CN Chp4 (Compatibility Mode)

Computer Networks
Network Layer
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Jamali@iust.ac.ir IUST-Network
Network LayerLayer 4 -1
Chapter 4: Network Layer
Chapter goals: Overview:

understanding principles network layer services
behind network layer routing principles: path
services: selection
routing (path selection) hierarchical routing
dealing with scale
IP
how a router works
Internet routing protocols
advanced topics: IPv6,
reliable transfer
mobility
intra-domain
instantiation and
inter-domain
implementation in the
Internet what’s inside a router?
IPv6
mobility
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Chapter 4 Outline
4.1 Introduction and Network Service Models

4.2 Routing Principles
4.3 Hierarchical Routing
4.4 The Internet (IP) Protocol
4.5 Routing in the Internet
4.6 What’s Inside a Router
4.7 IPv6
4.8 Multicast Routing
4.9 Mobility
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Network Layer Functions
transport packet from application

transport
sending to receiving hosts network
data link network
network layer protocols in physical
network
data link
physical network
every host, router data link

physical
data link
physical
network
data link
three important functions: physical
network
path determination: route

data link
physical
taken by packets from source network

network
data link
to dest. (Routing Algorithms) data link
physical
physical
forwarding: move packets

network
data link
physical
from router’s input to
appropriate router output application
transport
network
call setup: some network data link
physical
architectures require router
call setup along path before
data flows
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Network Service Model
Q: What service model for

“channel” transporting
packets from sender to The most important
receiver? abstraction provided
by network layer:
Services
guaranteed bandwidth? virtual circuit
preservation of inter-packet or
timing (no jitter)? datagram?
loss-free delivery?
in-order delivery?
congestion feedback to
sender?
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Virtual circuits
“source-to-destination path behaves much like

telephone circuit”
performance-wise
network actions along source-to-destination path
call setup, teardown for each call before data can flow
each packet carries VC identifier (not destination host ID)
every router on source-destination path maintains “state”
for each passing connection
transport-layer connection only involved two end systems
Link and router resources (bandwidth, buffers) may be
allocated to VC
to get circuit-like performance.
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Virtual Circuits: Signaling Protocols
used to setup, maintain teardown VC

used in ATM, frame-relay, X.25
not used in today’s Internet
6. Receive data
application
3. Accept call
transport
2. Incoming call network
data link
5. Data flow begins physical
4. Call connected
application 1. Initiate call
transport
network
data link
physical
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Datagram networks: the Internet model
no call setup at network layer

routers: no state about end-to-end connections
no network-level concept of “connection”
packets forwarded using destination host address
packets between same source-destination
pair may take different paths 2. Receive Data application
transport
network
data link
physical
application 1. Send Data

transport
network
data link
physical
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Network Layer Service Models:
Guarantees ? Congestion
Network Service
Architecture Model Bandwidth Loss Order Timing feedback
Internet best effort none no no no no (inferred

via loss)
ATM CBR constant yes yes yes no
UBR: Unspecified bit rate
rate congestion
ABR: Available bit rate
CBR: Constant bit rate
VBR: Variable bit rate
ATM VBR guaranteed yes yes yes no

rate congestion
ATM ABR guaranteed no yes no yes
minimum
ATM UBR none no yes no no
Internet model being extended: Integrated services,

Differentiated Services
Chapter 6
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QoS Factors
Timing
Connection Establishment Delay
End-To-End Delay
Connection Establishment Failure Probability

Throughput or Bandwidth Guarantee
Ordering Preservation
Congestion Indication (Control)
Bit-Error rate or Packet-Loss Rate Control
Protection
Priority
Resilience (Return Back to Normal Operation).
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Network LayerLayer 4-10
Service Clases
Guaranteed Quality of Service

Predictive Quality of Service
Best Effort Quality of Service
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Guaranteed QoS
Specified through QoS parameter values

deterministic
statistical
Single value - average (threshold, target)
Pair of values - interval
Triple of values – max., mean, min.
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Predictable Service
Parameter bounds based on history, that is, past

network behavior.
Parameter values are measured, and certain
statistical analyses may be carried out
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Best Effort Services
No guarantees of quality, no QoS parameter values

UDP/IP
Partial guarantees, some QoS parameter values
are given.
TCP/IP
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Datagram or VC Network: why?
Internet ATM
data exchange among evolved from telephony
computers human conversation:
“elastic” service, no strict strict timing, reliability
timing req. requirements
“smart” end systems need for guaranteed
(computers) service
can adapt, perform “dumb” end systems
control, error recovery
telephones
simple inside “network”,
complexity inside
complexity at “edge”
network
many link types
different characteristics
uniform service is
difficult
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Active Queue Management (AQM)
Performance Degradation in current TCP

Congestion Control
Multiple packet loss
Low link utilization
Congestion collapse
The role of the router (i.e., network)

Control congestion effectively with a network
Allocate bandwidth fairly
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Buffering in IP routers
Router Internet Router
Network
Interface
Buffer size Dropping packets

Space for bursts of When?
packets What?
Latency
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FIFO Queueing in the Router
(Drop Tail)
Network
Interface
Single queue maintained
analoui@iust.ac.ir
(Drop Tail)
Network
Interface

Dequeue from head
analoui@iust.ac.ir
(Drop Tail)
Network
Interface

Dequeue from head
Enqueue at tail
analoui@iust.ac.ir
(Drop Tail)
Network
Interface

Dequeue from head
Enqueue at tail
When full
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(Drop Tail)
Network
Interface

Dequeue from head
Enqueue at tail
When full drop arriving packet (drop-tail)
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Active Queue Management
Goals:
Better congestion notification for responsive flows

(i.e. TCP)
Maintain shorter queues
Fairness in drops (proportional)
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RED Operation
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Active Queue Management
Random Early Detection (RED)
Max Queue Size Drop probability

Average queue length
Forced drop
Max Threshold
Probabilistic drops
Min Threshold
No drops
Time
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Chapter 4 Outline

Link state routing
Distance vector routing
4.7 IPv6
4.9 Mobility
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Routing
Routing protocol
Goal: determine “good” path 5
(sequence of routers) thru 3 C
network from source to dest. B
2 5
A 3 1
2 F
Graph abstraction for
1 2
routing algorithms: D E
1
graph nodes are Abstract model of a network
routers
graph edges are “good” path:
physical links typically means minimum
link cost: delay, $ cost, cost path
or congestion level other definitions possible
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Routing Algorithm Classifications
1. Global: 1. Static:
all routers have complete routes update slowly
topology, link cost info
over time
“link state” algorithms
2. Decentralized: 2. Dynamic:
router knows physically- routes update more
connected neighbors, link quickly
costs to neighbors periodic update
iterative process of
in response to link
computation, exchange of
info with neighbors cost changes
“distance vector” algorithms
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A Link-
Link-State Routing Algorithm
Dijkstra’s algorithm (global)

net topology, link costs known to all
nodes
accomplished via “link state
broadcast”
all nodes have same information
computes least cost paths from one

node (‘source”) to all other nodes
gives routing table for that node
iterative: after k iterations, know least

cost path to k destinations.
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Notation:
5 5
N: set of nodes whose 3 C
B
least cost path 2 5
definitively known A 23
3 1 F
c(i,j): link cost from node 1 2
i to j. cost infinite if D E
1
not direct neighbors
Example: N: A, B, C, D, E, F
p(v): nodes along path
from source to v C(A,C)=5; C(C,A)=5
C(B,D)=2; C(D,B)=3
D(v): current value of
…
cost of path from
source to destination Source=A
p(F): A-D-E-F
v. D(F)=4
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Dijsktra’s Algorithm
v
n = number of nodes (except the source)
1 Initialization:
2 N = {A} D(v) c(w,v)
3 for all nodes v
4 if v adjacent to A
w
5 then D(v) = c(A,v)
6 else D(v) = infinity A
7 D(w)
8 Loop
9 find w not in N such that D(w) is a minimum
10 add w to N
n(n+1)/2) 11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N:
times 12 D(v) = min( D(v), D(w) + c(w,v) )
13 /* new cost to v is either old cost to v or known
14 shortest path cost to w plus cost from w to v */
15 until all nodes in N
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Dijkstra’s Algorithm: example
computes least cost paths from node A to all other nodes
Step start N D(B),p(B) D(C),p(C) D(D),p(D) D(E),p(E) D(F),p(F)

