IDENTIFICATION OF OIL ON WATER

Aerial Observation and Identification Guide

Report all pollution to: 1800 641 792

April 2009

COntents
Purpose

Glossary of common oil spill observation terms

11

Introduction

Discharges from shipping in Australian waters

Decision guide for aerial observation of sea

surface irregularities

13

Recording and reporting observations of pollution

Aerial photography

14

Bonn Agreement oil appearance codes

Visibility of oil on water

20

Other phenomena

27

Description of the appearance codes

Describing proportion of total area coverage

How oil reacts when it enters the marine environment

Factors influencing the spread of oil

10

Oil

Other ship discharges

20
32

Where to report observations

34

Reference material

34

Aerial Observation Report

35

PurPOse
To assist persons involved in the observation and

surveillance operations to accurately report the presence

of oil in the marine environment.

The focus is upon locating, describing, documenting and

reporting information regarding pollution of the sea.

To assist observers in effectively differentiating oil from

other phenomena.

Further information/advice is available from

AMSAs Environment Protection Unit on +61 2 6279 5040

IntrOduCtIOn
Accurate reporting of an oil spill is fundamental to achieving
a successful response operation.

Additional information which may be useful:

This booklet is designed to help observers characterise oil and

describe what they see using standard terms.

Vessels observed within the area

Presence of wildlife

Location and distribution of the spill

Colour and appearance of the oil

Many phenomena viewed by an aerial observer may appear

similar to oil. These include; algal blooms, storm run-off from
rivers, coral spawn, kelp and seagrass beds, urban run-off
discharged from drainage systems, and even fish swimming just
under the sea surface.

On scene weather

Report all pollution sightings.

Observers should concentrate on:

dIsChArGes frOm shIPPInG In AustrAlIAn wAters

The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from

Discharges of oil/oily mixtures at sea are only permitted at 15

all forms of ship-generated marine pollution implemented through

at a concentration of 15 ppm cannot be detected by visual

Ships (known as MARPOL) regulates the discharge into the sea of

parts of oil to one million parts of water (15 ppm). Oil/oily mixtures

Commonwealth, State and Northern Territory legislation.

observation or remote sensing, only becoming visible at around

60 ppm. This means that where traces of oil are detectable

MARPOL specifies prohibitions as well as permitted

by visual observation or with remote sensing equipment it is

discharges/disposals under strict conditions. Current

regarded to be an illegal discharge and must be reported for

regulations cover oil/oily mixtures, chemicals, garbage, sewage,

further investigation by the relevant authority.

packaged harmful substances (eg. containers) and air emissions.

Generally there should not be any visible discharges

trailing any ship while within 12 nautical miles from the
nearest land or within the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park
and Torres Strait.

This includes fishing gear, cargo residues, deck and tank

washings etc. All sightings of any pollutant type in the marine

environment should be reported and photographed.

reCOrdInG And rePOrtInG ObservAtIOns Of POllutIOn

The Aerial Observation Report on page 35 outlines information that
should be recorded photocopy for your purposes.

on the Aerial Observation Report or electronically tagged as

waypoints

It is important that observers provide a sense of scale of the pollutant

and not exaggerate the extent when recording information.

The observing aircraft should fly the perimeter of the polluted area at
a constant altitude with the GPS operating.

Spill colour and characteristics to indicate type and amount of

pollutant

Reports should include:

Separate areas of sheen and heavy oil coverage assisting

responders to estimate volume

Date and time

Weather conditions

Location and orientation of pollution

Latitude and longitude for the start/end trailing and side

boundaries of the polluted area noted with sketches on maps,

Photographs/video imagery at regular intervals

Provide detailed descriptions of:

Australia has adopted the use of the Bonn Agreement Oil

Appearance Codes page 5. If you are not able to distinguish which
appearance codes apply to what you observe, ensure your recorded
observations are as detailed and descriptive as possible.
4

bOnn AGreement OIl APPeArAnCe COdes

Oil appearances tend to follow
a pattern: the thinner oils,
sheen rainbow and metallic,
will normally be at the edges of
the thicker oils, discontinuous
true colour and true colour. It
is unusual to observe thick oil
without the associated thinner
oils; however this can occur if
the oil is weathered (mousse
or emulsion).

