An Introduction to

Laboratory Measurements

INTRODUCTION
Goals of the laboratory:
The exercise is intended to:
Introduce methods used for mass, length, and solution volume measurements.
Introduce accuracy and precision and their relationships to systematic error and random
error, to percent error and coefficient of variation, and to significant figures.
Show how a spreadsheet program (Excel) may be used as part of data analysis.

Introduction
Precision, Accuracy, and Errors:
Chemistry is an experimental science, and relies heavily on measurements. Results found
from measurements cannot be any better than the quality of the measurements themselves.
Two terms used to describe the quality of experimental measurements (and their results) are
precision and accuracy. These terms are often used as if they were interchangeable, but in
fact they are very distinct. They are distinguished by their relationships to random errors and
systematic errors.
A random error in a measurement will be as likely to produce results that are too high as
too low.
" Random error is sometimes referred to as scatter, the inability of a measurements
results to land in the same place consistently.
" Because random error is as likely to be too high as too low, averaging several results
together will tend to make the result more reliable than a single measurement, i.e.,
random errors tend to cancel out when you average together many measurements.
" Random error is closely related to precision, as discussed further below.
A systematic error causes results to be consistently either too high or consistently too low.
" Systematic error is sometimes referred to as bias, the tendency of a measurements
results to prefer error in a particular direction.
" Because systematic error gives measured values that are consistently too high or too
low, averaging several results together will not improve the average value.
" Systematic error is closely related to accuracy, as discussed further below.
So how are these related to precision and accuracy?

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 Precision describes how close measurements (or results) are to each other.
" Precision is a measure of the reproducibility of values multiple precise
measurements will give essentially the same numerical values.
" Good precision implies the absence of significant random error (scatter).
" Precision is related to the uncertainty in a measured or calculated value.
" Precision may be evaluated from:
< Standard deviation this is a statistics-based measurement that accounts for
normal distribution in the size of random errors. Standard deviation is discussed
more below.
< Coefficient of variation (CV) is simply an expression of standard deviation as a
percentage of average value. CV is discussed further below.
Accuracy describes how well a measurement (or result) is to the correct value, at least on
average.
" Accuracy can be thought of as the correctness of a measurement value.
" Good accuracy requires the absence of significant systematic error (bias).
" Accuracy may be evaluated from:
< Error how far the measured value is from the true value. If the error is given
without sign (absolute value), it may be termed absolute error.
< Percent error a measurement of error compared to the value itself (discussed a
bit later).
" Note the effect of averaging on accuracy:
< If only random errors are present, averaging multiple values improves accuracy
the random errors tend to cancel out.
< When systematic errors are present, averaged values will remain inaccurate
systematic errors (biases) will always make the values too high or always too low.
Quality of measurements
Good measurements should be both accurate and precise. For example, measurement of
cholesterol in blood is a routine part of medical screening. Different methods for measuring
total cholesterol can be compared by looking at their results for a standard sample, i.e., a
sample known to contain a certain cholesterol concentration, say 125 mg/dL (milligrams per
deciliter, a common used concentration unit in medical circles). Results of five replicate
measurements on 125 mg/dL standards using three different methods (Methods A, B, and C)
are shown in Table 1 and depicted graphically in Figure 1 on the next page.
For Method A, the average value of 123 mg/dL is only slightly below (2 mg/dL) the true
value of 125 mg/dL, so the accuracy is very good. The values are all fairly close to each other
as reflected in the standard deviation (3.2 mg/dL), which is actually good precision for this
type of measurement. The data does not show any bias (systematic error) results are about
as likely to be high as low, and the random error (evaluated in the standard deviation) is
relatively small. Well look at ways of quantifying both the difference from the true value and
the amount of random error in a later section.

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Table 1. Measurement of 125 mg/dL total cholesterol samples for Methods A, B, and C.

Method A
124 mg/dL
121 mg/dL
120 mg/dL
128 mg/dL
122 mg/dL
Average:
123 mg/dL
Standard deviation: 3.2 mg/dL

Method B
106 mg/dL
103 mg/dL
109 mg/dL
108 mg/dL
99 mg/dL
105 mg/dL
4.1 mg/dL

Method C
105 mg/dL
137 mg/dL
94 mg/dL
141 mg/dL
133 mg/dL
122 mg/dL
22

Figure 1. Graphical depiction showing results of cholesterol measurements for Methods A, B,

and C.

We can evaluate Methods B and C in a similar manner. The average value for Method B is
distinctly low (105 mg/dL for measured versus 125 mg/dL for true), and values are
consistently low, so this method has systematic error (bias) and is inaccurate. However, its
standard deviation, 4.1 mg/dL, is roughly the same as for Method A, so its precision is not very
bad. This is an example of measurement with poor accuracy but with good precision.
In contrast, the average value for Method C is close to the true value, and its overall
accuracy is similar to that of Method A. Results are as likely to be high as low, and so it does
not appear that the method has a lot of systematic error / bias. However, there is a lot of
variation in results from measurement to measurement, indicated by the large value for the
standard deviation, 22 mg/dL. This indicates that there is a high random error and poor
precision. Even though the accuracy of Method C is similar to that of Method A, it is a distinctly
poorer method: poor precision means that many readings must be averaged together to get
a good value for Method C.