0 A 2,A-B 5,A-C 1,A-D infinity infinity
1 AD 2,A-B 4,A-D-C 1,A-D 2,A-D-E infinity
2 ADE 2,A-B 3,A-D-E-C 1,A-D 2,A-D-E 4,A-D-E-F
3 ADEB 2,A-B 3,A-D-E-C 1,A-D 2,A-D-E 4,A-D-E-F
4 ADEBC 2,A-B 3,A-D-E-C 1,A-D 2,A-D-E 4,A-D-E-F
5 ADEBCF 2,A-B 3,A-D-E-C 1,A-D 2,A-D-E 4,A-D-E-F
5
D(v): Distance (cost) of A to v. 3
P(v): nodes along path fromA to v. B C
2 5
A 3 1
2 F
1 2
D E
1
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Dijkstra’s Algorithm: discussion1
Algorithm complexity: Suppose there are n nodes, except source
First iteration: Search through all n nodes to determine the node,

w, not in N that has the minimum cost.
Second iteration: Check n - 1 nodes to determine minimum cost.
Third iteration: n - 2 nodes, and so on.
Total number of nodes searched: n(n + 1)/2
The implementation of the link state algorithm has worst-case
complexity of order n squared: O(n2).
A more sophisticated implementation of this algorithm, using a

data structure known as a heap, can find the minimum in line 9 in
logarithmic rather than linear time, thus reducing the complexity:
O( nlog(n) )
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Oscillations possibility:
Suppose link costs are equal to
the load carried on the link, or A
1
the delay that experienced. D 1+e
B
0 0
Link costs are not symmetric, 1 0 e
C
c(A,B) equals c(B,A) only if the 1
load on both directions on the e
AB link is the same. Fig. a- Initial routing
Nodes B and D originates a unit

of traffic destined for A.
Node C originates e unit for A.
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Discussion2 (cont.)
… oscillations possible: 1
A
Algorithm is run: C D 1+e
B
determines (Fig. a) the 0
0 0
1 C e
clockwise path to A has a cost 1
of 1, while the
counterclockwise path to A e
Fig. a- Initial routing
has a cost of 1 + e. Hence C ’s
least-cost path to A is now
clockwise. A
2+e 0
Similarly, B determines that D B
its new least-cost path to A is 1+e 1
0 0
also clockwise, resulting in 1 C 1
costs shown in Fig. b. e
Fig. b- B, C find better
path to A is clockwise
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Discussion2 (cont.)
A
… oscillations possible: 0 2+e
D B
0 0
When algorithm is run next, 1 1 C 1+e
1
nodes B, C, and D all detect a e
zero-cost path to A in the Fig. c- B, C, D find better
path to A is counterclockwise
counterclockwise direction,
and all route their traffic to A
the counterclockwise routes. 2+e 0
D B
The next time the LS 1+e 1
algorithm is run, B, C, and D all 1 0 0
C 1
then route their traffic to the
e
clockwise routes. Fig. d- B, C, D find better
path to A is clockwise
analoui@iust.ac.ir
To prevent such oscillations:

Solution1 :link costs not depend on the amount of traffic carried ,an
unacceptable solution since one goal of routing is to avoid highly congested
(for example, high-delay) links.
Solution2 :all routers do not run the LS algorithm at the same time
(a reasonable solution).
Routers run the LS algorithm with the same periodicity, the
execution instance of the algorithm would not be the same at
each node.
Researchers have noted: Routers in the Internet can self-
synchronize among themselves. That is, even though they
initially execute the algorithm with the same period but at
different instants of time, the algorithm execution instance can
eventually become, and remain, synchronized at the routers.
Avoid such self-synchronization: Introduce randomization into
the period between execution instants of the algorithm at each
node.
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Distance Vector Routing Algorithm
(Decentralized)
Iterative:
Distance Table data structure
continues until no
nodes exchange info. each node has its own:
self-terminating: no row for each possible destination
“signal” to stop column for each directly-
attached neighbor to node
Asynchronous:
example: in node X, for dest. Y
nodes need not
via neighbor Z: DX(Y,Z)
exchange info/iterate
in lock step!
X Z
distributed: D (Y,Z) = c(X,Z) + minw {D (Y,w)}
each node
distance from X to Y, via Z as next hop
communicates only with
directly-attached
neighbors
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Distance Table: example
neighbor: j
1 C
B A B D
7
8 2
A A 1 14 5
destination: i
1 E D B 7 8 5
source 2 C 6 9 4
E’s neighbor A D 4 11 2
B’s neighbor E
Distance table: D(i, j)
B
D (A,C)
C E
D (A,B)=
D
B B
E c(E,B) = c(E,B) + minw{D (A,w)}
… = 8 + 6 = 14
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Distance table gives routing table
cost to destination via

E Outgoing link
D () A B D E
D () to use, cost
A 1 14 5 A A,1
B 7 8 5 B D,5
C 6 9 4 C D,4
D 4 11 2 D D,4
Distance table Routing table

of node E
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Distance Vector Routing: overview
Iterative, asynchronous:
each local iteration caused
Each node:
by: wait for (change in local link
local link cost change cost or message from
message from neighbor: its neighbor)
least cost path change
from neighbor
Distributed: recompute distance table
each node notifies
neighbors only when its
least cost path to any if least cost path to any
destination changes destination has changed,
neighbors then notify notify neighbors
their neighbors if
necessary
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Distance Vector Algorithm:
* Y
DX (*,v) v
At node: X w
1 Initialization: DX (y,w)
X’s adjacents
destinations X
2 for all adjacent nodes v:
3 DX (*,v) = ∞ /* the * means "for all desstinations" */
4 DX (v,v) = c(X,v)
5 for all destinations, y

6 send minW DX (y,w) to each neighbor /* w over all
X's neighbors */
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Distance Vector Algorithm (cont.):
8 loop
9 wait ( until I see a link cost change to neighbor v
10 or until I receive update from neighbor v )
11
12 if ( c(X,v) changes by d )
13 /* change cost to all dest's via neighbor v by d */
14 /* note: d could be positive or negative */
15 for all destinations y: DX (y,v) = DX (y,v) + d
16
17 else if (update received from v for destination Y)
18 /* shortest path from V to some Y has changed */
19 /* V has sent a new value for its minW DV (Y,w) */
20 /* call this received new value is "newval" */
21 for the single destination y: DX (Y,v) = c(X,v) + newval
22
23 if we have a new minW DX(Y,w) for any destination Y
24 send new value of minW DX(Y,w) to all neighbors
25
26 forever
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Distance Vector Algorithm: example
Node X’s table
Y Node Y’s table

2 1
X Z
7
Node Z’s table

new minimum
time
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Distance Vector Algorithm: example
4
1 X dose not sends
3 DX(Y,Y) to Y and Z.
Y
2 1
X sends new 4
DX(Y,Z) to Y and Z
X Z 2 2
7
X learns this term from Y
X Y
1 D (Z,Y) = c(X,Y) + minw {D (Z,w)}
= 2+1 = 3
X learns this term from Z
X Z
D (Y,Z) = c(X,Z) + minw{D (Y,w)}
1 = 7+1 = 8
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Distance Vector: link cost changes
Link cost changes:
t0:Y detects local link cost change. t2: Y receives Z’s update and
updates distance table (line 15). then updates its table, DY (X,X)
least cost path DY (X,X) changes, not changed, terminate.
notify neighbors (lines 23,24).
t1: Z receives Y’s update and
then updates its table.
1 Y
4 1
X Z
50
algorithm
terminates
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Distance Vector: link cost changes
Link cost changes:

Routing loop: in order to 60 Y
get to X, Y routes through 4 1
Z, and Z routes through Y. X Z
“count to infinity” problem! 50
Y Y Y
algorithm
continues
on!
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Poisoned reverse solution: “count to infinity” problem!
If Z routes through Y to get to X :

60 Y
Z tells Y its (Z’s) distance to X is 1
4
infinite (so Y won’t route to X via Z)
X Z
will this completely solve count to 50
infinity problem?
algorithm
terminates
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Comparison of LS and DV algorithms
Message complexity Robustness: what happens
LS: with n nodes, E links, if router malfunctions?
O(nE) msgs sent each LS:
DV: exchange between Node (router) can
neighbors only advertise incorrect link
convergence time varies cost
Speed of Convergence each node computes only
its own table: robustness
LS: O(n2) algorithm requires
O(nE) msgs DV:
may have oscillations DV node can advertise
DV: convergence time varies incorrect least-cost
paths
may be routing loops
each node’s table used by
count-to-infinity problem
others
error propagate thru
network
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Chapter 4 Outline

4.7 IPv6
4.9 Mobility
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Hierarchical Routing
The routing study thus far was idealized

all routers identical
network “flat”
… not true in practice
scale: with 200 million administrative
destinations (hosts):
can’t store all dest’s in routing
autonomy:
tables (memory limitation)! internet = network of
routing table exchange would networks
leave no bandwidth left for each network admin may
sending data packets! want to control routing in its
DV algorithm that iterated own network
among large number of
routers never converge!
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Hierarchical Routing
aggregate routers into gateway routers

regions, “autonomous special routers in AS
systems” (AS) run intra-AS routing
routers in same AS run protocol with all other
routers in AS
same routing protocol
also responsible for
“intra-AS” routing
routing to destinations
protocol
outside AS
routers in different AS
run inter-AS routing
can run different intra-
protocol with other
AS routing protocol
gateway routers
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Intra--AS and Inter-
Intra Inter-AS routing
C.b
B.a Gateways:
A.a •perform inter-AS
b A.c c routing amongst
a themselves
a
b •perform intra-AS
C a
d B routers with other
c routers in their
A b
AS
▪Routers in an AS
Intra-AS
Intra- Inter-AS
Inter- have information
Routing Routing
Inter/intra-AS Algorithm Algorithm
about routing paths
routing in within that AS.
gateway A.c
Routing Table
DL DL DL
PHL PHL PHL
To/from A.b To/from B.a and A.a
To/from A.d
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Intra--AS and Inter-
Intra Inter-AS routing
C.b
B.a
A.a
Host2
b A.c c
a a
b
C a B
d Intra-AS routing
c
A b within AS B
Intra-AS routing
Host1 within AS A
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Chapter 4 outline

4.4.1 IPv4 addressing
4.4.2 Moving a datagram from source to destination
4.4.3 Datagram format
4.4.4 IP fragmentation
4.4.5 ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol
4.4.6 DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
4.4.7 NAT: Network Address Translation
4.7 IPv6
4.9 Mobility
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The Internet Network layer
Host, Router network-layer-functions:
Transport layer: TCP, UDP
Routing protocols IP protocol
Network layer
•path selection •addressing conventions
•RIP, OSPF, BGP •datagram format
•packet handling conventions
forwarding ICMP protocol

table •error reporting
•router “signaling”
Link layer
physical layer
ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol, RFC792
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Internet Routing Protocol
Intra-AS: administrator responsible for choice of
routing algorithm within network
Also known as Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP)
Most common Intra-AS routing protocols:
RIP: Routing Information Protocol (RFCs1058,2453)
– It is a distance vector protocol.
– Routing updates are exchanged between neighbors app. Every 30sec.
OSPF: Open Shortest Path First (RFC2328) (Open Spec.)