Code

Description of Appearance

Approx
Thickness (m)

Approx Litres
per K m2

SHEEN

0.04 to 0.30

40-300

RAINBOW

0.30 to 5.0

300-5,000

METALLIC

5.0 to 50

5000-50,000

DISCONTINUOUS TRUE OIL COLOUR (heavy oil)

50 to 200

50000 200,000

CONTINUOUS TRUE OIL COLOUR (heavy oil)

>200

>200,000

Other

MOUSSE OR EMULSION
5

desCrIPtIOn Of the APPeArAnCe COdes

Code 1 Sheen (< 0.3 m)

Very thin films of oil reflect the incoming light slightly better than the
surrounding water and can therefore be observed as a silvery or grey
sheen. All oils in these thin layers can be observed due to this effect and
not the oil colour itself. Oil films below approximately 0.04 m thickness are
invisible. In poor viewing conditions even thicker films may not be observed.
Above a certain height or angle of view the observed film may disappear.

Code 2 Rainbow (0.3 m 5.0 m)

Rainbow oil appearance represents a range of colours, yellow, pink,

purple, green, blue, and red, copper, orange; this is caused by an optical
effect and independent of oil type. Depending on angle of view and layer
thickness, the distinctive colours will be diffuse or very bright. Oil films
with thickness near the wavelength of different coloured light, 0.2 m 0 1,5
m (blue 400nm or 0.4 m through to red, 700nm or 0.7 m) exhibit the
most distinct rainbow effect. This effect will occur up to a layer thickness
of 5.0 m. Bad light conditions may cause the colours to appear duller.
6

oils will appear black. The broken nature of the colour, due to thinner
areas within the slick, is described as discontinuous, This is caused
by the spreading behaviour under the effects of wind and current.
Discontinuous should not be mistaken for coverage. Discontinuous
implies true colour variations and not non-polluted areas.

A level layer of oil in the rainbow region will show different colours
through the slick because of the change in angle of view. Therefore
if rainbow is present, a range of colours will be visible.

Code 3 Metallic (5.0m 50 m)

The appearance of the oil in this region cannot be described as

a general colour and is oil type dependent. Although a range
of colours can be observed, blue, purple, red and greenish the
apparent colour is not caused by interference of light or by the true
colour of the oil. The colours will not be similar to rainbow. Where
a range of colours can be observed within a rainbow area, metallic
will appear as a quite homogeneous colour that can be either blue,
brown, purple or another colour. The metallic appearance is the
common factor and has been identified as a mirror effect, dependent
on light and sky conditions. For example blue can be observed in
blue-sky conditions.

Code 5 True Colours (>200 m)

The true colour of the specific oil is the dominant effect in this category.
A more homogenous colour can be observed with no discontinuity
as described in Code 4. This category is strongly oil type dependent
and colours may be more diffuse in overcast conditions.

Other mousse or emulsion (weathered oil)

Spills of crude oil and some fuel oils rapidly form a water-in-oil
emulsion that are often characterised by a dark brown/orange/
red /tan colouration and a cohesive appearance. These should be
classed as other with a detailed description of the colours and
nature of the spill.

Code 4 Discontinuous True Colours (50 m 200 m)

For oil slicks thicker than 50 m the true colour will gradually dominate
the colour that is observed. Brown oils will appear brown, black
7

desCrIbInG PrOPOrtIOn Of tOtAl AreA COverAGe

These diagrams are a guide for describing oil coverage.
It is important to provide information regarding oil
concentrations in order to respond effectively.

Response efforts need to be focussed on the heaviest areas

of oil.

This is best done by vertically looking down on the oil and

assessing it distribution.

