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Keywords:
Biodiesel
Energy
Environment
Life cycle
Renewable
Used cooking oil
In the last decade several scientic papers have dealt with the damages fossil fuels did to our environment.
Carbon dioxide has been blamed the chief culprit since it is produced by the automobile eet that uses diesel or
gasoline as a fuel. As a result, several countries are implementing public policies aimed at the replacement of
fossil fuels by renewable ones, such as biodiesel. Brazil has become one of them, since the biodiesel production
has increased from 736 m3 to 3,419,838 m3 in less than ten years. Therefore, this paper intends to briey review
the literature on the history, evolution, and the environmental aspects of biodiesel in Brazil in order to show its
positive economic impact on the Brazilian economy, in addition to showing how important this biofuel is to the
environment by providing an overview of its advantages when compared to fossil diesel.
1. Introduction
In the 1950s American geologist M. K. Hubbert predicted that oil
production in the United States would have its peak between the late
60s and early 70s and, after reaching the maximum, would tend to
reduce [1]. In fact, in 1970 his prediction became reality, with the
American production reaching its peak that year [2]. Since then, much
has been written about peak oil, propagated by Hubbert, including its
estimated peak of world oil production in the 2000s with a trajectory
curve similar to the graph shown in Fig. 1.
Simmons [4] and Deeyes [5], among others, also ponder that the
peak of world oil production will probably occur during this decade
[2010] and will never rise again. Hirsch [6] says that oil experts predict
that oil peaking will occur soon. In his study, published in 2005, he
states that soon can be within 20 years, which sets the time frame to
end at around the year 2025.
Although there is no precise date or time when peak oil will occur,
such scenario requires attention not only for the likely shortage of fossil
fuels and the alternatives to mitigate it, but especially for problems that
are related to energy security. In spite of the possibility that new
reserves do exist, those will be rarer, less accessible, and will have
higher drilling and prospection costs [7]. Therefore, it is essential to
nd alternative and if possible, renewable sources of energy to
mitigate or even to solve the environmental problems caused by fossil
fuel usage so that these alternative sources could replace the dirty ones
as they exhaust [8].
In that sense, some countries, including Brazil, have found alter-
native and renewable sources of energy, such as sugar cane ethanol and
biodiesel produced from various raw materials.
The growth of biodiesel production in Brazil in the last decade
brought along increasing concerns about the impacts it may cause on
the environment. Although life cycle assessment studies cited later on
this paper have shown that biodiesel is not totally clean, some studies
have described biodiesel as the source of several environmental
benets when that biofuel is compared to fossil diesel. Therefore, this
paper intends to briey review the literature on the history, evolution
and the environmental aspects of biodiesel in Brazil and to show its
importance when it comes to curbing carbon dioxide emissions , in
addition to presenting the current state of the Brazilian biodiesel
program and the contribution it might oer to similar biofuels
programs from other developing nations.
2. Biodiesel in the world
The 2014 report from the Renewable Energy Policy Network for the
21st Century (REN21), states that biodiesel and ethanol have been
responsible for most of the renewable fuels used in the global transport
eet. In Brazil, as in the United States and in some European countries,
both biofuels represent increasing market share. Biodiesel, in particular, had the largest increase among the biofuels in the last decade
such growth represented 15 times [9] the production volume from
2002 to 2012 (Fig. 2). In 2013 alone, according to the same report,
world production and consumption of biofuels in transport increased
7%, accounting for just over 116 billion liters, of which biodiesel
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: foliveira@iee.usp.br, folive@protonmail.ch (F.C. De Oliveira), suani@iee.usp.br (S.T. Coelho).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.10.060
Received 27 July 2015; Received in revised form 11 October 2016; Accepted 31 October 2016
Available online xxxx
1364-0321/ 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article as: De Oliveira, F.C., Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.10.060
Table 1
Biodiesel global production, top 16 countries and EU-27, 2013 [9].
Country
United States
Germany
Brazil
Argentina
France
Indonesia
Thailand
Poland
Singapore
Colombia
Australia
Belgium
Netherlands
Spain
Canada
China
EU27
World
4.8
3.1
2.9
2.3
2.0
2.0
1.1
0.9
0.9
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.2
10.5
26.3
[18].