INTRODUCTION TO LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS - Exp. 1 - 3

Evaluating Precision and Accuracy:

Evaluating Precision Standard Deviation and Coefficient of Variation:
Standard deviation*, s, is a statisticsbased quantity that reflects the
reproducibility of a series of
measurements. The box on the right
shows the calculation for standard
deviation: xi represent each of the experimentally measured values, xavg represents their
average, and n is the number of measurements.
If the measurements are very reproducible, each xi value will be close to the average
value, then each (xi xavg)2 term in the summation will be very small, and the standard
deviation will be small. Conversely, if the reproducibility is poor, individual xi values will differ
from xavg, the terms in the summation will be large, and the standard deviation will be large.
Note that standard deviations are calculated from differences of numbers that are often very
close. Because of this, the appropriate number of significant figures is much lower than the
number of significant figures in the data. Express standard deviations with at most two
significant figures (and 1 significant figure is often satisfactory). Simply put, the imprecision
in the data cannot be calculated precisely. For example, for the Method A data, the standard
deviation comes out to be 3.2 mg/dL (the 2" in 3.2 is subscripted to indicate that it really is not
known well).
Standard deviation, by itself, is not a good indicator of precision. A standard deviation of
3.2 would be very small compared to an average value of, say, 50,000, moderate compared to
an average value of 123, and very large compared to an average value of 8.0.
Coefficient of variation, CV: Precision is better expressed by
comparing the standard deviation to the average value. Coefficient of
variation, CV, is simply the standard deviation expressed as a percentage
of the (absolute) average value, as shown on the right.
For Method A, with an average value of 123 mg/dL and
a standard deviation of 3.2 mg/dL, the CV would be 2.6%, as
shown on the right. For Method B, the standard deviation
is 4.1 mg/dL and the CV = 3.9%. For Method C, the standard
deviation is 21 mg/dL and the CV is 17%.
CV values for good methods vary tremendously. For total cholesterol measurements, a
CV of under 3% is considered good (National Cholesterol Education Program standard). For
many other types of analyses, CV values should be much lower, while for others, larger CVs
are acceptable. CVs for some of the measurements you will carry out in this lab should be well
below 1%.
* Manual calculation of standard deviation is tedious, and you will never be expected to calculate standard
deviation manually for this course. Scientific calculators routinely have built-in programs for calculating
standard deviations, and it is worthwhile consulting your calculators instruction manual to find out how to
do that (you should be able to find an instruction manual for just about any calculator from the
manufacturers website). Excel has a built-in function for calculating standard deviation (and average). Use

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Evaluating Accuracy Error and Percent Error:

The simplest way of evaluating accuracy is to calculate the error in the measured value, i.e.,
the difference between the measured and true or reference value. The absolute error is simply
the absolute value of the difference:
Absolute error = | xavg xreference |
Accuracy is more commonly evaluated by calculating
the percent error in results, where the absolute
difference is expressed as a percentage of the
reference value. The calculation is shown on the
right, where the xreference is the true value to which
the average experimental value, xavg, is compared. For example, revisiting the results of
Method A, the average value was 123 mg/dL and the reference value was 125 mg/dL, so the
percent error would be:
Clarification about significant figures: The values
123 and 125 both have three significant figures,
so why is the final result, 2%, expressed to only
1 significant figure?
The calculation involves subtracting 125 from
123, and that difference, 2 (the absolute error),
has only 1 significant figure (addition/
subtraction rules). Hence, the final result is
rounded to only 1 significant figure.

Similar calculations for Methods B and C give

% errors of 16% and 2%. These calculations show that Method A and Method C have similar
accuracies (both about 2%), but the accuracy of Method B is much worse.
What constitutes a good or bad %error? That depends a lot on the type of
measurement. For some types of measurements, errors exceeding 0.5% would be considered
very bad, while for others, errors of 10% or more might be considered perfectly acceptable.
For total cholesterol measurements, up to 3% error is considered acceptable (National
Cholesterol Education Program standard). Guidelines for acceptable error will be provided
with individual labs.

Table 2. Summary of distinctions between accuracy and precision.

Term

Meaning:

Related to:

Evaluate using:

Accuracy

Closeness of measured
value to true value;
Correctness

Systematic error / bias

Error (absolute) and

Percent error

Precision

Closeness of measured
values to each other;
Reproducibility

Random error / scatter

/ uncertainty

Standard deviation (s)

and coefficient of
variation (CV)

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Precision and significant figures: The significant digits in a number are defined as all digits
that are known plus the first one that is uncertain. Lets see how that relates to the standard
deviation of a measured value.
One way to look at the results for Methods A and C is to express their average values along
with their standard deviations:
Method A: 123 3.2 mg/dL

Method C: 122 21 mg/dL

The standard deviation tells you that there is uncertainty in the final digit for each of these
values. For Method A, there is uncertainty in the units position (in the 3"), so it is appropriate
to write the value with three significant figures, as 123 mg/dL this shows all of the digits that
are known (the 1" and 2"), plus the first one with uncertainty (3").
In contrast, for Method C, there is uncertainly in the tens position (in the first 2"). This
value should really be expressed as 120 (or better, 1.2102) mg/dL, i. e., to two significant
figures. You should normally truncate average values at the same decimal place as the first
digit of the standard deviation. See Table 3 for examples.
Table 3. Truncating numbers based on standard deviation
Value:

Std Dev:

Round to:
2

Comment:

923

230

910 (900)