25%
25%

50%
50%

75%
75%

25%

50%

75%

hOw OIl reACts when It enters the mArIne envIrOnment

Oil initially spreads out and forms a continuous or cohesive patch on
the surface of the water, often over a large area.

Type of oil spilled

This area of oil absorbs energy and deadens out surface waves, making
the area appear smoother compared with the surrounding water.

How long it has been in the water

Its potential for dispersion, containment and recovery

As the oil becomes thinner, it is susceptible to being broken up by

wave, wind, and current movement. Developing into smaller patches and
narrow bands - or windrows - in the direction of the wind or current.
Light oils (eg. diesel or gasoline) may evaporate and disappear
completely quite quickly.
Heavy oils (eg. bunker fuel or crude oil) spread to form smaller,
discrete patches or streaks, ultimately becoming tar balls.
The colour, distribution and consistency of the oils appearance
indicate:
9

fACtOrs InfluenCInG the sPreAd Of OIl

Wind, wave and current motion: Oil generally moves at the rate of 3% of the wind
speed, and at the same speed as the water currents. As a slick moves across the
water surface it leaves behind sheen of thinner oil and begins to form windrows.
Figure 1

Wind
direction

Thick oil slick

>0.1mm

Persistence: Persistence of the oil is important in terms of determining the rate of

spreading, shoreline impact and cleanup. Oil persistence is determined by: Pour
point the lowest temperature at which the oil will flow. Viscosity measure of the
substances resistance to flow. Density the mass per unit volume.
Persistent oils generally require a clean-up response.

Thin oil slick

<0.0001mm

Non-persistent oils generally evaporate quickly.

Temperature: Water temperature of a spill area alters the properties of oil, changing
its spreading characteristics and weathering properties. With increased temperature,
the persistence of oil decreases.
10

Windrows

Figure 1

COmmOn OIl sPIll ObservAtIOn terms

Algal Bloom: Algal blooms can occur throughout the year, but are
most common in the warmer months. They take place when optimum
growth conditions exist (warm waters, excess nutrients), and appear as
accumulations of a coloured mass on or below the surface of the water.
Colours range widely from reds to greens and browns/orange.

Discoloured water: A general term used by Australian observers

for describing an unidentified pollutant. It is preferable to use more
descriptive terminology.
Mousse or Emulsification: The formation of a waterin-oil-mixture.
Different oils exhibit different tendencies to emulsify, and emulsification
is more likely to occur under high energy conditions (strong winds
and waves). An emulsified mixture of water in oil is commonly called
mousse; its presence indicates a spill that has been on the water
for some time. Mousse can range in colour from dark brown to nearly
red or tan, and typically has a thickened or pudding-like consistency
compared with fresh oil. Incorporation of up to 75 percent water into
the oil will cause the apparent volume of a given quantity of oil to
increase by up to four times.

Coral Spawn: From late October to early December, corals reproduce

simultaneously by releasing egg and sperm bundles, which float to
the surface, often forming large slicks. This natural slick gives the
appearance of a white to pink, thick, dirty and irregular scum. It can
persist on the water surface for around two days and may sometimes
be misinterpreted as an oil slick.
Dispersion: The breaking up of an oil slick into small droplets that are
mixed into the water column by wave action, chemical dispersant or
other sea surface turbulence.

11

Pancakes: Isolated, roughly circular patches of oil ranging in size

from a few metres across to hundreds of metres in diameter. Sheen
may or may not be present.

Weathering: A combination of physical and environmental processes,

such as evaporation, dissolution, dispersion, and emulsification, which
act on spilled oil to change its physical properties and composition.

Recoverable oil: Oil in a thick layer on the water that can be recovered
by conventional techniques and equipment. Only black or dark brown
oil, mousse, and heavy sheens (which are dull brown in colour) are
generally considered to be thick enough to be effectively recovered
by skimmer equipment.

Windrows: Streaks of oil that line up in the direction of the wind.

Sometimes called streamers, windrows typically form early during
a spill when the wind speed is at least 10 knots (5.1 metres per
second).