3.1. History of PNPB
According to Bailis [19], the Brazilian rst experiments with
biodiesel dates back to the 1920s when the National Technology
Institute began studying that biofuel. However, only during the rst
oil shocks, in the 70s, the Brazilian biofuels program gained momentum through PROLCOOL (National Alcohol Program), an ethanol
program created on November 14, 1975, by Federal Decree No. 76593/
1975 [20], and PROLEO (National Biodiesel Program), created
through Resolution No. 007, dated October 22, 1980 [21], as a
response to the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries
OPEC's 1973 oil embargo [19]. While the PROLCOOL advanced in
spite of some drawbacks during the 80s and gave birth to what is
considered by many the best Brazilian biofuels program to date, the
PROLEO ceased to exist primarily due to the drop in oil prices.
The two major biodiesel production incentive mechanisms appeared later on with PROBIODIESEL (Brazilian Program of
Technological Development for Biodiesel), created by a Presidential
Decree No. 702 and introduced by the Department of Science and
Technology (MCT) on October 30, 2002 [21], and the PNPB (Brazilian
acronym for Programa Nacional de Produo e Uso de Biodiesel),
created by Federal Law No. 11097/2005 on January 13, 2005 [22],
which was responsible for ocially introducing the biodiesel into the
Brazilian energy matrix, whose context and legal framework provided
the basis for a broader program scope.
The creation of the PNPB program was also the result of public
policies to promote social inclusion through the strengthening of family
farming by incorporating it into the biodiesel production chain, as well
as to promote the environmental sustainability and economic viability
of the industry, based on the premise of reducing the import of diesel
[11,19,23]. That program also intended to ensure that the production
of biodiesel was economically viable and focused on the diversication
of the Brazilian energy matrix while promoting the consumption of
renewable and less polluting fuels, in addition to regulating the biofuels
market and establishing the mandatory minimum percentage blend of
biodiesel into petroleum diesel [22,2426] throughout the entire
Brazilian territory to commence years ahead as well as to
encouraging the diversication of raw materials other than soybean
for the production of biodiesel in all regions of the country [27].
Since one of the leading goals of PNPB at the time of its conception
was to promote social inclusion, the decision of the Department of
Agrarian Development to make it possible found support through the
Selo Combustvel Social SCS (Social Fuel Stamp), established
through Decree No. 5297, on December 6, 2004 [28], whose original
purpose was to x the lack of social inclusion that the PNPB program
had failed to promote. Technically, the SCS was a mechanism to award
a stamp to biodiesel producers that purchased part of their raw
materials from small farmers which, in turn, were members of rural
cooperatives that were registered in the Programa Nacional de
Fortalecimento da Agricultura Familiar PRONAF (National
Table 2
Percentage of feedstocks used for biodiesel production by region, March 2015 [15].
Feedstock
North
Northeast
Midwest
Southeast
South
Soybean oil
Beef tallow
Cotton oil
Other fats
Used cooking oil
Pork fat
Palm oil
84.93
15.07
56.76
23.63
14.24
1.85
0.42
89.01
9.12
0.86
40.09
55.84
71.62
25.53
0.14
1.87
0.78
0.52
3.10
0.75
0.23
2.06
Note: The feedstock percentage refers to the total processed and it was extracted from the
Brazilian Petroleum Agency ANP, on April 29, 2015. Not all producers had provided
the information up to the day the bulletin was closed.
Table 3
Production, compulsory demand, and nominal capacity authorized by ANP, March 2015
[15].
Region
Authorized
capacity (m3)
Monthly biodiesel
production (m3)
Mandatory demand
for B100 (m3)
North
Northeast
Midwest
Southeast
South
Total
15,930
39,634
281,528
86,994
221,110
645,195
4642
23,201
127,970
28,696
110,328
294,837
33,201
59,067
47,150
134,919
74,577
348,914
Fig. 5. Biodiesel annual demand and accumulated nominal capacity. Adapted [15,32].
Table 4
Traits of biodiesel feedstocks. Adapted [41].
Source:Adapted [41].
Crop
Oil content
Agricultural yield
Oil yield
(common name)
(%)
(ton/ha)
(liter/ha)
Sunower
Castor
Palm
Soybean
Cottonseed
3948
4245
1826
1720
1618
1.52
0.62.5
1022
1.53
1.73
25102100
450270
59003000
1000700
700490
3.3.1.5. Cotton. Cotton oil is the third most used feedstock to produce
biodiesel in Brazil. Its cost is even lower than that of soybean oil,
although the former is not considered as pure as the latter and, as such,
it needs specic pretreatment, which incurs in higher utilization costs
[47].
