be really jealous at times
(Teenage Research Unlimited, 2006). One study found
significant tolerance for sexual coercion among young
teens (ages 12-14) with 34% of boys reporting that it was
okay to pressure a girl to have sex if they had previously
had sex (Albert, Brown, & Flanigan, 2003).
5.) Bullying (Excerpt from: C. Johnson, 2013- Forms of
Bullying, Implications, Demographics, and a Review of
Anti-Bullying Prevention Programs)
Bullying has quickly become a major issue in schools today. Bullying does
not only impact the bullied, but also impacts the bully and individuals who
observe the bullying
(Coloroso, 2004). The bully, bullied, and bystander can each suffer from
an array of psychological and physical problems that stem from the
bullying. In addition, students may also suffer from relational issues
caused by bullying (Coloroso, 2004; Crick & Grotpeter, 1995). Four forms
of bullying are defined: physical, verbal, relational, and cyberbullying.
Verbal bullying has been found to be the most common type of bullying,
but relational and cyberbullying are on the rise (Sharp, 1995; Slonje &
Smith, 2008). Demographic differences exist in bullying behavior and for
the reasons behind bullying. The Olweus Bullying Prevention
Program has been shown to be a valuable tool in the school setting
(Olweus, 1993). Suggestions are made for further research and important
roles for all individuals involved in the bullying.

Pubic lice can usually be successfully treated with special creams

or shampoos available over the counter in most pharmacies or from
a GP or GUM clinic. You don't need to shave off your pubic hair or
body hair.
.
Scabies
Scabies is caused by tiny mites that burrow into the skin. It can be
passed on through close body or sexual contact, or from infected
clothing, bedding or towels.
If you develop scabies, you may have intense itching that's worse at
night. The itching can be in your genital area, but it also often
occurs between your fingers, on wrists and ankles, under your
arms, or on your body and breasts.
You may have a rash or tiny spots. In some people, scabies can be
confused with eczema. It's usually very difficult to see the mites.
Scabies can usually be successfully treated using special creams or
shampoos available over the counter in most pharmacies, or from a
GP or GUM clinic. The itching can sometimes continue for a short
period, even after effective treatment.

6.) Abortion and Teenage Pregnancy

A.) Abortion in the Philippines (Fact Sheets;
Center for Reproductive Rights)
The Center for Reproductive Rights works nationally and
internationally to expand access to reproductive healthcare for
women around the world. We have conducted years of investigative
research into the status of reproductive rights in
the Philippines.
The facts are as follows:
For over a century, abortion has been criminalized in the
Philippines. The criminal provisions on abortion do not
contain a clear exception allowing abortion, including to save
the life of the pregnant woman or to protect her health.
Abortion was criminalized through the Penal Code of 1870 under
Spanish colonial rule, and the criminal provisions were incorporated
into the Revised Penal Code passed in 1930 under U.S. occupation
of the Philippines. The criminalization of abortion has not prevented
abortion, but instead has made the procedure unsafe and
potentially deadly for the over half a million women each year who
try to terminate their pregnancies.
In 2008 alone, the Philippines criminal abortion ban
was estimated to result in the deaths of at least 1,000 women
and complications for 90,000 more.
Physicians and midwives who perform
abortions in the Philippines with the consent of a pregnant
woman may face up to six years in prison under the Revised

In the PHILIPPINES:
R.A. 10627 Anti-Bullying Act

Penal Code. These criminal punishments are supplemented by

separate laws that prescribe sanctions for a range of medical
professionals and health workers such as doctors, midwives, and
pharmacists for performing abortions or dispensing abortifacients
such as the Medical Act, the Midwifery Act, and the
Pharmaceutical Act. According to these laws, these practitioners
may have their license to practice suspended or revoked if caught
engaging in abortion-related activities.
Women who undergo abortion for any reason may be
punished by imprisonment for two to
six years.
Because of the lack of access to safe abortion, Filipino women
with life-threatening pregnancies have no choice
but to risk their lives, either through unsafe abortion or
through continuation of high-risk pregnancies. Poor women are
particularly vulnerable to unsafe abortion and its complications, as
they face barriers in obtaining effective means of family planning
and lack access to reproductive health services. Common physical
complications that arise from the use of such crude and dangerous
methods include hemorrhage, sepsis, peritonitis, and trauma to the
cervix, vagina, uterus, and abdominal organs.
The criminal abortion ban has stigmatized the procedure in the
medical community, so that women face tremendous barriers
and significant abuse when they seek treatment for abortion
complications. Filipino women who seek treatment for
complications from unsafe abortion have repeatedly reported that
the stigma around abortion means that healthcare workers are
unwilling to provide care or only treat women after punishing those
who have undergone abortions by threatening to report them to the
police, harassing women verbally and physically,
or delaying care.
Filipino women who have undergone unsafe abortions for
health reasons report that healthcare workers have not been
sympathetic to their situation, but instead continue to abuse
and threaten them. The stigma surrounding abortion is
perpetuated by the Government of the Philippines
acquiescence to the demands of the Catholic hierarchy,
including
the Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines (CBCP).
The strength of the Catholic hierarchys influence in the
Philippines was evident in 1987, when Catholic bishops and leaders
succeeded in making the 1987 Constitution the first Philippines
constitution ever to recognize a government obligation to protect
the life of the unborn from conception. The Government of the
Philippines continues to permit the CBCP to undermine womens
health even today by conceding to its demands to deprive women of
a range of reproductive health services, including access to
contraception for poor women, comprehensive family planning
counseling, and sex education. As a result of the criminal abortion
law and the discriminatory environment in the Philippines,
women are left without a means to control their fertility, exposed to
unsafe abortions, and made vulnerable to abuse in the health
system.