Uncertainty in 100's place

0.0923

0.0021

0.092

Uncertainty in 0.001 place

0.0923

0.00021

0.0923

Uncertainty in the 0.0001 place

Dimension measurements (length, width, etc.): In the laboratory, dimensions may be

measured using equipment as widely varied as meter sticks, micrometers, and specialized
electronic equipment. For this lab, measurements will be made using centimeter-based rulers,
with millimeter divisions marked.
When using a typical ruler, you must
recognize that you should record not just
the digits that are known with certainty,
but also the first digit that you need to
estimate, as illustrated in Figure 2.
The final digit in a measured value
should always represent an estimate. In
the Figure 2 example, the actual length Figure 2. Recording length with a centimeter
may be a bit different than 4.82 cm, e..g, ruler. The sample object extends a bit past the 4.8
4.808 cm or 4.831 cm. The value 4.82 cm cm mark, and the next digit can be estimated as
2. The length should be represented as 4.82 cm.
is not a perfect value, but it is simply a
better representation of the value than
simply 4.8 cm.
The same is true for mass measurements made with a balance or virtually any other
measuring device: the last digit will often vary from measurement to measurement, so
the final value represents an estimated value.

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Mass measurements:
Mass is measured using
balances, which are normally characterized by their
precision or readability, the smallest mass difference that
can be read. The balances usually used for CHM161 are
milligram-precision electronic balances (see Figure 3),
i.e., they are readable to 0.001 g.
The accuracy of any balance depends on proper
calibration adjustments made so that the balance gives
the correct reading for a sample with precisely known
mass. Calibration is carried out by faculty and staff.
The precision of a balances readings depends partly
on the quality of the balance, but also on the balances
environment. For example, local air currents (drafts) Figure 3. Electronic balance.
and vibrations will cause variations in readings and lead
to poor precision. The precision of measurements made with a milligram-precision balance
may be poorer than 1 mg if the balance is in, for example, an room with drafts or vibrations.
Precision can be significantly affected by the users (your!) technique.
Taring a balance: Modern electronic balances allow you to zero the reading with a sample
holder (e.g., a weighing boat, beaker, etc.) in place so that the reading you observe represents
just the sample, not the sample + container. The weight of the container is called the tare
weight, and adjusting the balance to compensate for this is referred to as taring the balance.
Volume measurements: Different types of glassware may be employed, depending on the
reliability (precision and accuracy) required.

Figure 4. a. Erlenmeyer
(conical) flask; b. beaker.

Figure 5. Graduated
cylinder.

Figure 6. a. Glass pipet (inset:

calibration mark); b. mechanical pipet.

C Beakers and Erlenmeyer (conical) flasks (Figure 4) are adequate when only rough
measurements are required. Measurements using the calibration marks on beakers and
flasks may be off by 5-10% or more.
C Graduated cylinders (Figure 5) are generally reliable to a few percent.
C Pipets (Figure 6) generally have very good accuracy and precision (% errors and CVs
usually below 0.5%). Conventional glass pipets provide excellent volume measurements,
but are not adjustable, and are relatively slow to use. Mechanical pipets (pipetters) can be
equally accurate and precise, allow rapid measurements, and are often adjustable.
However, they generally become less reliable for larger volumes.
INTRODUCTION TO LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS - Exp. 1 - 7

Density
Density calculations show up in a few places in this lab. Density is simply the ratio of mass
to volume, as indicated in Equation (1) below. For solids and liquids, density is usually
expressed in units of grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3) or grams per milliliter (g/mL). Since
a cubic centimeter is the same as a milliliter, these are numerically the same.

One way to find the density of a material is to measure both its mass and volume. The mass
of a sample may be determined using a balance. Its volume may be measured in a variety of
ways, including measuring dimensions and calculating volume, measuring volume directly (for
a liquid), or measuring volume displacement when the sample submerged in a liquid. In the
first part of this lab, you will measure the dimensions of a solid sample and calculate its
volume. As part of the data analysis, you will calculate the samples density from its mass and
volume.
If a samples density is known, measurement of its mass allows you to find its volume, or
measurement of its volume allows you to calculate its mass. In the second part of this lab, you
will measure the mass of water delivered using different equipment (graduated cylinders and
mechanical pipets), and calculate its volume (see Equation (2) above).
If a samples density is known and its volume is measured, its mass may be calculated
(Equation (3)).

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Experimental
Procedure overview: You will carry out the following steps:
Make measurements on the mass and dimensions of a series of objects, all made of the
same material. The mass measurements will be made using a milligram-precision balance,
and the dimensions will be made using a ruler with millimeter divisions. You will use your
data to calculate:
" The volume of each object (from the dimensions)
" The density of each object (from mass and volume)
" The average value, standard deviation, and coefficient of variation (CV) for the density
values.
" Given the true density of the material, you will also evaluate the percent error.
Measure the temperature of a water sample so that its density may be determined.
Make several measurements on the mass of 4 mL portions of water, measured using a
mechanical pipet.
" From the mass of the water and the density determined in the previous step, you can
calculate the waters volume.
" You will use these results to calculate the average value, standard deviation, CV, and
percent error for the volume measurement.
ALWAYS record your data directly onto your data sheet. Record data to the number of
digits appropriate for the measurement, with units.
Part I. Mass and dimensions measurements to find density:
Dimensions of series of objects:
1. Your working area will have a set of 4 or 5 objects, either cylinders or rectangular blocks,
all made from the same material and labeled. Record all identifying labels on your data
sheet.
Dimensions of objects:
2. Use the caliper to measure the
dimensions of each object in the set, in
centimeters (see Figure 7).
For rectangular blocks, record the
length, height, and width of each block.
For cylinders, record the diameter and
height.
Record all dimensions to the
appropriate precision. Record all data
directly onto your data sheet, with units.