About 40% of the cotton plant is composed of ber, which has more
than 400 industrial utilizations, including those for the textile industry;
and 60% of seed, from which the oil (whose content is low, less than
20%) and the bran, which is directed for the manufacture of animal
food, are extracted [47].
Historically, cotton seed oil was the main vegetable oil produced in
Brazil during World War 2 [21]. In the 1970s the area used for cotton
production was as large as 4 million ha, putting Brazil into the world's
leading producers. Since then, mechanization is deemed accountable
for increasing cotton productivity ten times [11].
Table 5
National Scenario by Sector - Projected GHG emissions for 2020. Adapted [57].
Sector
MtCO2eq
1,404
868
730
234
3,236
Table 6
Energy Scenario - Projected GHG emissions for 2020. Adapted [57].
EPE Scenario
Emissions Increment (without the EPE mitigation actions)
Year 2020 Scenario
MtCO2eq
634
234
868
73
27
100
tion between the two fuels according to the taste of the owner or to
the price of the fuel. In that sense, and following the ethanol example,
biodiesel can be another way to improve air quality if used not just by
the public transportation sector, but by the recreational vehicles as
well.
However, if on one hand biodiesel's GHG avoided emissions is an
environmental benet against which fossil diesel cannot compete, on
the other hand recent studies [17,48] show that in Brazil the biodiesel
from soybean and beef tallow can bring worrying consequences for the
potential sustainability of the industry [19]. Even considering partial
attribution factors of such impacts to biodiesel since it is made from
byproducts of the production of soy-based grain and beef both raw
materials present environmental impacts [58] related to land use and
land use change, mainly GHG [16], as a good chunk of its production
uses imported methanol instead of locally produced ethanol which
turns the methyl route into the most used in the transesterication
process [48,59]. The justication for using the methyl route occurs by
the fact that the production and research and development (R & D) of
ethanol are quite restricted in Brazil [48].
Likewise, biodiesel has also problems with hygroscopicity (absorbing moisture) and higher nitrogen oxide (NOx) and carbon monoxide
(CO), besides the presence of hydrocarbons (HC) which, in spite of
having lower emissions when measured at the tailpipe, these are higher
when the whole biodiesel life cycle is taken into consideration, due to
hexane release during the soy processing and the volatilization that
occurs during the agrochemical products application [60].
In addition, soy biodiesel causes environmental impacts because of
the intensive use of pesticides, herbicides, among other forms of direct
pollution that put pressure on the environment [58]. By using
environmental evaluation methods based on three indicators
Emergy Accounting, Embodied Energy Analysis, and Material Flow
Accounting to assess potential damages caused to soil, water and air,
the authors suggest that "soy biodiesel cannot be considered a fully
renewable source, since its production is heavily dependent on the use
of non-renewable resources in agriculture, process and transport" [58].
When the entire production chain of soybean oil is assessed,
Cavalett & Ortega [58] say that the environmental benets are not
so clear as advocated by many authors, as part of the energy used in its
production is from fossil fuels, either by the use of fertilizers and
agrochemical products, or through the use of machines in the
agriculture and in industrial phase. The farming phase, for example,
was portrayed by Esteves et al. [46] as the worst among the whole life
cycle phases of the biodiesel production (Fig. 8).
Therefore, by analyzing all the production phases of soybean
biodiesel, it is essential to perform a complete assessment study that
would clearly show the advantages and disadvantages in the use of that
biofuel [46], precisely because depending on the raw material used to
make it, the production process may require huge amounts of fossil
fuels [58].
Given the scenario in which biodiesel begins to gain importance in
the composition of the Brazilian energy matrix, but its negative
environmental impacts must be observed, it is vital to consider
measurement tools that can provide results that will enable the
quantication and the extension of the biodiesel negative impacts.
One of the tools for that measurement is the Life Cycle Assessment
LCA. As LCA is a tool for quantifying the impacts associated with the
energy and resources needed to make and deliver a product or service
(p. 423) [61], it is essential to analyze the life cycle of biodiesel in order
to determine its environmental impacts after the transformation of the
raw material, given that in the process ethyl or methyl is used. This
approach will allow the estimation of the cumulative damage throughout the cycle, providing a comprehensive overview and enabling a
better understanding of the system and its trade-os [62,63].