IGRP: Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (Cisco proprietary)
– These are link-state protocol that uses flooding of link information and a
Dijkstra least-cost path algorithm.
Inter-AS: unique standard for inter-AS routing:

BGP (RFC1771)
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IP Addressing: Introduction
223.1.1.1
IP address: 32-bit
identifier for host, 223.1.2.1
223.1.1.2
router interface 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
interface: connection 223.1.2.2
between host/router 223.1.1.3 223.1.3.27
and physical link

router’s typically have
multiple interfaces 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
host may have multiple
interfaces
IP addresses
associated with each 223.1.1.1 = 11011111 00000001 00000001 00000001
interface
223 1 1 1
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IP Addressing
223.1.1.1
IP address:
network part (high 223.1.2.1
223.1.1.2
order bits) 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
host part (low order
bits) 223.1.2.2
223.1.1.3 223.1.3.27
What’s a network ?
LAN
(from IP address
perspective) 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
device interfaces with
same network part of
IP address
can physically reach
network consisting of 3 IP networks
each other without
intervening router
analoui@iust.ac.ir
223.1.1.2
IP Addressing
How to find the 223.1.1.1 223.1.1.4
networks?
223.1.1.3
Detach each
interface from 223.1.9.2 223.1.7.0
router, host
create “islands of
isolated networks 223.1.9.1 223.1.7.1
223.1.8.1 223.1.8.0
223.1.2.6 223.1.3.27
Interconnected
system consisting 223.1.2.1 223.1.2.2 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
of six networks.
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Getting a datagram from source to dest.
forwarding table in A
Dest. Net. Next Router Nhops
223.1.1 1
IP datagram: 223.1.2 223.1.1.4 2
223.1.3 223.1.1.4 2
misc source dest
data
fields IP addr IP addr
A 223.1.1.1
datagram remains 223.1.2.1

unchanged, as it travels 223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
source to destination
addr fields of interest B
223.1.3.27 223.1.2.2 E
here 223.1.1.3
223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
analoui@iust.ac.ir
misc Dest. Net. Next Router Nhops
data
fields 223.1.1.1 223.1.1.3
223.1.1 1
223.1.2 223.1.1.4 2
Starting at A, send IP
223.1.3 223.1.1.4 2
datagram addressed to B:
look up net. address of B in
A 223.1.1.1
forwarding table
223.1.2.1
find B is on same net. as A 223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
link layer will send datagram
directly to B inside link-layer B
frame 223.1.3.27 223.1.2.2 E
223.1.1.3
B and A are directly
223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
connected
analoui@iust.ac.ir
misc Dest. Net. Next Router Nhops
data
fields 223.1.1.1 223.1.2.3
223.1.1 1
223.1.2 223.1.1.4 2
Starting at A, dest. E:
223.1.3 223.1.1.4 2
look up network address of E
in forwarding table
A 223.1.1.1
E on different network
223.1.2.1
A, E not directly attached 223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
routing table: next hop
router to E is 223.1.1.4 B
223.1.3.27 223.1.2.2 E
link layer sends datagram to
223.1.1.3
router 223.1.1.4 inside link-
223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
layer frame
datagram arrives at 223.1.1.4
continued…..
analoui@iust.ac.ir
forwarding table in router

misc Dest. Net Router Nhops Interface
data
fields 223.1.1.1 223.1.2.3
223.1.1 - 1 223.1.1.4
Arriving at 223.1.4, 223.1.2 - 1 223.1.2.9
223.1.3 - 1 223.1.3.27
destined for 223.1.2.2
look up network address of E
A 223.1.1.1
in router’s forwarding table
223.1.2.1
E on same network as router’s 223.1.1.2
interface 223.1.2.9 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
router, E directly attached B

223.1.3.27 223.1.2.2 E
link layer sends datagram to 223.1.1.3
223.1.2.2 inside link-layer
223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
frame via interface 223.1.2.9
datagram arrives at 223.1.2.2
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Private or Non-
Non-Routable addresses
Some addresses are reserved for use on local

networks that are not connected to the Internet
Routers do not consider these addresses to be valid
Internet addresses, and will not route a packet to any
of them
These addresses may be used on private internets not
directly connected to the Internet.
10.0.0.0/8 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
172.16.0.0/12 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
192.168.0.0/16 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
analoui@iust.ac.ir
IP Addresses: Class-
Class-full
given notion of “network”, let’s re-examine IP addresses:
“class-full” addressing:
class format range

1.0.0.0 to
A 0 network host 127.255.255.255
128.0.0.0 to
B 10 network host
191.255.255.255
192.0.0.0 to
C 110 network host
223.255.255.255
224.0.0.0 to
D 1110 multicast address
239.255.255.255
240.0.0.0 to
E 1111 reserved
255.255.255.255
32 bits
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Class--full Summary
Class
The Class System
Number of Decimal Number of
Address Number of Number of
Application Network Address Possible
Class Host Bits Networks
Bits Range Host
Large
Class A 8 bits 24 bits 1 - 126 126 16,777,214
Networks
Medium-
Class B 16 bits 16 bits 128 - 191 65,534 65,534
sized
Small
Class C 24 bits 8 bits 192 - 223 2,097,152 254
Networks
Class D and E
12.5%
Class C
12.5% Class A
50%
Class B
25%
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Address depletion
In 1991 IAB identified 3 dangers

Running out of class B addresses
Increase in nets has resulted in routing table explosion
Increase in net/hosts exhausting 32 bit address space
Four strategies to address
Creative address space allocation {RFC 2050}
Private addresses {RFC 1918}, Network Address
Translation (NAT) {RFC 1631}
Classless InterDomain Routing (CIDR) {RFC 1519}
IP version 6 (IPv6) {RFC 1883}
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Creative IP address allocation
Class A addresses 64 – 127 reserved

Handle on individual basis
Class B only assigned given a demonstrated need
Class C
divided up into 8 blocks allocated to regional authorities
208-223 remains unassigned and unallocated
Three main registries handle assignments
APNIC – Asia & Pacific www.apnic.net
ARIN – N. & S. America, Caribbean & sub-Saharan Africa
www.arin.net
RIPE – Europe and surrounding areas www.ripe.net
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Private IP Addresses
IP addresses that are not globally unique, but used

exclusively in an organization
Three ranges:
10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255 a single class A net
172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255 16 contiguous class Bs
192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255 256 contiguous class Cs
Connectivity provided by Network Address
Translator (NAT)
translates outgoing private IP address to Internet IP
address, and a return Internet IP address to a private
address
Only for TCP/UDP packets
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Special Purpose IP Addresses
Several Addresses within the classes are

reserved for special use.
0.0.0.0 :Source IP Addr. Just after Boot
network part of dest. Addr.= 0 :Source and
Destination are in same network.
Dest. Addr.=255.255.255.255 :Broadcast in
Sender’s network.
host part of Dest.=111… : Broadcast in
destination network.
Dest. Addr. = 127.anything : Loop Back
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Special Purpose Addresses-
Addresses-List
Address Block Present Use Reference
0.0.0.0/8 "This" Network [RFC1700, page 4]
10.0.0.0/8 Private-Use Networks [RFC1918]
14.0.0.0/8 Public-Data Networks [RFC1700, page 181]
24.0.0.0/8 Cable Television Networks
39.0.0.0/8 Reserved, subject to allocation [RFC1797]
127.0.0.0/8 Loop back [RFC1700, page 5]
128.0.0.0/16 Reserved but subject to allocation
169.254.0.0/16 Link Local –
191.255.0.0/16 Reserved but subject to allocation –
192.0.2.0/24 Test-Net
192.88.99.0/24 6to4 Relay Anycast [RFC3068]
198.18.0.0/15 Network Interconnect Device Benchmark Testing [RFC2544]
224.0.0.0/4 Multicast [RFC3171]
240.0.0.0/4 Reserved for Future Use [RFC1700]
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Class Inter Domain Routing
(CIDR)
Many organization have > 256 computers

but few have more than several thousand
Instead of giving class B (16384 nets) give
sufficient contiguous class C addresses to
satisfy needs
< 256 addresses assign 1 class C
…
< 8192 addresses assign 32 contiguous Class C
nets
analoui@iust.ac.ir
IP addressing: CIDR
Classful addressing:
inefficient use of address space, address space exhaustion
e.g., class B net allocated enough addresses for 65K hosts,
even if only 2K hosts in that network
CIDR: Classless Inter Domain Routing (RFC1519)
network portion of address of arbitrary length
address format: a.b.c.d/x, where x is # bits in network
portion of address
network host
part part
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
200.23.16.0/23
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Bit Masks and Subnet Masks
In a production environment this prefix typically

varies in length from 8 to 30 bits
/8 = 255.0.0.0 /16 = 255.255.0.0 /24 = 255.255.255.0