B.) Teenage Pregnancy (UNICEF, FACT SHEET

2008)
Teenage pregnancy is defined as a teenage girl, usually within
the ages of 13-19, becoming pregnant. The term in everyday
speech usually refers to girls who have not reached legal adulthood,
which
varies across the world, who become pregnant.
THE CURRENT SITUATION
Half of the worlds population are under 25. Some 1.8 billion are
aged 10-25, historys largest generation of adolescents, and about
85% live in the developing world.
Most people become sexually active before their 20th birthday.
49% of girls in least developed countries marry before they turn
18.
10% 40% of young unmarried girls have had an unintended
pregnancy according to community studies.
Some 14 million children worldwide are born every year to young
married and unmarried women aged 15 to 19.
CAUSES OF TEEN PREGNANCIES
Teen pregnancies may result for different reasons in industrialised
countries as compared to developing countries. Factors that
contribute to teenage pregnancies include:
Customs and traditions that lead to early marriage (developing
countries)
Adolescent sexual behaviour which may also be influenced by
alcohol and drugs
Lack of education and information about reproductive sexual
health including lack of access to
tools that prevent pregnancies
Peer pressure to engage in sexual activity
Incorrect use of contraception
Sexual abuse that leads to rape
Poverty
Exposure to abuse, violence and family strife at home
Low self esteem
Low educational ambitions and goals
TEEN PREGNANCY: LIFE OUTCOMES ON A
TEEN MOTHER, HER CHILD AND SIBLINGS
Research indicates that teen pregnancy and motherhood can have
detrimental socio economic and
psychological outcomes for the teen mother, her child, and her
young siblings.
a) A teen mother is more likely to:
drop out of school
have no or low qualifications
be unemployed or low-paid
live in poor housing conditions
suffer from depression which may result in suicide
live on welfare
b) The child of a teen mother is more likely to:
live in poverty
grow up without a father
become a victim of neglect or abuse
do less well at school

 become involved in crime

abuse drugs and alcohol
eventually become a teenage parent and begin the cycle all over
again

c) The younger sibling of a teen mother is more likely to:

accept sexual initiation and marriage at a younger age
place less importance on education and employment
TEEN PREGNANCY: MEDICAL OUTCOMES
Research indicates that pregnant teens are less likely to
receive prenatal care, often seeking it only in the third
trimester, if at all.
As a result of insufficient prenatal care, the global incidence
of premature births and low birth weight is higher amongst
teenage mothers.
Risks for medical complications are greater for girls 14 years
of age and younger, as an underdeveloped pelvis can lead to
difficulties in childbirth.
Young women under 20 face a higher risk of obstructed
labour, which if Caesarean section is not available can cause
an obstetric fistula, a tear in the birth canal that creates
leakage of urine and/or faeces. At least 2 million of the worlds
poorest women live with fistulas.
Complications during pregnancy and delivery are the
leading causes of death for girls aged 15 to 19 in developing
countries. They are twice as likely to die in childbirth as
women in their 20s.
Teenage girls account for 14% of the estimated 20 million
unsafe abortions performed each year, which result in some
68,000 deaths.
TEEN PREGNANCY: STIs, HIV AND AIDS
As a result of unprotected sex, young people are also at risk of
sexually transmitted diseases and HIV infection.
The highest rates of STIs worldwide are among young people
aged 15 to 24. Some 500,000 become infected daily (excluding
HIV).
Two in five new HIV infections globally occur in young people
aged 15 to 24.
Surveys from 40 countries show that more than half their young
people have misconceptions about how HIV is transmitted.
Married adolescent girls generally are unable to negotiate condom
use or to refuse sexual relations. They are often married to older
men with more sexual experience, which puts them at risk of
contracting STIs, including HIV.
FAMILY PLANNING AND YOUNG PEOPLE: CHALLENGES
Many societies, including in Malaysia, disapprove of premarital
sex.
As a result, young people have limited or no access to education
and information on reproductive sexual health care.
Modern contraceptive use among adolescents is generally low,
and decreases with economic
status. Fewer than 5% of the poorest young use modern