As methanol is derived from fossil fuel sources so non-renewable
and ethanol in Brazil is produced from sugar-cane hence, renewable and non-fossil , without proper LCA studies, one might automatically think that the methyl route is the one that causes greater
damages to the environment. However, if an enormous amount of
nitrogen, for instance, is deposited in the soil at the time of planting the
sugar-cane that will be used as raw material in the production of
ethanol, emissions of greenhouse gases, such as nitrous oxide, can
increase, says Victoria [64], thus, canceling out the advantage of
biodiesel produced by the ethyl route. Likewise, it is a common practice
of the ethanol plants to use fertilizer concurrently to the application of
residue of industrial processing of alcohol, called vinasse, in order to
speed up the process. The combination of both produces nitrous oxide
in the soil [65]. When that happens, the advantage of the ethylic route
osets again. So, life-cycle studies, in those cases, are fundamental to
understanding the magnitude of such damages, as shown in Fig. 9.
5. Economic impact
Knothe [13] says that the cost of feedstock for biodiesel production,
especially if it comes from used cooking oil, has become increasingly
inexpensive [12,13,45,51,6668]. In Germany, for example, a considerable chunk of biodiesel is produced as a result of the lower price it
has over the equivalent fossil fuel [68]. Hence, besides being technically
competitive with fossil diesel, in recent years its production and use
have expanded exponentially in several countries around the world
(p.5796) [13], and has attracted considerable attention due to its
relatively low environmental impact (p.362) [68].
Consequently, in addition to being environmentally better than
petroleum diesel, particularly in regards to GHG emissions as less
fossil diesel will be consumed Fig. 10 shows an economic benet:
since July 2013 its cost at plant, in Brazil, has been equated to that of
imported diesel [32] and even smaller, at times.
Fig. 10 also shows that there was a considerable drop in the average
production price of biodiesel during the rst 6 months of 2013, when it
dropped from R$2,60 (in Brazilian currency) in January/February to R
$2,03 in June/July, and further to R$1,89 in September/October
when it became lower than that of imported diesel for the rst time.
Among the reasons for such drop, the Brazilian soy production in
2012/2013 was 82 million tons, compared with 66 million tons in
2011/2012 [53].
That huge crop of soy brought about a very large supply of that
feedstock into the domestic market of biodiesel. As a result, biodiesel
prices at the plants dropped [46] considerably, resulting in more
biodiesel sold in public auctions, whose volume jumped from 496
million liters in January 2013 to 515 million liters in July of the same
year. Similarly, the volume of biodiesel oered in the same auctions
increased setting a new record from 651 to 765 million liters in the
same period [69]. An additional boost came with Leilo 47 (Auction
47), from which the purchase of biodiesel for voluntary addition to
diesel also became mandatory through biodiesel auctions.
Fig. 9. Comparison of impact category indicators for each biodiesel route and feedstock. Adapted [47].
Fig. 10. Average prices of biodiesel, imported diesel, and diesel S10, S500, at ANP auctions. Adapted [72,73].
Table 7
Physical and chemical properties of vegetable oils. Adapted [45].
Properties
Cotton
Palm
Sunflower
Castor
Tallow
Soybean
Density (g/
mL)
20 C
Flash point
(C)
Viscosity
(cSt)
Caloric
value
(MJ/
kg)
Cetane
number
Oxidative
stability
(h)
Acid value
(mg
KOH/g)
Iodine
value
0.918
0.926
0.888
0.899
0.9180.923
0.956
0.970
0.893
0.904
0.9160.925
234
274
201
254
36.9
37.8
31.6
255.5
51.1
37.8
39.47
39.95
39.57
39.5
39.8
39.2839.54
41.8
42
37.1
37.9
1619
> 50
> 10
2340
0.07
1.55
0.15
5.7
0.20.7
99
119
4955
118145
8191
4053
118139
7. Final remarks
Table 8
Properties of diesel and biodiesel from different feedstocks. Adapted [45].
Properties
Diesel (D2)
Cotton
Sunflower
Tallow
Soybean
Density
Flash point (C)
Viscosity at 40 C (cSt)
Caloric value (MJ/kg)
Pour point (C)
Cetane number
0.8200.860
55
2.004.50
44.75
25
51.0
0.884
110
4.06
41.18
4
51.2
0.884
183
4.60
41.33
1
49.0
0.877
150
5.00
9
58.8
0.885
131
4.08
41.28
0
50.9
In the face of a likely oil shortage in the future, plus the damages
that fossil fuels cause to the environment, especially from the CO2 that
is expelled mainly from petroleum-powered vehicles, it is imperative to
nd alternative and if possible renewable sources of biofuels which,
in turn, could replace the pollutant ones as they exhaust.