/9 = 255.128.0.0 /17 = 255.255.128.0 /25 = 255.255.255.128
/10 = 255.192.0.0 /18 = 255.255.192.0 /26 = 255.255.255.192
/11 = 255.224.0.0 /19 = 255.255.224.0 /27 = 255.255.255.224
/12 = 255.240.0.0 /20 = 255.255.240.0 /28 = 255.255.255.240
/13 = 255.248.0.0 /21 = 255.255.248.0 /29 = 255.255.255.248
/14 = 255.252.0.0 /22 = 255.255.252.0 /30 = 255.255.255.252
/15 = 255.254.0.0 /23 = 255.255.254.0 /31 = not usable
/32 = not usable
/30 yields two usable hosts and is used for WAN connections
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Prefix Equivalents
Network Prefix Equivalent Number of Class Addresses Number of Hosts
/27 1/8th of a Class C 32
/26 1/4th of a Class C 64

/25 1/2 of a Class C 128
/24 1 Class C 256
/23 2 Class C 512
/22 4 Class C 1,024

/21 8 Class C 2,048
/20 16 Class C 4,096
/19 32 Class C 8,192
/18 64 Class C 16,384

/17 128 Class C 32,768
/16 256 Class C or 1 Class B 65,536
/15 512 Class C or 2 Class B 131,072
/14 1,024 Class C or 4 Class B 262,144

/13 2048 Class C or 8 Class B 524,288
/12 4096 Class C or 16 Class B 1,048,576
/11 8192 Class C or 32 Class B 2,097,152
/10 16384 Class C or 64 Class B 4,194,304

/9 32768 Class C or 128 Class B 8,388,608
/8 65,536 Class C or 256 Class B or 1 Class A 16,777,216
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Protocols
Class-full Routing Protocols Classless Routing Protocol

RIP version1 RIP version2
IGPR EIGPR
EGP OSPF
BGP3 BGP4
IS-IS
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Examples
analoui@iust.ac.ir
IP addresses: how to get one?
Q: How does host get IP address?
IP addr. is configures into host by admin. in a file

Wintel: control-panel->network->configuration-
>tcp/ip->properties
UNIX: /etc/rc.config
DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (RFC2131):

dynamically get address from as server
“plug-and-play”
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Subnetting (Extended Network Prefix)
Q: How an organization gets network part of IP addr?

A: It gets allocated portion of its ISP’s address
space.
The ISP have been allocated the address block
ISP's block 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/20
Organization 0 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/23

Organization 1 11001000 00010111 00010010 00000000 200.23.18.0/23
Organization 2 11001000 00010111 00010100 00000000 200.23.20.0/23
... ….. …. ….
Organization 7 11001000 00010111 00011110 00000000 200.23.30.0/23
The ISP divides the block into 8 smaller addr.

blocks (subnets) and gives them to 8
organization.
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Hierarchical addressing: route aggregation
Hierarchical addressing allows efficient

advertisement of routing information:
Organization 0 route aggregation or

200.23.16.0/23 route summarization.
Organization 1 “Send me anything
200.23.18.0/23 with addresses
beginning
Organization 2 ISP1 200.23.16.0/20”
200.23.20.0/23 .
. 200.23.16.0/20
. . Internet
.
Organization 7 .
200.23.30.0/23
ISP2 “Send me anything
199.31.0.0/16 with addresses
beginning
199.31.0.0/16”
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Hierarchical addressing: more specific routes
ISP2 has a more specific route to Organization 1
The routers in Internet use a longest prefix matching rule, and route
toward ISP2, as it advertises the longest (more specific) address prefix
that matches the destination address.
Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23
“Send me anything
with addresses
beginning
Organization 2 200.23.16.0 /20”
200.23.20.0/23 . ISP1 20 bits
.
. .
. Internet
Organization 7 .
200.23.30.0/23
“Send me anything
ISP2
Organization 1 with addresses
beginning 199.31.0.0/16
200.23.18.0/23 or 200.23.18.0 /23”
23 bits
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Subnet Mask-
Mask-1
A subnet mask is applied to the host bits to

determine how the network is subnetted,
e.g. if the host is: 137.138.28.228, and the subnet mask
is 255.255.255.0 then the right hand 8 bits are for the
host (255 is decimal for all bits set in an octet)
Host addresses of all bits set or no bits set,
indicate a broadcast, i.e. the packet is sent to all
hosts.
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Subnet Mask-
Mask-2
ISP's block 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/20

ISP’s subnet mask 11111111 11111111 11110000 00000000 255.255.240.0
Organization 0 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/23

Organization 1 11001000 00010111 00010010 00000000 200.23.18.0/23
Organization 2 11001000 00010111 00010100 00000000 200.23.20.0/23
... ….. …. ….
Organization 7 11001000 00010111 00011110 00000000 200.23.30.0/23
Or’s subnet mask 11111111 11111111 11111110 00000000 255.255.254.0
Network part of an IP address= subnet mask & IP address
analoui@iust.ac.ir
IP addressing: ICANN
Q: How does an ISP get block of addresses?
A: ICANN: Internet Corporation for Assigned

Names and Numbers
allocates addresses
manages DNS
assigns domain names, resolves disputes
analoui@iust.ac.ir
CIDR: Subneting Example
You are assigned the CIDR address 200.32.108.0 /22 and

you must support the network shown in the diagram.
Create an addressing scheme that will meet the diagram
requirements.
100 computers
300 computers 100 computers
100 computers
analoui@iust.ac.ir
(Questions)
Given the CIDR address 200.32.108.0 /22

How many Class C networks do we have? 3 classes
How many host addresses do we have? 4x254 addresses
What is the largest LAN requirement? 300 addresses
Host required - 300, 100, 100, 100, and 3 WAN links
analoui@iust.ac.ir
0 0
200.32.108.0 200.32. 110.0
255 255
0 0
200.32. 109.0 200.32. 111.0
255 255
analoui@iust.ac.ir
0 0
200.32.108.0
200.32. 110.0
200.32.108.0 /23
0
300 hosts 255
0
255
200.32. 109.0
200.32. 111.0
255 255
analoui@iust.ac.ir
0 0 128
200.32.110.128 /25
200.32.110.0 /25
100 hosts
100 hosts
200.32.108.0 200.32. 110.0
200.32.108.0 /23
0
300 hosts 255
0
127 255
200.32. 109.0
200.32. 111.0
255 255
analoui@iust.ac.ir
0 0 128
200.32.110.128 /25
200.32.110.0 /25
100 hosts
100 hosts
200.32.108.0 200.32. 110.0
200.32.108.0 /23
300 hosts 255
0
127 255
0 128
200.32.111.0 /25
100 hosts
200.32. 109.0 200.32. 111.0
255 127 255
analoui@iust.ac.ir
0 0 128
200.32.110.128 /25
200.32.110.0 /25
100 hosts
100 hosts
200.32.108.0 200.32. 110.0
200.32.108.0 /23
300 hosts 255
0
127 255
0 128
200.32.111.0 /25
100 hosts
191
200.32. 109.0 192 224 200.32. 111.0
239
240 248
243 251 WAN links
244 252 /30
255 127 223 247 255
analoui@iust.ac.ir
(Results)
Given the CIDR address 200.32.108.0 /22
200.32.111.0 /25
1/2 Class C
100 computers
200.32.111.240 /30
200.32.111.248 /30
200.32.111.244 /30
300 computers
100 computers
200.32.108.0 /23 100 computers
2 Class C’s 200.32.110.128 /25
200.32.110.0 /25 1/2 Class C
1/2 Class C
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Supernetting Example-
Example-1
Company XYZ needs to address 400 hosts.
Its ISP gives them two contiguous Class C addresses:
207.21.54.0/24
207.21.55.0/24
Company XYZ can use a prefix of 207.21.54.0 /23 to supernet these two
contiguous networks. (Yielding 510 hosts)
207.21.54.0 /23
207.21.54.0/24
207.21.55.0/24
23 bits in common
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Supernetting Example-
Example-2
addressing authority of ISP,include XYZ,
be advertized to Internet as a single supernt
analoui@iust.ac.ir
CIDR and the Provider
example of route aggregation
advertising address: a.b.c.d/x
analoui@iust.ac.ir
IP datagram format
IP protocol version 32 bits
Number[4bits]
total datagram
header length head. “type” of
ver length length (bytes)
(bytes)[4bits] len service
fragment fragmentation/
“type” of data: Priority [3bits] 16-bit identifier flags
Delay[1bit]
offset Reassembly/
time to upper Checksum: 1’s add of
Throughput[1bit] DF, MF Flags
Reliability[1bit] live layer 16bits words in header
upper layer
32 bit source IP address
max number protocol
remaining hops 32 bit destination IP address to deliver
(decremented at payload to
each router) Options (if any) (rfc 1700)
1 :ICMP
data 6 :TCP
how much overhead (variable length, 17 :UDP
with TCP?
typically a TCP
20 bytes of TCP e.g. timestamp,
or UDP segment)
20 bytes of IP record route
= 40 bytes + app
taken, specify
A packet is unique in Internet by: list of routers
layer overhead Id + S. IP Add + D. IP Add + Upper L. to visit.
analoui@iust.ac.ir
IP Fragmentation & Reassembly
network links have MTU