Tarballs: Weathered oil that has formed pliable balls or patches that
float on the water. Tarballs can range in diameter from a few millimetres
or a pinhead to 30 centimetres. Depending on how weathered, or
hardened, the outer layer of the tarball is, sheen may or may not be
present.

12

deCIsIOn GuIde fOr AerIAl ObservAtIOn Of seA-surfACe IrreGulArItIes

Surface or Subsurface Feature
Is the mass on the water surface?

(distinguished by wind-chop, waves, etc.)

NO

YES

Does the mass appear to move

quickly over the water surface?

NO

YES
Grey/black shadow on water surface, usually moving
- Cloud shadow

What colour and shape is the mass?

Black or brown masses in shallow water - Kelp beds or seagrass

Moving through water, area changing shape - School of fish
Pink/blue transparent spots - Jellyfish
Murky clouds of discoloured water trailing back to a coastal source - Suspended sediment

Deadening

Does the surface appear smoother or

slicker than the surrounding water?
YES

NO

Rusty, brown colour with grey, green or purple streaks

(occurs more commonly in the warmer months)

- Algal bloom

Colour/Texture
Dark, frothy, transparent, rainbows, contain tarballs?, etc. (see definitions)
Frothy brown to orange, may contain tar-balls - Weathered oil (mousse emulsion)
Spreads to sheens and evaporates quickly, variety
of colours from transparent to blue and rainbows - Fresh spill of a light oil
Black to dark brown patches - Fresh spill of a heavy fuel oil
13

AerIAl PhOtOGrAPhy
It is important to capture an image of the slick emanating from the
suspect vessel and clean water ahead of the vessel.

Photographs should show:

Include in your report: colour photographs, video footage and recorded

radio communications with vessels suspected of involvement with
the spill.
Photographs should be taken:

At a recorded altitude and GPS position

With the sun behind the observer

From above and to one side of the slick

An overall view of the pollution area with suspect vessel

Clear identification of suspect vessel name and IMO number

Any activity onboard the suspect vessel

A series of closeup/detailed images at different altitudes

1000ft, 500ft, or lower if regulations permit

Details of slick where there is no suspect source in the vicinity

The following diagram and photographs provide examples of preferred

angles and vessel positions for use as evidence.

14

Close-up of spill

5
Sectioned

5 nm

4
12
Sectioned

11

9
Sectioned
10

Recommended positions for taking imagery of a ship trailing a slick.

15

10 nm or
full length
of spill

Position 1: Long distance view of slick emanating from vessels

stern consisting Code 1 and Code 2.

Source: Coastwatch
16

Position 2 - 4: Close up of slick used to show colours and thickness

of oil. Code 1 and Code 2 at edge of slick with Codes
3 and 4 in the middle of slick of about 25% coverage
each code.
Source: Coastwatch

Position 3: Approaching shot of vessel stern, clearly showing

slick emanating and identification of the ship name.

Position 6 & 9: Forward photograph of bow of vessel showing no

oil ahead of the vessel.

Source: Coastwatch

Source: Coastwatch
17

Position 7&8: Long distance view of no oil in front of vessel and

showing slick extending from vessel stern.

Source: Coastwatch

Position 11: Shot showing discharge trailing the vessel.

18

Source: Coastwatch

Position 5, 10 & 12: Close up shot of the stern used to identify the vessel (other photographs which clearly identify the vessels name and
IMO number are also acceptable).
Sectioned photographs along side of the vessel. May show discharge or activity on board that will be useful for
assessors of the photos to indicate what operations are being undertaken by the ship.

Source: Coastwatch
19

OIL

vIsIbIlIty Of OIl On wAter

It is often difficult or assess if irregularities on the sea
surface are oil spills or other phenomena with similar
appearances.
The following examples have been provided to assist
observers with their decision.
Read the decision guide provided on page 13 and then
make an assessment of the circumstances.