Brazil found a way to improve air quality many years ago upon the
introduction of the ex-fuel technology (ethanol-gasoline) into the light
vehicles market in 2002. In that sense, biodiesel can be another way to
improve air quality if used not just by the public transportation sector,
but by the recreational vehicles as well, as it is the case with ethanol.
This review showed that the domestic biodiesel production has
grown considerably, from 736 m3 in 2005, to 3.4 million cubic meters
in 2014. The arrival of the B7 blend, in November 2014, through
Government's Provisional Measure MP647, put the domestic production on a path to reduce the idleness rate of the industry, which is still
high.
As the cost of renewable diesel at plant has been equated to that of
polluting diesel, the incentive to the production and consumption of
biodiesel in Brazil can represent economic and environmental advantages, as the country will be able to replace the imported fossil diesel by
the locally produced biodiesel.
However, as biodiesel has been inserted into the country's biofuel
market, it is recommended that public policies be designed to assure its
environmental sustainability, considering that recent studies have
suggested biodiesel from soybean oil and beef tallow can be potential
sources of environmental impacts, such as the ones related to land use
and land use change, especially if methanol is the choice for the
production of biodiesel. The adoption of the ethyl route is one of the
recommendations in order to mitigate the impacts.
Another consideration is in regards to the level of occupation of the
biodiesel plants; if continues to be low, the nancial health of the sector
can be compromised. And the lack of predictability in the attendance of
biofuel demand can be another possible setback.
The faith in the most prominent local feedstocks, castor and palm,
as the salvation for small farmers from the North and Northeast
regions has failed miserably as a source for biodiesel raw materials.
Much needs to be done in order to nd substitute raw materials that
are readily available and able to meet the demand for the biodiesel
production, besides the duet soybean-beef tallow. Many are the
barriers to overcome. The promotion of social inclusion should be
the government's number one priority for the less developed areas of
Brazil, as foreseen by the PNPB program at the time of its inception.
Every year more than 2 million people die in the world due to the
inhalation of ne particulate materials that are released in the air by
vehicles running fossil fuels, according to the World Health
Organization [49]. In addition, ne particulate matter alone can be
responsible for 8% of global lung cancer deaths [80] and the prevalence
of cancer cases are ascribed to air pollution [81].
Upon penetrating the lungs and into the bloodstream, these
particles cause heart disease, respiratory problems, lung cancer, among
other illnesses [82]. Studies carried out by the Laboratory of
Experimental Atmospheric Pollution, from the School of Medicine of
the University of So Paulo, in Brazil, suggest that a 10% reduction in
the level of air pollution in the city of So Paulo, between 2000 and
2020, would result in 250 thousand fewer medical visits which would
represent a savings of US$10 billion and would prevent the death of
114 thousand people [82].
Although biodiesel will never cover all the need for the transport
sector, [it] should represent an important basis for a secure and
sustainable supply [] (p. 746) [83].
6.2. Disadvantages
While biodiesel presents several advantages over petroleum diesel,
it also has unfavorable points which should be taken into consideration. As the presence of oxygen helps to reduce hydrocarbon and
carbon monoxide emissions, it also has the potential to increase the
presence of water in the biofuel, yielding to oxidative stability issues
[77]. Besides, another concern with biodiesel relates to the fact that at
very low temperatures its viscosity thickens, with the potential to
clogging the vehicle lters so, with clogged lters, the car will not
work. Also, as biodiesel plays a role as "solvent", wiping the dirt that is
stored inside the fuel tank, that feature can also clog the lter.
Finally, biodiesel has lower energy content, higher emissions of
10
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Acknowledgments
We gratefully acknowledge the helpful tips and suggestions made by
Professor Oswaldo Lucon, from the Environmental Agency of So
Paulo State. We also thank Antonio Ventilii, from Aprobio, for his
technical expertise on biodiesel as well as for clarifying a couple of
questions and numbers, Marcelo Cop de Souza, from the Brazilian
Petroleum Agency, for helping us nd some useful data, and Adriano
Violante, from the University of So Paulo, for general suggestions.
This work has been supported by CAPES on the basis of grants for
postgraduate research. This work was also supported by FAPESP
through grant number 2012/51466-7 and grant number 2014/
50279-4.
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