(max.transfer size) - largest
possible link-level frame.
different link types, fragmentation:
different MTUs in: one large datagram
large IP datagram divided out: 3 smaller datagrams
(“fragmented”) within net
one datagram becomes
several datagrams
reassembly
“reassembled” only at final
destination
IP header bits used to
identify, order related
fragments
analoui@iust.ac.ir
IP Fragmentation and Reassembly
data
20 Byte 0……….3979
length ID fragflag offset
Example =4000 =x =0 =0
4000 Bytes
4000 byte
datagram
0……….1479
MTU = 1500 bytes
=1500 =x =1 =0
1480…2959
One large datagram becomes length ID fragflag offset
3 smaller datagrams. =1500 =x =1 =1480

=1040 =x =0 =2960
analoui@iust.ac.ir
ICMP:: Internet Control Message Protocol
ICMP
Network managers or users identify network problems.
One of the most frequently used debugging tools invokes the
ICMP echo request and echo reply messages.
A host or router sends an ICMP echo request message to a

specified destination.
The command users invoke to send ICMP echo requests is

named ping. Sophisticated versions of ping send a series of
ICMP echo requests, capture responses, and provide
statistics about datagram loss. They allow the user to
specify the length of the data being sent and the interval
between requests. Less sophisticated versions merely send
one ICMP echo request and await a reply.
analoui@iust.ac.ir
ICMP (Cont.)
Any machine that receives an echo request formulates an
echo reply and returns it to the original sender. The request
contains an optional data area; the reply contains a copy of
the data sent in the request. The echo request and
associated reply can be used to test whether a destination is
reachable and responding. Because both the request and
reply travel in IP datagrams, successful receipt of a reply
verifies that major pieces of the transport system work.
First, IP software on the source computer must route
the datagram.
Second, intermediate routers between the source and
destination must be operating and must route the
datagram correctly.
Third, the destination machine must be running (at least
it must respond to interrupts), and both ICMP and IP
software must be working.
Finally, all routers along the return path must have
correct routes.
analoui@iust.ac.ir
ICMP (Cont.)
The Internet Control Message Protocol allows routers to send error or
control messages to other routers or hosts; ICMP provides
communication between the Internet Protocol software on one machine
and the Internet Protocol software on another.
When a datagram causes an error, ICMP can only report the error
condition back to the original source of the datagram; the source must
relate the error to an individual application program or take other
action to correct the problem.
Each ICMP message has its own format. They all begin with the same
three fields:
an 8-bit TYPE field that identifies the message,
an 8-bit CODE field that provides further information about the

message type,
a 16-bit CHECKSUM field (ICMP uses the same additive checksum
algorithm as IP, but the ICMP checksum only covers the ICMP
message).
In addition, ICMP messages that report errors always include the
header and first 64 data bits of the datagram causing the problem.
analoui@iust.ac.ir
ICMP: TYPE, CODE
Type Code description
0 0 echo reply (ping)
3 0 dest. network unreachable
3 1 dest host unreachable
3 2 dest protocol unreachable
3 3 dest port unreachable
3 6 dest network unknown
3 7 dest host unknown
4 0 source quench (congestion
control - not used)
8 0 echo request (ping)
9 0 route advertisement
10 0 router discovery
11 0 TTL expired
12 0 bad IP header
analoui@iust.ac.ir
ICMP’s Message Format: an example
ICMP echo request or reply message format.
OPTIONAL DATA is a variable length field that contains data to be returned to the
sender. An echo reply always returns exactly the same data as was received in the
request. IDENTIFIER and SEQUENCE NUMBER are used by the sender to match
replies to requests. The value of the TYPE field specifies whether the message is a
request (8) or a reply (0).
The ICMP message is encapsulated in an IP datagram, which is further

encapsulated in a frame for transmission. To identify ICMP, the datagram
protocol field contains the value 1.
analoui@iust.ac.ir
DHCP:: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
DHCP
Goal: allow host to dynamically obtain its IP address

from network server when it joins network
Can renew its lease on address in use
Allows reuse of addresses (only hold address while connected
an “on”
Support for mobile users who want to join network (more
shortly)
DHCP overview:
host broadcasts “DHCP discover” msg
DHCP server responds with “DHCP offer” msg
host requests IP address: “DHCP request” msg
DHCP server sends address: “DHCP ack” msg

analoui@iust.ac.ir
DHCP client-
client-server scenario
DHCP
server
223.1.2.1
A 223.1.1.1
223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
B
223.1.3.27 223.1.2.2 arriving DHCP
223.1.1.3 E client needs
address in this
223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
network
analoui@iust.ac.ir
DHCP client-
client-server scenario
arriving
DHCP server: 223.1.2.5 client
DHCP discover
src : 0.0.0.0, 68
dest.: 255.255.255.255,67
yiaddr: 0.0.0.0
transaction ID: 654
DHCP offer
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
dest: 255.255.255.255, 68
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction ID: 654
Lifetime: 3600 secs
DHCP request
src: 0.0.0.0, 68
dest:: 255.255.255.255, 67
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction ID: 655
Lifetime: 3600 secs
DHCP ACK
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
dest: 255.255.255.255, 68
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
time transaction ID: 655
Lifetime: 3600 secs
analoui@iust.ac.ir
NAT: Network Address Translation
rest of local network

Internet (e.g., home network)
10.0.0/24 10.0.0.1
10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7
10.0.0.3
All datagrams leaving local Datagrams with source or

network have same single source destination in this network
NAT IP address: 138.76.29.7, have 10.0.0/24 address for
different source port numbers source, destination (as usual)
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Motivation: local network uses just one IP address as

far as outside word is concerned:
no need to be allocated range of addresses from ISP:
- just one IP address is used for all devices
can change addresses of devices in local network
without notifying outside world
can change ISP without changing addresses of
devices in local network
devices inside local net not explicitly addressable,
visible by outside world (a security plus).
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Implementation: NAT router must:
outgoing datagrams: replace (source IP address, port

#) of every outgoing datagram to (NAT IP address,
new port #)
. . . remote clients/servers will respond using (NAT
IP address, new port #) as destination addr.
remember (in NAT translation table) every (source

IP address, port #) to (NAT IP address, new port #)
translation pair
incoming datagrams: replace (NAT IP address, new

port #) in dest fields of every incoming datagram
with corresponding (source IP address, port #)
stored in NAT table
analoui@iust.ac.ir
NAT translation table

2: NAT router 1: host 10.0.0.1
WAN side addr LAN side addr
changes datagram sends datagram to
138.76.29.7, 5001 10.0.0.1, 3345 128.119.40, 80
source addr from
…… ……
10.0.0.1, 3345 to
138.76.29.7, 5001, S: 10.0.0.1, 3345
updates table D: 128.119.40.186, 80
10.0.0.1
1
S: 138.76.29.7, 5001
2 D: 128.119.40.186, 80 10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7 S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 10.0.0.1, 3345
4
S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 138.76.29.7, 5001 3 10.0.0.3
4: NAT router
3: Reply arrives changes datagram
dest. address: dest addr from
138.76.29.7, 5001 138.76.29.7, 5001 to 10.0.0.1, 3345
analoui@iust.ac.ir
16-bit port-number field:

60,000 simultaneous connections with a single
LAN-side address!
NAT is controversial:
routers should only process up to layer 3
violates end-to-end argument
NAT possibility must be taken into account by app
designers, eg, P2P applications
address shortage should instead be solved by
IPv6
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Chapter 4 Outline

4.5.1 Intra-AS routing: RIP and OSPF
4.5.2 Inter-AS routing: BGP
4.6 What’s Inside a Router?

4.7 IPv6
4.9 Mobility
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Routing in the Internet
(RC1812) Requirements for IP Version 4 Routers
The Global Internet consists of Autonomous Systems

(AS) interconnected with each other:
Stub AS: small corporation: one connection to other AS’s
Multihomed AS: large corporation (no transit): multiple
connections to other AS’s
Transit AS: provider, hooking many AS’s together
Two-level routing:
Intra-AS: administrator responsible for choice of routing
algorithm within network
Inter-AS: unique standard for inter-AS routing:
BGP(RFC1771)
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Internet AS Hierarchy
Intra-AS border (exterior gateway) routers
C.b
B.a
C A.a
b A.c c
a
a
b
a
A d B
c
b
Inter-AS (interior gateway) routers

analoui@iust.ac.ir
Intra--AS Routing
Intra
Also known as Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP)

Most common Intra-AS routing protocols:
RIP: Routing Information Protocol

OSPF: Open Shortest Path First
IGRP: Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (Cisco

proprietary)
analoui@iust.ac.ir
RIP ( Routing Information Protocol)
Distance vector algorithm

Included in BSD-UNIX Distribution in 1982
Distance metric: # of hops (max = 15 hops)
Can you guess why?
Distance vectors: exchanged among neighbors every