Figure 7. Measuring dimensions of (a)

rectangular block and (b) cylinder.
Orientation of the objects is arbitrary you
could flip the block on its side so that one of
the shorter dimension is the height, and the
long dimension either length or width.

INTRODUCTION TO LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS - Exp. 1 - 9

Weighing the objects:

3. Look at the information of how to use the balance in Figure 8.
Figure 8. Use of balance. Note: Balances draft shield is not shown but should be used.
Note: See Appendix A for more detailed directions for balances.
(a) Balance showing zero bar, display, instability indicator ("), and balance pan. In this figure,
note that the instability indicator is lit, indicating that the reading has not yet stabilized.
(b) Before making any measurements, press the zero bar briefly, and the display should reset to
0.000 g. Small deviations from 0.000 g (e.g., 0.002 g, or 0.001 g) are normal. Note
that the instability indicator is not lit, so the reading has stabilized.
(c) Place the object to be weighed on the balance pan, allow the reading to stabilized (instability
indicator off), and then record all displayed digits, i.e., 113.497 g in this case.

4.

After zeroing the balance (step b in Figure 8), place the first object on the balance, and
once the reading has stabilized, record the value. Be sure to record all data directly onto
your data sheet. Record all digits, and include units!
Some variations in readings are normal. These will normally be less severe if the
balances draft shield (not shown in Figure 8) is in place.
Be sure to record all displayed values, including zeros at the end of the number (i.e., if
the display is 14.640 g, do not drop the zero!) Remove the object.

5.

Repeat this procedure for each object in the set, re-zeroing the balance before each
measurement.

6.

In the Data Analysis section, you will be instructed to enter the data into Excel to
calculate and evaluate the objects density values.

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Part II. Volume measurements by pipet

1.

Water temperature measurement:

Fill a medium-size (about 100 - 250 mL) beaker about half full of deionized water (also
referred to as DI water)

2.

Use a thermometer to measure its

temperature to 0.1EC precision.
Note the immersion line (Figure 8) on the Figure 9. Immersion line on thermometer.
thermometer. The thermometer should be
inserted into the water up to this point.

3.

Use this water for all pipet and graduated cylinder deliveries.

Mechanical pipet measurements;

1. Adjust a 1 - 5 mL mechanical pipet to deliver 4.00 mL and secure an appropriate tip to the
pipet. See Figure 10 to learn how to use a mechanical pipet .
a) To adjust the pipet, rotate the operating button (plunger) until the digital readout
corresponds to 4.00 ml.
b) Never lay the pipet down! Set it in its rack, which will keep the pipet vertical.
c) Do not draw liquid into the upper portion (mechanical parts) of the pipet this leads
to corrosion and contamination.
Figure 10. Mechanical pipet.
Volume adjustment: Rotate the operating button.
Loading pipet: Press the operating button to the first stop
(1), insert the pipette tip into the liquid and smoothly
raise the operating button (2).
Delivering liquid: Press the operating button all the way
down to the second stop (3), and raise it back to the ready
position (4).

2.

Following the procedure outlined in Figure 11 on the next page, make five good
deliveries of water to a beaker or flask, taring the balance prior to each addition, and
recording the mass value.
Do not count any deliveries where you were aware of a problem (e.g., you realized that
there was an air bubble in the pipet tip when you delivered the water).
The volumes here should be very close to 4.000 g, probably slightly less. If values are
significantly different from 4.000 g off by more than 0.050 g you are probably using
the pipet incorrectly. Ask your instructor for help.

INTRODUCTION TO LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS - Exp. 1 - 11

Figure 11.
(a) Set a beaker on the balance while
filling the pipet.
(b) With the pipet loaded with water,
tare (zero) the beaker.
(c) Deliver the water from the pipet.
(d) Record the final mass of the water.

3.

In the Data Analysis section, you will use the waters density and mass to calculate the
actual volume delivered, and then evaluate those results.

Cleanup
G Pour out water from any beakers or flasks that you used.
G

Return mechanical pipets to their racks, and other labware to the drawers.

Organize your work area (including returning the weighing objects to the original
locations).

Wipe down your work area.

Exp. 1 - 12 - INTRODUCTION TO LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS

DATA ANALYSIS
Use of Excel: You are expected to use Excel to carry out the data analysis that is part of the
lab.
C Calculations should be carried out within Excel, using Excel operations and functions.
Calculating values on a calculator and entering those values into Excel will not be
acceptable.
C Excel is particularly valuable for carrying out repetitive calculations. Once youve entered
the formula for the first example of a calculation, you can copy down the formula to other
cells and Excel will automatically complete the calculations. If you find that you are
frequently entering the same calculation into Excel, youve missed an important capability!

Mass and dimensions measurements data analysis

1.

In Excel, tabulate the data for each object, using

an organized format such as the one shown on
the right.
a) The example on Figure 12 is for cylindrical
objects, for which height and diameter
readings are entered. For a rectangular
block, you would need columns for height,
length, and width.
b)
c)
d)

Each column should be labeled.

Figure 12. Sample data. Note: your data
Each numerical data column should also may have more significant figures than the
display units (e.g., cm).
values shown here.
When entering numerical data, do not
include the units with the number. If you type in, for example, 4.72 cm, Excel will
treat the entry as if it were text, not as a number.