1:

20

Oil sheen and mousse with boats undertaking response

action. (Code 1 and Other)
Source: NOAA

2:

Black oil breaking into windrows. (Code 4)

3:
Source: NOAA

A thin spread of oil shown as a rainbow sheen. (Code 2)

Source: NOAA

21

4:

Mixture of metallic heavy brown oil and sheens from a spill.

(Code 2 and Code 3)

5.

Source: AMSA

Heavy fuel oil spill with an associated sheen.

(Code 1 and Code 3)

Source: WADOT

22

6:

Weathered fuel oil washed onto a beach.

7:
Source: AMSA

An isolated circular patch of heavy crude oil commonly

referred to as a pancake.
Source: NOAA

23

8:

A small pancake of waste engine oil illegally discharged

from a fishing vessel. (Code 4)
Source: Coastwatch

9: Vessel leaking heavy fuel oil. (Code 3)

Source: AMSA
24

10: Vessel discharging oily waste.

11: Several patches of mousse and emulsified oil.

(Code - Other)
Source: AMSA
25

12: Close-up of lines of orange/brown mousse or

emulsification with associated grey sheen in a long slick.
(Code - Other)
Source: AMSA

13: Windrows of crude oil and sheen lining up in the same

direction as the wind. (Code 1 and Code 4)
Source: AMSA
26

OTHER PHENOMENA

14: The orange-red colouration of coral spawn found in the

tropical half of Australias northern waters.
Source: GBRMPA

15: Algal bloom off a Sydney Beach.

Source: NSW EPA
27

17: Fluvial discharge being released into marine waters. Staining

with tannin from organic matter is the cause of discolouration

16: Vessel in shallow waters. The discolouration of the water is

due to storm water run off being disturbed by propeller wash.

Source: AMSA

Source: AMSA
28

18: Jellyfish in clusters may be misinterpreted as oil.

19: Close up of jellyfish.

Source: Coastwatch

Source: Coastwatch
29

21: The dark patchy nature of kelp beds is often deceiving.

20: Seagrass close to shore which may appear similar to oil.

Source: NOAA

Source: ITOPF
30

22: Subtidal seagrass beds close to shore.

Note the absence of surface deadening.

23: Water depth differences indicated by a channel.

The channel also contains an algal bloom in its centre.

Source: ITOPF

Source: NOAA
31

OTHER SHIP DISCHARGES

25: The discolouration left behind this vessel is due to deck

washings of coal dust.

24: Sewage (urine) discharge from a livestock carrier.

Source: Coastwatch

Source: Coastwatch

32

26: Vessel discharging exploration drill mud.

27: Discharge from boiler ash waste of a coal fired ship.

Source: Coastwatch

Source: Coastwatch
33

where tO rePOrt
ObservAtIOns
Report marine pollution incidents
from ships to the Australian Maritime
Safety Authority:
Phone:

+61 2 6230 6811 (24 Hrs)

Fax:

+61 2 6230 6868

Free call: 1800 641 792

Telex:

62349

referenCe mAterIAl
AMSA - The National Plan to Combat Pollution of the Sea by Oil and Other Noxious and
Hazardous Substances

Bonn Agreement - Bonn Agreement Oil Appearance Code (BAOAC). (2007) Manual. Oil Pollution
At Sea. Securing Evidence On Discharges From Ships Bonn Agreement Contracting Parties.
(1993)
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority - Whats that slick. (pamphlet 1996)
International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation (http://www.itopf.com)
- Aerial Observation Of Oil. Technical Information Paper Number 1. (2009)
- Fate of Marine Oil Spills Technical Information Paper Number 2 (2002)

Netherlands. Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water management - Visibility limits of
oil discharges. Investigation into the visibility limits of operational oil discharges from ships. (1992)
National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration - Open Water Oil Identification Job Aid For
Aerial Observation, USA NOAA/ORCA. (1996)
Oil Spill Intelligence Report - The OSIR Reference Guide Cutter Information Corp. USA. (1993)
34