30 sec via Response Message (also called
advertisement)
Each advertisement: list of up to 25 destination nets
within AS
analoui@iust.ac.ir
RIP: Example
z
w x y
A D B
C
Destination Network Next Router Num. of hops to dest.
w A 2
y B 2
z B 7
x -- 1
…. …. ....
Routing table in D
analoui@iust.ac.ir
RIP: Example
Dest Next hops
w - - Advertisement
x - - from A to D
z C 4
…. … ...
z
w x y
A D B
Destination Network Next Router Num. of hops to dest.

w A 2
y B 2
z B A 7 5
x -- 1
…. …. ....
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Jamali@iust.ac.ir Routing table in D IUST-Network
RIP: Link Failure and Recovery
If no advertisement heard after 180 sec -->

neighbor/link declared dead
routes via neighbor invalidated
new advertisements sent to neighbors
neighbors in turn send out new advertisements (if

tables changed)
link failure info quickly propagates to entire net
poison reverse used to prevent ping-pong loops

(infinite distance = 16 hops)
analoui@iust.ac.ir
RIP Table processing
RIP routing tables managed by application-level

process called route-d (daemon)
advertisements sent in UDP packets, periodically
repeated
routed routed
Transprt Transprt
(UDP) (UDP)
network forwarding forwarding network
(IP) table table (IP)
link link
physical physical
analoui@iust.ac.ir
RIP Table example (continued)
Router: giroflee.eurocom.fr
Destination Gateway Flags Ref Use Interface
-------------------- -------------------- ----- ----- ------ ---------
127.0.0.1 127.0.0.1 UH 0 26492 lo0
192.168.2. 192.168.2.5 U 2 13 fa0
193.55.114. 193.55.114.6 U 3 58503 le0
192.168.3. 192.168.3.5 U 2 25 qaa0
224.0.0.0 193.55.114.6 U 3 0 le0
default 193.55.114.129 UG 0 143454
Three attached class C networks (LANs)

Router only knows routes to attached LANs
Default router used to “go up”
Route multicast address: 224.0.0.0
Loopback interface (for debugging)
analoui@iust.ac.ir
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
“open”: publicly available

Uses Link State algorithm
LS packet dissemination
Topology map at each node
Route computation using Dijkstra’s algorithm
OSPF advertisement carries one entry per neighbor

router
Advertisements disseminated to entire AS (via
flooding)
Carried in OSPF messages directly over IP (rather than TCP
or UDP
analoui@iust.ac.ir
OSPF “advanced” features (not in RIP)
Security: all OSPF messages authenticated (to

prevent malicious intrusion)
Multiple same-cost paths allowed (only one path in
RIP)
For each link, multiple cost metrics for different
TOS (e.g., satellite link cost set “low” for best effort;
high for real time)
Integrated uni- and multicast support:
Multicast OSPF (MOSPF) uses same topology data
base as OSPF
Hierarchical OSPF in large domains.
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Hierarchical OSPF
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Hierarchical OSPF
Two-level hierarchy: local area, backbone.

Link-state advertisements only in area
each nodes has detailed area topology; only know

direction (shortest path) to nets in other areas.
Area border routers: “summarize” distances to nets
in own area, advertise to other Area Border routers.
Backbone routers: run OSPF routing limited to
backbone.
Boundary routers: connect to other AS’s.
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Inter--AS routing in the Internet: BGP
Inter
R4
R5 BGP
R3 AS3
(OSPF intra-AS
AS1 AS2 routing)
(RIP intra-AS routing) (OSPF
BGP intra-AS
routing)
R1 R2
Figure 4.5.2-new2: BGP use for inter-domain routing
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Internet inter-
inter-AS routing: BGP
BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): the de facto

standard
Path Vector protocol:
similar to Distance Vector protocol
each Border Gateway broadcast to neighbors

(peers) entire path (i.e., sequence of AS’s) to
destination
BGP routes to networks (ASs), not individual
hosts
E.g., Gateway X may send its path to dest. Z:
Path (X,Z) = X,Y1,Y2,Y3,…,Z

analoui@iust.ac.ir
Internet inter-
inter-AS routing: BGP
Suppose: gateway X send its path to peer gateway W

W may or may not select path offered by X
cost, policy (don’t route via competitors AS), loop
prevention reasons.
If W selects path advertised by X, then:
Path (W,Z) = w, Path (X,Z)
Note: X can control incoming traffic by controlling it
route advertisements to peers:
e.g., don’t want to route traffic to Z -> don’t
advertise any routes to Z
analoui@iust.ac.ir
BGP: controlling who routes to you
B provider
legend:
X network
W A
customer
C network
Figure 4.5- BGPnew : a simple BGP scenario
A,B,C are provider networks

X,W,Y are customer (of provider networks)
X is dual-homed: attached to two networks
X does not want to route from B via X to C
.. so X will not advertise to B a route to C
analoui@iust.ac.ir
BGP: controlling who routes to you
B provider
legend:
X network
W A
customer
C network
A advertises to B the path AW

B advertises to W the path BAW
Should B advertise to C the path BAW?
No way! B gets no “revenue” for routing CBAW since neither
W nor C are B’s customers
B wants to force C to route to w via A
B wants to route only to/from its customers!
analoui@iust.ac.ir
BGP operation
Q: What does a BGP router do?

Receiving and filtering route advertisements from
directly attached neighbor(s).
Route selection.
To route to destination X, which path )of
several advertised) will be taken?
Sending route advertisements to neighbors.
analoui@iust.ac.ir
BGP messages
BGP messages exchanged using TCP.

BGP messages:
OPEN: opens TCP connection to peer and
authenticates sender
UPDATE: advertises new path (or withdraws old)
KEEPALIVE keeps connection alive in absence of

UPDATES; also ACKs OPEN request
NOTIFICATION: reports errors in previous msg;
also used to close connection
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Why different Intra-
Intra- and Inter-
Inter-AS routing ?
Policy:
Inter-AS: admin wants control over how its traffic
routed, who routes through its net.
Intra-AS: single admin, so no policy decisions needed
Scale:
hierarchical routing saves table size, reduced update
traffic
Performance:
Intra-AS: can focus on performance
Inter-AS: policy may dominate over performance
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Chapter 4 Outline

4.7 IPv6
4.9 Mobility
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Router Architecture Overview
Two key router functions:

run routing algorithms/protocol (RIP, OSPF, BGP)
switching datagrams from incoming to outgoing link
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Input Port Functions
Physical layer:
bit-level reception
Data link layer: Decentralized switching:

e.g., Ethernet given datagram dest., lookup output port
see chapter 5 using routing table in input port memory
goal: complete input port processing at
‘line speed’
queuing: if datagrams arrive faster than
forwarding rate into switch fabric
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Input Port Queuing
Fabric slower that input ports combined -> queueing

may occur at input queues
Head-of-the-Line (HOL) blocking: queued datagram
at front of queue prevents others in queue from
moving forward
queueing delay and loss due to input buffer overflow!
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Three Types of Switching Fabrics
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Switching Via Memory
First generation routers:
packet copied by system’s (single) CPU
speed limited by memory bandwidth (2 bus
crossings per datagram)
Input Memory Output
Port Port
System Bus
Modern routers:
input port processor performs lookup, copy into
memory
Cisco Catalyst 8500
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Jamali@iust.ac.ir IUST-Network Layer
Network Layer 4-140
Switching Via a Bus
datagram from input port memory

to output port memory via a shared
bus
bus contention: switching speed
limited by bus bandwidth
1 Gbps bus, Cisco 1900: sufficient
speed for access and enterprise
routers (not regional or backbone)
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Switching Via An Interconnection Network
overcome bus bandwidth limitations

Banyan networks, other interconnection nets
initially developed to connect processors in
multiprocessor
Advanced design: fragmenting datagram into fixed
length cells, switch cells through the fabric.
Cisco 12000: switches Gbps through the
interconnection network
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Output Ports
Buffering required when datagrams arrive from

fabric faster than the transmission rate
Scheduling discipline chooses among queued
datagrams for transmission
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Output port queuing
buffering when arrival rate via switch exceeds

output line speed
queueing (delay) and loss due to output port
buffer overflow!
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Chapter 4 Outline

4.7 IPv6
4.9 Mobility
analoui@iust.ac.ir
IPv6
Initial motivation: 32-bit address space

completely allocated by 2008.
Additional motivation:
header format helps speed processing/forwarding
header changes to facilitate QoS
new “anycast” address: route to “best” of several
replicated servers
IPv6 datagram format:
fixed-length 40 byte header
no fragmentation allowed
analoui@iust.ac.ir
IPv6 Header (Cont)
Priority: identify priority among datagrams in flow

Flow Label: identify datagrams in same “flow.”
(concept of“flow” not well defined).
Next header: identify upper layer protocol for data
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Other Changes from IPv4
Checksum: removed entirely to reduce

processing time at each hop
Options: allowed, but outside of header,
indicated by “Next Header” field
ICMPv6: new version of ICMP
additional message types, e.g. “Packet Too Big”
multicast group management functions
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Transition From IPv4 To IPv6
Not all routers can be upgraded simultaneous

no “flag days”
How will the network operate with mixed IPv4 and
IPv6 routers?
Two proposed approaches:
Dual Stack: some routers with dual stack (v6, v4)
can “translate” between formats
Tunneling: IPv6 carried as payload in IPv4
datagram among IPv4 routers
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Dual Stack Approach
A B C D E F
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6
Flow: X Src:A Src:A Flow: ??