Volume Calculations
2. Label a column, with units. The units should be cm3", but cm^3" or even cm3" would
be acceptable.
3. Calculate the volume using following the instructions below.
For cylinders, volume = pi height (diameter)2/4. In the example shown above, you
could calculate the volume of the first object (17a) in cell E3 using the following formula:
= pi()*B3*C3^2/4
the equation starts with =.
pi() is the Excel function for pi. You could also just enter this in numerically as
3.14159.
B3 is the cell address for the height of the object.
C3 is the cell address for the diameter of the object.
^2 means raise to the second power this squares the value in C3.
INTRODUCTION TO LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS - Exp. 1 - 13

 * and / are Excels operators for multiplication () and division ().

For rectangular blocks, volume = height width length. If these three values were
entered in cells B3, C3, and D3, you could calculate the volume in cell F3 (mass would be
in cell E3) with the formula, =B3*C3*D3.
4.

Copy this formula down as follows.

a. Click on the cell with the first formula ((a) in the
illustration on the right).
b. Position the cursor on the lower right corner of
the cell the cursor should change from to
+.
c. Left-click and drag the corner down to the other
cells for volume calculations.
d. When you release, the calculated values should
appear (see (b) in the illustration).

Density calculations
5. Label a column, with units. The units should be g/cm3", but g/cm^3" or even g/cm3"
would be acceptable.
6. Next, of the first object. Density is simply mass divided by volume.
a) Continuing the previous example where mass values are in column D and the calculated
volumes are in column E, you could calculate the first density value (in row 3) using the
formula:
=D3/E3
b) You could then copy that
formula down to complete the
other density calculations.
c) The column should be labeled
and should have units
indicated.

Set up correct number of significant figures in Excel

7. If you take a look at the spreadsheet so far, one problem is that the
volume and density calculations are calculated to a lot more
significant figures than appropriate. In the volume calculation, the
dimensions are generally known only to 3 - 4 significant figures, so
the volumes should be reliable only to 3 - 4 significant figures also
(rules for multiplication and division). In the density calculation,
the mass data are typically 5 - 6 significant figures (depending on
whether the mass is less than or greater than 100 g), but when the
mass is divided by volume (3 - 4 significant figures), the result is
good to only 3-4 significant figures.
Exp. 1 - 14 - INTRODUCTION TO LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS

a) To adjust the number of significant figures, select the data, and use
Home tab toolbar) to adjust the number of digits displayed.

(on the

Average , standard deviation and coefficient of variation calculations

8. You should now have 4 - 5 calculated density values. You will
next calculate their average value and standard deviation,
using Excel functions.
a) Select a cell below the calculated density values, and
calculate the average value of the density values using
Excels average function. Note: average is a built-in
function in Excel. You should not need to carry out a
calculation such as =(F3+F4+F5+F6+F7)/5
Type in =AVERAGE
Type in the open parentesis (
Select the first cell (F3) and drag down to the last cell
(F7). Excel will automatically enter the selected range.
Type in the end parenthesis ) and return.
b) Adjust the display to the appropriate number of significant figures (3 - 4 significant
figures).
c) Label the cell (probably in the cell to the left).
9. Calculate the standard deviation of the density values, using a similar procedure as used
for calculating the average value.
a) Excel provides a variety of different standard deviation calculations. For all CHM161
standard deviations, the following should work.
Type in = stdev.s (s for sample, as opposed to p for population).
Type in the open parentesis (
Select the first cell (F3) and drag down to the last cell (F7). Excel will automatically
enter the selected range.
Type in the end parenthesis ) and return.
b) The appropriate number of significant figures for standard deviations will typically be
1 or 2. For this lab, display the standard deviation to two significant figures (e.g., 0.027,
0.0055).
c) Label the standard deviation value.
10. Calculate the coefficient of variation by dividing the standard deviation by the average
value, and displaying the value as a percentage.
a) In the illustration shown here, the calculation would be =F10/F9.
b) The best way to display this as a percentage is to select the cell and then use the %
icon in the numbers formatting section of the home tab. When % formatting is used, Excel
automatically multiplies the value by 100% DO NOT INCLUDE *100 in your formula.
INTRODUCTION TO LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS - Exp. 1 - 15

c) The value will normally show up as 0%. Adjust the number of digits to display the
result to 2 significant figures.
d) Label the standard deviation value.
Absolute error and percent error calculations
11. Your set of objects should have come with identification of the material and its true
density. You will next use Excel to calculate the percent error in the value.
a) Enter and label the true density value below the CV
value.
b) Calculate the absolute error in your experimental value
(|your value - true value|). Use the abs function in Excel to
obtain the absolute value. Note: You can skip using the abs
function if you are careful about the order of the subtraction
(subtract the smaller value from the larger value).

Type in = abs
Type in the open parentesis (
Select the average value
Type in the subtraction symbol -
Select the true density value
Type in the end parenthesis ) and return.

12. Calculate the percent error by dividing the error by the true value, and expressing the
result as a percentage.
a) The calculations and manipulations are similar to those used for calculating CV.
b) Note that you can carry out the % error calculation without explicitly calculating the
absolute error, e.g, you could use the formula,
=abs(F9-F13)/F13
and formatting the result as a percentage.
d) Make sure to display this as a percentage. Select the cell and then use the %
icon in the numbers formatting section of the home tab.