contraception.
Young women consistently report less contraceptive usage than
men, evidence of their unequal power in negotiating safer sex or
restrictions on their access to services (such as lack of information,
shame, laws, health provider attitudes and practices, or social
norms).
Young people may hesitate to visit clinics because of lack of
privacy and confidentiality, inconvenient locations and hours, high
costs, limited contraceptive choices and supplies, and perhaps most
importantly, negative or judgmental provider attitudes.
Laws and policies also may restrict adolescents access to
information and services, for example, by limiting family planning to
married people or requiring parental or spousal consent.
A basic challenge in advocacy, especially in traditional societies, is
the taboo on public discussion of sexual issues, including the fact
that many young people are sexually active before marriage.

7.) Culture of Corruption in Governance

-The Presence of oligarchic political system
-A question of transparent and ethical governance
8.) Gentrification
Gentrification is a process of renovation and revival of
deteriorated urban neighborhoods by means of influx of
more affluent residents, which results in increased
property values and the displacing of lower-income
families and small businesses. Gentrification has been
viewed (at a minimum) as an unfortunate desecration of
interesting and authentic urban neighborhoods, a
dilution of vibrant ethnic neighborhoods into something
that is bland and uninteresting. At worst, the critics of
gentrification have viewed the phenomenon as a major
source of disadvantage for low income urban residents
who, having established a community with all of its
complex social networks must now see it torn apart as
they are displaced either by choice or compulsion to
move to other housing that is less desirable or
alternatively remain behind to pay higher rents in a
neighborhood they no longer feel is their own. The risk of
displacement from gentrification was capable of changing
the incentives that residents have to engage in any of the
variety of activities that can improve a community. The
risk of displacement that is characteristic of gentrification
imposes a social cost on the neighborhood. This cost is
borne by the community as a whole and not by only those
persons who are poor or those who are displaced.

9.) Sexting (Excerpt from: Alimen & Alimen. Sexting

and the Filipino Youth)
Sexting is defined as the act of text messaging
someone in the hopes of having a sexual encounter with
them later; initially casual, transitioning into highly
suggestive and even sexually explicit. Sexting has
become a fad nowadays and such practice brought about
by technology has led a lot of young individuals to a
disadvantaged situation. Just recently, in the Philippines

has been shaken by the scandalous sex video by two

prominent people in show business and more recently
both have been exposed and subjected to public
humiliation and condemnation.
The Latest Cellphone Use: Sexting writes that sexting has created a
lot of problems in the United States. He says that by using the text
messaging service on their cell phones, teenagers engage in
sexting by sending flirtatious messages back and forth (Wagner,
2009:66). Although innocent adolescent flirting via cell phones may
be harmless enough, he emphasizes, however, over time the text
messages may become more sexually explicit in nature, even
referring to or requesting specific sexual acts and behaviors.
Though sexting is still an early phenomenon and little to no
research has been conducted yet, it can be assumed that at least
some of these cell phone communications lead to actual physical
sexual encounters.
This trend has become according to experts moves well beyond
simple text messaging. Teenagers now utilize the digital cameras on
their phones and MMS (multimedia messaging service) technology,
to take sexually charged photos of themselves and send them to
other individuals phones. To Quote Detective Brian Marvin, a
member of the FBI Cyber Crime Task Force, he says, Ive seen
everything from your basic striptease to sexual acts being
performed. With many cameras now having the capability of
recording short videos, both photos and videos are being sent.
Sending nude photos and video via cell phones has become so
commonplace with teens in the United States.
The thing that that makes Filipino teenagers (respondents of this
investigation) different from others is their faith in Christ, a faith that
stirs their conscience to go deeper into this issue of sexting. No
matter what their religion is, they stand firm that sexting is satans
ploy, it is immoral, it is a criminal act, it is bad and they value their
virginity. We realized that like what Christiana Zipay had asserted in
What's Wrong With Sexting, stating that while the practical
consequences of this world may be harsh, the spiritual
consequences of sexting have the potential to be even more
devastating.

Primary References:
Agpaoa, F. & Sanchez, C. (1997). Contemporary Social Problems and Issues. National Bookstore, Mandaluyong City
Beidel, D. et. al (2012). Abnormal Psychology. Pearson Publishing
Hogg, M. & Vaughan, G. (2010). Essentials of Social Psychology. Pearson Publishing.
Kosslyn, S. & Rosenberg, R. (2011). Abnormal Psychology. Worth Publishers