Src: A Dest: F Dest: F Src: A
Dest: F Dest: F
data data data data
A-to-B: B-to-C: B-to-C: B-to-C:

IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Tunneling--Analogy
Tunneling
A B E F
Logical view: tunnel
IPv6 IPv6 IPv6 IPv6
Analogy:
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Tunneling--Physical View
Tunneling
A B E F
Logical view: tunnel
IPv6 IPv6 IPv6 IPv6
A B C D E F
Physical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6
Flow: X Src:B Src:B Flow: X

Src: A Dest: E Dest: E Src: A
Dest: F Dest: F
Flow: X Flow: X
Src: A Src: A
data Dest: F Dest: F data
data data
A-to-B: B-to-C: B-to-C: E-to-F:

IPv6 IPv6 inside IPv6 inside IPv6
IPv4 IPv4
analoui@iust.ac.ir
RFC2474: Differentiated Services Field (DS
RFC2474:
Field) in the IPv4 and IPv6 Headers
Differentiated services are intended to enable deployment
of scalable service discrimination in the Internet.
Architecture is separated into two major components, one of
which is fairly well-understood and the other of which is
just beginning to be understood.
Decision is made to separate the forwarding and routing

components (as in original design of Internet).
Packet forwarding is the relatively simple task that needs to
be performed on a per-packet basis as quickly as possible.
Forwarding uses the packet header to find an entry in a
routing table that determines the packet's output interface.
Routing sets the entries in that table and may need to

reflect a range of transit and other policies as well as to
keep track of route failures.
analoui@iust.ac.ir
RFC2474 (cont)
Routing tables are maintained as a background process to
the forwarding task. Further, routing is the more complex
task and it has continued to evolve over the past 20 years.
Analogously, the differentiated services architecture
contains two main components.
One is the fairly well-understood behavior in the forwarding
path and the other is the more complex and still emerging
background policy and allocation component that configures
parameters used in the forwarding path.
The forwarding path behaviors include the differential
treatment an individual packet receives, as implemented by
queue service disciplines and/or queue management
disciplines.
These per-hop behaviors are useful and required in network
nodes to deliver differentiated treatment of packets no
matter how we construct end-to-end or intra-domain
services.
Focus is on the general semantics of the behaviors rather
than the specific mechanisms used to implement them since
these behaviors will evolve less rapidly than the mechanisms.
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Chapter 4 roadmap

4.7 IPv6
4.9 Mobility
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Multicast: one sender to many receivers
Multicast: act of sending datagram to multiple

receivers with single “transmit” operation
analogy: one teacher to many students
Question: how to achieve multicast
Multicast via unicast

source sends N
unicast datagrams,
one addressed to
each of N receivers
routers multicast receiver (red)
forward unicast
not a multicast receiver (red)
datagrams
analoui@iust.ac.ir

Network multicast
Router actively
participate in multicast,
making copies of packets
as needed and
forwarding towards
Multicast
routers (red) duplicate and
multicast receivers
forward multicast datagrams
analoui@iust.ac.ir

Application-layer
multicast
end systems involved in
multicast copy and
forward unicast
datagrams among
themselves
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Internet Multicast Service Model
128.59.16.12
128.119.40.186
multicast 128.34.108.63
group
226.17.30.197
128.34.108.60
multicast group concept: use of indirection

hosts addresses IP datagram to multicast group
routers forward multicast datagrams to hosts that

have “joined” that multicast group
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Multicast groups
class D Internet addresses reserved for multicast:
host group semantics:

o anyone can “join” (receive) multicast group
o anyone can send to multicast group
o no network-layer identification to hosts of
members
needed: infrastructure to deliver mcast-addressed
datagrams to all hosts that have joined that multicast
group
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Joining a multicast group: two-
two-step process
local: host informs local mcast router of desire to join

group: IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol)
wide area: local router interacts with other routers to
receive mcast datagram flow
many protocols (e.g., DVMRP, MOSPF, PIM)
IGMP
IGMP
wide-area
multicast
routing
analoui@iust.ac.ir
IGMP
IGMP: Internet Group Management Protocol
host: sends IGMP report when application joins

mcast group
IP_ADD_MEMBERSHIP socket option
host need not explicitly “unjoin” group when

leaving
router: sends IGMP query at regular intervals
host belonging to a mcast group must reply to
query
query report
analoui@iust.ac.ir
IGMP
IGMP version 1 IGMP v2: additions
router: Host include
Membership Query group-specific Query
msg broadcast on LAN Leave Group msg
to all hosts last host replying to Query
host: Host can send explicit Leave
Membership Report Group msg
msg to indicate group router performs group-
specific query to see if any
membership
hosts left in group
randomized delay
RFC 2236
before responding
implicit leave via no IGMP v3: under development
reply to Query as Internet draft
RFC 1112
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Multicast Routing: Problem Statement
Goal: find a tree (or trees) connecting

routers having local mcast group members
tree: not all paths between routers used
source-based: different tree from each sender to rcvrs
shared-tree: same tree used by all group members
Shared tree Source-based trees

analoui@iust.ac.ir
Approaches for building multicast trees
Approaches:
source-based tree: one tree per source
shortest path trees
reverse path forwarding
group-shared tree: group uses one tree
minimal spanning (Steiner)
center-based trees
…we first look at basic approaches, then specific

protocols adopting these approaches
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Shortest Path Tree
mcast forwarding tree: tree of shortest

path routes from source to all receivers
Dijkstra’s algorithm
S: source LEGEND
R1 2
1 R4 router with attached
group member
R2 5
router with no attached
3 4
R5 group member
R3 6 i link used for forwarding,
R6 R7 i indicates order link
added by algorithm
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Reverse Path Forwarding
rely on router’s knowledge of unicast

shortest path from it to sender
each router has simple forwarding behavior:
if (mcast datagram received on incoming link

on shortest path back to center)
then flood datagram onto all outgoing links
else ignore datagram
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Reverse Path Forwarding: example
S: source
LEGEND
R1
R4 router with attached
group member
R2
router with no attached
R5 group member
R3 datagram will be
R6 R7 forwarded
datagram will not be
forwarded
• result is a source-specific reverse SPT

– may be a bad choice with asymmetric links
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Reverse Path Forwarding: pruning
forwarding tree contains subtrees with no mcast

group members
no need to forward datagrams down subtree
“prune” msgs sent upstream by router with no

downstream group members
S: source LEGEND

R4
group member
R2 router with no attached

P group member
P
R5 prune message
R3 P links with multicast
R6 R7 forwarding
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Shared--Tree: Steiner Tree
Shared
Steiner Tree: minimum cost tree

connecting all routers with attached group
members
problem is NP-complete
excellent heuristics exists
not used in practice:
computational complexity
information about entire network needed
monolithic: rerun whenever a router needs to
join/leave
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Center--based trees
Center
single delivery tree shared by all

one router identified as “center” of tree
to join:
edge router sends unicast join-msg addressed
to center router
join-msg “processed” by intermediate routers
and forwarded towards center
join-msg either hits existing tree branch for
this center, or arrives at center
path taken by join-msg becomes new branch of
tree for this router
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Center--based trees: an example
Center
Suppose R6 chosen as center:
LEGEND

R4
3 group member
R2 router with no attached

2 group member
1
R5 path order in which join
messages generated
R3
1 R6 R7
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Internet Multicasting Routing: DVMRP
DVMRP: distance vector multicast routing

protocol, RFC1075
flood and prune: reverse path forwarding,
source-based tree
RPF tree based on DVMRP’s own routing tables
constructed by communicating DVMRP routers
no assumptions about underlying unicast
initial datagram to mcast group flooded
everywhere via RPF
routers not wanting group: send upstream prune
msgs
analoui@iust.ac.ir
DVMRP: continued…
soft state: DVMRP router periodically (1 min.)

“forgets” branches are pruned:
mcast data again flows down unpruned branch
downstream router: reprune or else continue to
receive data
routers can quickly regraft to tree
following IGMP join at leaf
odds and ends
commonly implemented in commercial routers
Mbone routing done using DVMRP
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Tunneling
Q: How to connect “islands” of multicast

routers in a “sea” of unicast routers?
physical topology logical topology
mcast datagram encapsulated inside “normal” (non-multicast-

addressed) datagram
normal IP datagram sent thru “tunnel” via regular IP unicast to
receiving mcast router
receiving mcast router unencapsulates to get mcast datagram
analoui@iust.ac.ir
PIM: Protocol Independent Multicast
not dependent on any specific underlying unicast

routing algorithm (works with all)
two different multicast distribution scenarios :
Dense: Sparse:
group members # networks with group
densely packed, in members small wrt #
“close” proximity. interconnected networks
bandwidth more group members “widely
plentiful dispersed”
bandwidth not plentiful
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Consequences of Sparse-
Sparse-Dense Dichotomy:
Dense Sparse:
group membership by no membership until
routers assumed until routers explicitly join
routers explicitly prune receiver- driven
data-driven construction construction of mcast
on mcast tree (e.g., RPF) tree (e.g., center-based)
bandwidth and non- bandwidth and non-group-
group-router processing router processing
profligate conservative
analoui@iust.ac.ir
PIM-- Dense Mode
PIM
flood-and-prune RPF, similar to DVMRP but

underlying unicast protocol provides RPF info
for incoming datagram
less complicated (less efficient) downstream
flood than DVMRP reduces reliance on
underlying routing algorithm
has protocol mechanism for router to detect it
is a leaf-node router
analoui@iust.ac.ir
PIM - Sparse Mode
center-based approach
router sends join msg
to rendezvous point R1
R4
(RP) join
intermediate routers R2
join
update state and
forward join R5
join
after joining via RP, R3 R7
router can switch to R6
source-specific tree all data multicast rendezvous

increased performance: from rendezvous point
less concentration, point
shorter paths
analoui@iust.ac.ir
PIM - Sparse Mode
sender(s):
unicast data to RP,
which distributes down R1
R4
RP-rooted tree join
RP can extend mcast R2

join
tree upstream to R5
source join
R3 R7
RP can send stop msg R6
if no attached
all data multicast rendezvous
receivers from rendezvous point
“no one is listening!” point
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Chapter 4 roadmap