Exp. 1 - 16 - INTRODUCTION TO LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS

Part II. Volume measurements data analysis

Overview: In these calculations, you will:
C Find the density of the water from a plot of density versus temperature.
C Enter your raw data (mass of water delivered in each trial) into an Excel spreadsheet.
C Use Excel to calculate the volume for each delivery, based on the mass of the water and its
density.
C Use Excel to calculate the average value, standard deviations, CV, and percent error of the
deliveries.
Determining the density of water from tabulated data
1. Use Table 4 to find the density of the water used for your measurements.
Note the value to five decimal places, e.g., for T = 26.2EC, density = 0.99676 g/mL.
Table 4. Water density (in grams per milliliter) versus temperature (EC). To read, go down
the left hand column to the find the temperature value before the decimal point, and then go
across the row until below the decimal value of the temperature. For example, for 15.7EC, go
across the row starting with 15" until in the column headed by 0.7; the value is 0.99902
g/mL.
T
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

0.0
0.99973
0.99963
0.99953
0.99940
0.99927
0.99913
0.99897
0.99880
0.99862
0.99843
0.99823
0.99802
0.99780
0.99757
0.99733
0.99707
0.99681
0.99654
0.99626
0.99597
0.99568

0.1
0.99972
0.99962
0.99951
0.99939
0.99926
0.99911
0.99895
0.99878
0.99860
0.99841
0.99821
0.99800
0.99778
0.99754
0.99730
0.99705
0.99679
0.99651
0.99623
0.99594
0.99565

0.2
0.99971
0.99961
0.99950
0.99938
0.99924
0.99910
0.99894
0.99877
0.99858
0.99839
0.99819
0.99798
0.99775
0.99752
0.99728
0.99702
0.99676
0.99649
0.99621
0.99592
0.99562

0.3
0.99970
0.99960
0.99949
0.99937
0.99923
0.99908
0.99892
0.99875
0.99856
0.99837
0.99817
0.99796
0.99773
0.99750
0.99725
0.99700
0.99673
0.99646
0.99618
0.99589
0.99558

0.4
0.99969
0.99959
0.99948
0.99935
0.99921
0.99907
0.99890
0.99873
0.99855
0.99835
0.99815
0.99793
0.99771
0.99747
0.99723
0.99697
0.99671
0.99643
0.99615
0.99586
0.99555

0.5
0.99968
0.99958
0.99947
0.99934
0.99920
0.99905
0.99889
0.99871
0.99853
0.99833
0.99813
0.99791
0.99768
0.99745
0.99720
0.99694
0.99668
0.99640
0.99612
0.99583
0.99552

0.6
0.99967
0.99957
0.99945
0.99933
0.99919
0.99903
0.99887
0.99869
0.99851
0.99831
0.99811
0.99789
0.99766
0.99742
0.99718
0.99692
0.99665
0.99638
0.99609
0.99580
0.99549

0.7
0.99966
0.99956
0.99944
0.99931
0.99917
0.99902
0.99885
0.99868
0.99849
0.99829
0.99809
0.99787
0.99764
0.99740
0.99715
0.99689
0.99662
0.99635
0.99606
0.99577
0.99546

0.8
0.99965
0.99955
0.99943
0.99930
0.99916
0.99900
0.99884
0.99866
0.99847
0.99827
0.99806
0.99784
0.99761
0.99737
0.99713
0.99687
0.99660
0.99632
0.99603
0.99574
0.99543

0.9
0.99964
0.99954
0.99942
0.99928
0.99914
0.99899
0.99882
0.99864
0.99845
0.99825
0.99804
0.99782
0.99759
0.99735
0.99710
0.99684
0.99657
0.99629
0.99600
0.99571
0.99540

INTRODUCTION TO LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS - Exp. 1 - 17

2. Start a second tab (Sheet 2) on the Excel spreadsheet (i.e.,

do not use the same sheet used for the dimensions - mass
measurements).
a) Enter both the temperature and density value into the
spreadsheet, and label each, including units.
b) If not already displayed to the appropriate number of
decimal places (one decimal place for T, five for density),
adjust the format.
Entering water masses and calculating the volume of
deliveries.
3. Enter numerical values for water masses for pipet
deliveries column. It may help to set up the spreadsheet
similarly to the one shown on the right. Label the mass
including units.
4. Density, D, is mass per volume, expressed here as grams
per milliliter (g/mL).

So dividing the mass, in grams, by the density value, in g/mL, gives the volume of the
delivery in milliliters.
5. Carrying out the calculation in Excel the complication. When you copy a cell down in the
usual way, Excel automatically updates the cell addresses. For many types of calculations,
this is exactly what you want, but not here. If you copy that formula down to find the
volume of the other deliveries, it will give inaccurate results
and often error messages. In order to carry out the
calculation properly, you need to find a way to lock the
density cells address in the formula before you copy it.
Excel provides two convenient ways to do this:
If you put a $ (dollar sign) in front of an element (letter
or numer) of a cell address, that element is locked. So if
you use B$2" in the formula =A7/B$2", when you copy
it down, the mass will always be divided by cell B2 (the 2
is locked), the density value.
Alternately, you can name the cell with the density value:
right-click on the cell, and the in the drop-down menu
that appears, select Define Name (older values use
Name Range). Enter a simple name for the cell such as
density. (You can also do this by selecting the cell and
Exp. 1 - 18 - INTRODUCTION TO LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS

then typing in the name in the Name Box just above the upper left corner of the
spreadsheet.) You can then use the name in the calculation: Enter the formula,
=A7/density, into cell B7, and when you copy it down, density will always be interpreted
as cell B2. Naming cells often provides a fairly intuitive way to set up calculations.
Using either of the methods described in (b) above to lock the cell address of the
density value, enter the formula for calculating volume for the first delivery, and then
copy down the formula to complete the calculation for the other deliveries.
Adjust the calculated values to the appropriate number of significant figures (most likely
four).
Average, standard deviation, and CV calculations
6. Note that these calculations are essentially the same as those used for the density
measurements in Part I. Use Excel functions (average and stdev or stdev.s) to
calculate the average value and standard deviation for the calculated volumes (not for the
masses). Refer back to Part I for detailed instructions.
Use Excel to calculate the average, standard deviation and CV of the delivered volume.
Label these values, and display them so that the average value is shown to 3 decimal
places, and the standard deviation and CV to 2 significant figures.
Percent error in the average value calculations
7. Enter the true value (intended volume) of 4.000 mL.
8. Calculate the absolute error and % error. (These are essentially the same calculations
used for Part I). Adjust the error value so that it is displayed to 3 decimal places (e. g.,
0.069), and the percent error so that it has the same number of significant figures as the
error (e. g., 1.7%).
Print your work
9. Print out one copy of the each spreadsheet. The first printouts should be the normal
spreadsheets themselves (both the density calculation and the delivered volume
calculations). Your data MUST fit in one page ONLY. You will be deducted points
otherwise.
If it appears that a sheet will print out over more than one page (look at Print
Preview), try switching the orientation to Landscape (Page Layout 6 Orientation)
and/or adjusting column widths.
10. Print each copies of each spreadsheet in formula display mode, one copy only.
first click the combination of CTRL and ` (upper left, under the tilde ~). This
switches the display to formulas.
Adjust the printout to a single page prior to printing.
Interpretation of results:
You will be asked to compare the precision and accuracy of two volume measurement
methods (the pipetting method that you used, and a graduated cylinder method
described in the report section). Review the relationships of accuracy and precision to
quantities such as coefficient of variation and percent error.
INTRODUCTION TO LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS - Exp. 1 - 19

 You will also be asked to evaluate how many significant figures are appropriate for each
type of measurement, based on the standard deviations of the measured values.

Exp. 1 - 20 - INTRODUCTION TO LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS

Prelab Questions
These questions are not turned in for grading. However, they serve as the basis for questions
in the on-line prelab quiz.
1.

What is the difference between precision and accuracy? What does each evaluate? With
what other terms is each associated (e.g., bias, random error, scatter, etc.)?

2.

Five replicate measurements of the weight of an object have an average value of 35.253 g
with a standard deviation of 0.007 g. If the true mass of the object is 35.264 g, what are (a)
the %error and (b) CV for the experimental measurements?
Answers: a. % error = 0.032%; b. CV = 0.02%.

3.

A cylinder has a diameter of 3.25 cm and a height of 4.65 cm. What is its volume?
Answer: 38.6 cm3

4.

If the cylinder in (3) has the average experimental mass from (2), what is its density?
Answer: 0.913 g/cm3

5.

A sample of water with a temperature of 22.1EC weighed 19.452 g. (a) What is the density
of the water (see Table 4 on p. 17)? (b) What is the volume of the water?
Answers: a. 0.99778 g/mL; b. 19.495 mL

6. Five replicate measurements of the volume delivered by a pipet have an average value of
10.0256 mL (based on the mass and density of the water delivered), with a standard
deviation of 0.035 mL.
(a) To how many decimal places should the average value be reported?
(b) How would your answer to (a) change if the standard deviation were 0.0035 mL instead?
Answers: 6. a. 10.03 mL (uncertainty in 0.01 place);
b. 10.026 mL (uncertainty in 0.001 place).
7. Excel:
(a) In Excel, what built-in function will you use to calculate average? standard deviation?
(b) What are the two ways to lock a cell address in an Excel formula?
Also: Are you familiar enough with Excel to carry out the types of calculation presented in the
data analysis? If not, please review the the Excel appendix, Appendix F! In particular, look
at sections I - III, plus VII and VIII. Use of balances is covered in Appendix A.

INTRODUCTION TO LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS - Exp. 1 - 21

Postlab Questions
These questions are not turned in for grading. However, they serve as the basis for questions
on review quizzes and exams.
At the completion of the lab, you should be able to:
1. Describe and carry out the correct procedures for using balances and mechanical pipets.
2. Measure lengths with appropriate approximation of final digit.
3. Carry out various volume - mass - dimensions - density calculations.
4. Carry out basic manipulations using Excel, including:
a) Entering, labeling, and formatting data
b) Calculations using cell addresses in formulas.
c) Calculations that utilize a constant value (e.g., as for the density calculations, involving
naming cells and/or using $ to lock a cells address in formula)
d) Calculation of average values and standard deviations using built-in Excel functions.
5. Distinguish between accuracy and precision.
6. Calculate percent error and coefficient of variation, and relate them to accuracy and
precision.
7. Recognize how measurement precision (as standard deviation) is related to significant
figures for measured quantities.

Exp. 1 - 22 - INTRODUCTION TO LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS

Name

Section

Partner

Date

Introduction to Laboratory
Measurements

1
Data
C
C

Record your data on this page and the next page.

All data should be recorded to the precision allowed by the apparatus (e.g., 0.1EC for
thermometers, 0.001 g for balances).
Include UNITS for all measurements.
DO NOT show calculations on the DATA page.