4.7 IPv6
4.9 Mobility
analoui@iust.ac.ir
What is mobility?
spectrum of mobility, from the network perspective:
no mobility high mobility
mobile user, using mobile user, mobile user, passing

same access point connecting/ through multiple
disconnecting access point while
from network maintaining ongoing
using DHCP. connections (like cell
phone)
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Mobility: Vocabulary
home network: permanent home agent: entity that will

“home” of mobile perform mobility functions on
(e.g., 128.119.40/24)
behalf of mobile, when mobile
is remote
wide area
network
Permanent address:
address in home
network, can always be
used to reach mobile
e.g., 128.119.40.186 correspondent
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Mobility: more vocabulary
visited network: network

Permanent address: remains in which mobile currently
constant (e.g., 128.119.40.186) resides (e.g., 79.129.13/24)
Care-of-address: address
in visited network.
(e.g., 79,129.13.2)
wide area
network
home agent: entity in

visited network that
performs mobility
correspondent: wants functions on behalf
to communicate with of mobile.
mobile
analoui@iust.ac.ir IUST-Network
Jamali@iust.ac.ir Network LayerLayer 4-184
How do you contact a mobile friend:
Consider friend frequently changing I wonder where

addresses, how do you find her? Ali moved to?
search all phone
books?
call her parents?
expect her to let you
know where he/she is?
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Mobility: approaches
Let routing handle it: routers advertise permanent

address of mobile-nodes-in-residence via usual
routing table exchange.
routing tables indicate where each mobile located
no changes to end-systems
Let end-systems handle it:

indirect routing: communication from
correspondent to mobile goes through home
agent, then forwarded to remote
direct routing: correspondent gets foreign
address of mobile, sends directly to mobile
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Mobility: approaches
Let routing handle it: routers advertise permanent

address of mobile-nodes-in-residence
not via usual
scalable
routing table exchange.
to millions of
routing tables indicate
mobiles where each mobile located
no changes to end-systems
let end-systems handle it:

indirect routing: communication from
correspondent to mobile goes through home
agent, then forwarded to remote
direct routing: correspondent gets foreign
address of mobile, sends directly to mobile
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Mobility: registration
visited network
home network
1
2
wide area
network
mobile contacts
foreign agent contacts home foreign agent on
agent home: “this mobile is entering visited
resident in my network” network
End result:
Foreign agent knows about mobile
Home agent knows location of mobile
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Mobility via Indirect Routing
foreign agent
receives packets,
home agent intercepts forwards to mobile
packets, forwards to visited
foreign agent network
home
network
3
wide area
network
2
1
correspondent 4
addresses packets
mobile replies
using home address
directly to
of mobile
correspondent
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Indirect Routing: comments
Mobile uses two addresses:

permanent address: used by correspondent (hence
mobile location is transparent to correspondent)
care-of-address: used by home agent to forward
datagrams to mobile
foreign agent functions may be done by mobile itself
triangle routing: correspondent-home-network-
mobile
inefficient when
correspondent, mobile
are in same network
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Forwarding datagrams to remote mobile
foreign-agent-to-mobile packet
packet sent by home agent to foreign dest: 128.119.40.186
agent: a packet within a packet
dest: 79.129.13.2 dest: 128.119.40.186
Permanent address:
128.119.40.186
Care-of address:
79.129.13.2
dest: 128.119.40.186
packet sent by
correspondent
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Indirect Routing: moving between networks
suppose mobile user moves to another

network
registers with new foreign agent
new foreign agent registers with home agent
home agent update care-of-address for mobile
packets continue to be forwarded to mobile (but
with new care-of-address)
Mobility, changing foreign networks
transparent: on going connections can be
maintained!
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Mobility via Direct Routing
foreign agent
receives packets,
correspondent forwards forwards to mobile
to foreign agent visited
network
home
network 4
wide area
2 network
3
correspondent 1 4
requests, receives
mobile replies
foreign address of
directly to
mobile
correspondent
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Mobility via Direct Routing: comments
overcome triangle routing problem

non-transparent to correspondent:
correspondent must get care-of-address
from home agent
What happens if mobile changes networks?
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Mobile IP
RFC 3220
has many features we’ve seen:
home agents, foreign agents, foreign-agent
registration, care-of-addresses, encapsulation
(packet-within-a-packet)
three components to standard:
agent discovery
registration with home agent
indirect routing of datagrams
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Mobile IP: agent discovery
agent advertisement: foreign/home agents advertise

service by broadcasting ICMP messages (typefield = 9)
0 8 16 24
type = 9 code = 0 checksum

=9
H,F bits: home standard
and/or foreign agent router address ICMP fields
R bit: registration
required type = 16 length sequence #
RBHFMGV
registration lifetime reserved
bits mobility agent
advertisement
0 or more care-of- extension
addresses
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Mobile IP: registration example
visited network: 79.129.13/24

home agent foreign agent
HA: 128.119.40.7 COA: 79.129.13.2 ICMP agent adv. Mobile agent
COA: 79.129.13.2 MA: 128.119.40.186
….
registration req.
registration req.
COA: 79.129.13.2
COA: 79.129.13.2 HA: 128.119.40.7
HA: 128.119.40.7 MA: 128.119.40.186
MA: 128.119.40.186 Lifetime: 9999
Lifetime: 9999 identification:714
identification: 714 ….
encapsulation format
….
registration reply
time HA: 128.119.40.7
registration reply
MA: 128.119.40.186
Lifetime: 4999 HA: 128.119.40.7
Identification: 714 MA: 128.119.40.18 6
encapsulation format Lifetime: 4999
…. Identification: 714
….
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Network Layer: summary
What we’ve covered:

network layer services
routing principles: link state and
distance vector
hierarchical routing
IP
Internet routing protocols RIP,
OSPF, BGP
what’s inside a router?
IPv6
mobility
analoui@iust.ac.ir
HW4
3, 4a, 4f, 5, 9
analoui@iust.ac.ir
Home Work4
‫
ز از
رم ب‬
.
‫ را‬Computer Networking 3edition
21, 22a, 22f, 23, 26
‫ ار"ل‬jamali@iust.ac.ir ‫"! درا درس‬#
, Subject: HW4 ”Student ID Number”.
., ‫ دي
اه‬6 %&'( )‫
در *ر‬
. * power point ‫"! د را‬#
analoui@iust.ac.ir

CN Chp4 (Compatibility Mode)

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Computer Networks

Chapter goals: Overview:

4.1 Introduction and Network Service Models

transport packet from application

every host, router data link

path determination: route

taken by packets from source network

forwarding: move packets

Q: What service model for

“source-to-destination path behaves much like

used to setup, maintain teardown VC

no call setup at network layer

application 1. Send Data

Internet best effort none no no no no (inferred

ATM VBR guaranteed yes yes yes no

Internet model being extended: Integrated services,

Connection Establishment Failure Probability

Guaranteed Quality of Service

Specified through QoS parameter values

Parameter bounds based on history, that is, past

No guarantees of quality, no QoS parameter values

Performance Degradation in current TCP

The role of the router (i.e., network)

Router Internet Router

Buffer size Dropping packets

Single queue maintained

Single queue maintained

Single queue maintained

Single queue maintained

Single queue maintained

Better congestion notification for responsive flows

Maintain shorter queues

Fairness in drops (proportional)

Max Queue Size Drop probability

4.1 Introduction and Network Service Models

Dijkstra’s algorithm (global)

computes least cost paths from one

iterative: after k iterations, know least

computes least cost paths from node A to all other nodes

Step start N D(B),p(B) D(C),p(C) D(D),p(D) D(E),p(E) D(F),p(F)

Algorithm complexity: Suppose there are n nodes, except source

First iteration: Search through all n nodes to determine the node,

A more sophisticated implementation of this algorithm, using a

Nodes B and D originates a unit

To prevent such oscillations:

cost to destination via

Distance table Routing table

5 for all destinations, y

Node X’s table

Y Node Y’s table

Node Z’s table

X learns this term from Z

Link cost changes:

If Z routes through Y to get to X :

4.1 Introduction and Network Service Models

The routing study thus far was idealized

aggregate routers into gateway routers

4.1 Introduction and Network Service Models

Routing protocols IP protocol

forwarding ICMP protocol

ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol, RFC792

OSPF: Open Shortest Path First (RFC2328) (Open Spec.)