C
C

Dimensions and masses of solid objects

Identification number of assigned object set:
Dimensions first identify shapes as rectangular blocks or cylinders, and then set up a
table with either height - length - width entries, or one with diameter - height entries.
Include a column for the masses of the objects in your table. Include units, either in each
entry, or in column headings.
Shape of objects in set:
Dimensions*
Mass
a
b
c
d
e
* Three columns are provided for dimensions, but cylindrical objects will require only two.

INTRODUCTION TO LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS - Exp. 1 - 23

Pipet delivery measurements: (Include units)

Mass measurements of water delivered by pipet to determine precision and accuracy of
delivery method
Water temperature:
Mass measurements:
Trial 1:

Trial 2:

Trial 3:

Trial 4:

Trial 5:

Trial 6*:

Trial 7*:
* Only five measurements are required. Extra spaces are provided in case some
values are rejected because of experimental problems.

Carry out calculations in Excel and/or in the report form that follows.

Exp. 1 - 24 - INTRODUCTION TO LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS

Report
Prior to starting this report, you should complete the spreadsheets for
both parts of the laboratory, as described in the Data Analysis section.
Citing evidence: Several of the questions that follow ask you to provide evidence for your
decisions or interpretations. The evidence should be based on the types of numerical
evaluations that you performed as part of the data analysis: error, % error, standard
deviation, and coefficient of variation (CV).

Part I. Density of weighed objects

1. In your spreadsheet, you calculated the densities of a series of object, all made of the same
material, and calculated the average value, standard deviation, etc. Given the types of
measurements you employed, it should be possible to attain both coefficient of variation
and percent errors of < 1.0%.
2. Look at your Excel printouts, what is the value of the CV for the measured density? Is this
value < 1.0%? Is this a measurement of your techniques accuracy, or of its precision? Note:
make sure to write full sentences when answering these questions.

3. What is the value of the percent error for the measured density? Is this value < 1.0%? Is this
a measurement of your techniques accuracy, or of its precision?

4. What do your values for CV and percent error tell you about the quality of your
measurements?

5. Which of these (CV or % error) is most closely associated with each of the following:
a) Scatter:
b) Systematic error:
c) Random error:
d) Bias:
INTRODUCTION TO LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS - Exp. 1 - 25

6. In many methods that employ multiple measurements, one particular type of measurement
may be the weak link that limits overall precision. In items 7- 9 you are going to evaluate
the effect that the dimension and the mass of an object have on the CV of the measured
density.
7. Look at your data table and report the mass and shortest dimension of your lightest object
(not the average!).
Mass:
Dimension:
8. Typical standard deviation for mass and lengths using the
Typical st. deviations:
equipment employed in this lab are given on the right. Carry out
Mass:
0.002 g
the following calculations (show calculations you do not need
Dimensions: 0.01 cm
to use Excel)
What is the CV for the mass value?

What is the CV for the measurement of its shortest dimension?

9. Which type of measurements (mass or dimensions) had the greatest impact on the CV of
the measured density? Explain briefly.

Part II. Volume measurements

1. In this lab, you determined the volume of water delivered using
Grad cylinder:
a mechanical pipet set to deliver 4.00 mL. You could have
Average: 3.92 mL
carried out the same procedure delivering 4-ml portions of
St. Dev: 0.11 mL
water using a small graduated cylinder. A typical result for
such a measurement is shown in the box on the right (result of
five replicate measurements).
2. Calculate the percent error and CV for the graduated cylinder method described above,
assuming the true volume was 4.00 mL. As always, show your calculations!

Percent error

CV

Exp. 1 - 26 - INTRODUCTION TO LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS

3. Compare the results for the graduated cylinder (from above) and your results using a
mechanical pipet.
Look at your Excel printouts from part II, what is the value of the CV and percent error for
the calculated volume?

4. Which method of delivery (graduated cylinder or pipet) is more accurate? Cite your
evidence (what specific information tells you this).

5. Which method of delivery (graduated cylinder or pipet) is more precise? Cite your evidence.

6. Which measuring tool (graduated cylinder or pipet) would you rather use to get good
quality data? Explain your answer.

7. Both deliveries (graduated cylinder and pipet) were intended to deliver 4 mL. For each
of these, how many significant figures should be used to express the value appropriately?
Should the volume be expressed as 4 mL, 4.0 mL, 4.00 mL, 4.000 mL, 4.0000 mL,
etc.? Key: Which digit is the first uncertain digit? Explain briefly. Suggestion: Focus on
each measured values standard deviation, and look at Table 3.
graduated cylinder volume:
Explanation / evidence:

pipet volume:
Explanation / evidence:

INTRODUCTION TO LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS - Exp. 1 - 27

 Manufacturers of the type of mechanical pipets typically claim accuracy of 0.02 mL

(maximum absolute error) and precision of 0.02 mL (based on standard deviation). (Note:
specific claims depend on the volume of the delivery.) Are the results from mechanical pipet
measurements (not the graduated cylinder measurements) consistent with these claims?
Explain briefly, citing your data and/or calculations as evidence.
Accuracy:

Precision:

ATTACH COPIES OF SPREADSHEET PAGES: 4 PAGES TOTAL

~ Dimensions mass density spreadsheet, normal printout
~ Dimensions mass density spreadsheet, formulas printout
~ Pipet delivery spreadsheet, normal printout
~ Pipet delivery spreadsheet, formulas printout

ATTACH THESE TO THE BACK OF THE REPORT.

Exp. 1 - 28 - INTRODUCTION TO LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS