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SUPER-
CONDUCTIVITY
3
Ernest A. Lynton
METHUENS MONOGRAPHS ON
PHYSICAL SUBJECTS
Superconductivity
ERNEST
A.
LYNTON
The book
SECOND EDITION
LONDON
METHUEN & CO. LTD
NEW YORK
JOHN WILEY & SONS INC
methuen's monographs
on physical subjects
General Editor: B. L.
WORSNOP,
b.sc, ph.d.
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
Superconductivity
E. A. Lynton
Professor of Physics
Rutgers, The State University
New Brunswick, N.J., U.S.A.
Powder patterns of the intermediate stale, showing thesbrinking of the superconducting (dark) regions as /; takes on the
values (left to right, top to bottom) 0, 008, 027, 053, 0-79, and
0-90.
(After Faber, 1958. Reproduced by kind permission of the
Royal Society and the author.) Proc. Roy. Soc. A248 464,
plate 25.
in
Great Britain by
Spottiswoode, Ballantyne
London
&
& Co Ltd
Colchester
CHRJS.
i
For Carla
Acknowledgements
Contents
This book has grown, beyond recognition, from a set of lecture notes
written and used during my stay at the Institut Fourier of the Univerof Grenoble in 1959-60.
sity
Basic Characteristics
have helped me with written or oral comments, with news of their unpublished work, with preprints, and with copies of graphs. In particular I thank Drs Coles, Collins, Cooper, Douglass, Faber, Garfunkel,
Goodman, Masuda,
Waldram.
My colleagues Lindenfeld,
all
Perfect conductivity
1.3
1.4
1.5
Theoretical treatments
9
11
13
16
2.2
2.3
Interrelation
many
years.
He found
September 1961
E. A.
2.4
The Gorter-Casimir
This edition contains revisions and additions which bring the monograph essentially up to date, as of the end of June 1964. The treatment
3.3
Trapped
of superconductors of the second kind has been considerably amplia discussion of the Josephson effect has been added, and a num-
3.4
3.5
3.6
Quantized flux
incor-
Dr
many
unfortunately reached
comments and
me too
help.
comments
to be included
IV
E. A.
LYNTON
22
state
4.1
4.2
4.3
23
26
flux
27
for a superconductor
28
32
4.4
August 1964
19
22
Influence of geometry
fied,
model
3.2
thermal
17
two-fluid
Perfect diamagnetism
magnetic and
between
3.1
13
effects
properties
LYNTON
1.2
of which
2.1
first
page
Introduction
my
vi
vii
34
34
field
36
40
41
48
VI
Contents
Contents
Vlll
page 55
,.
IX
page 116
55
11.1
Introduction
59
11.2
6.3
61
.3
6.4
65
1 1
.4
6.5
67
11.5
6.6
The mixed
71
The
The
The
The
The
6.7
Surface Superconductivity
74
11.7
75
11.8
The
75
6.1
6.2
surface energy
state or
Shubnikov phase
1.6
116
electron-phonon interaction
117
Cooper
pairs
118
ground
state energy
energy gap at
120
0K
superconductor at
126
finite
temperatures
129
properties
Vffl
7.2
High
77
7.3
78
The Isotope
8.1
8.2
field
Effect
XII
81
12.1
Introduction
12.2
12.3
Compounds
83
Thermal Conductivity
87
9.2
Electronic conduction
9.3
Lattice conduction
9.4
139
141
141
141
Superconducting Devices
145
150
153
153
89
13.2
Superconducting magnets
154
157
3.3
94
95
10.2
The
96
10.3
10.4
Microwave absorption
100
10.5
104
10.6
The tunnel
10.7
10.8
specific heat
98
106
films
Superimposed metals
Research devices
95
effect
XIII
2.4
13.1
Introduction
rule
136
87
93
state
134
81
Low
purities
9.1
specific heat
IX
1.9
127
109
1
14
Bibliography
165
Index
183
Introduction
Although the fascinating phenomenon of superconductivity has been
known for fifty years, it is largely through the concentrated experimental and theoretical work of the past decade that a basic (though
as yet very incomplete) understanding of the effect has been reached.
to be a co-operative
analogies in
period in the development of the subject has been completed, and the
next is already well under way, with much effort in theory and experi-
now
also
is
applications of superconductivity.
This
monograph
is
more than an undergraduate physics background, and written to serve two functions. It can be a first survey and
a stepping stone toward more intensive study for those who intend to
conductivity, requiring no
in the further development of superconducbe it in basic research or in technical applications. Such readers
will benefit
books and
in its
articles.
Superconductivity
the static electromagnetic behaviour of idealized, bulk superconductors. The treatment of the subject is then pursued in greater detail
along two essentially parallel directions. In the section comprising
Chapters IV-VII are discussed those aspects of the behaviour of
CHAPTER
Basic Characteristics
and of Ginzburg and Landau. These more sophisticated phenomenological models account for an interphase surface energy, in terms of
which the later chapters of this section describe the intermediate state,
phase nucleation, propagation, and supercooling, superconductors
of the second kind, and the magnetic behaviour of specimens of
small dimensions. Chapters VIII-X can be read without a study of
the preceding section (IV-VII)
and
characteristics of a superconductor
describe in
much
detail those
distinguish
from
phenomemon he
called
superconductivity,
mathematics.
The book closes with a chapter on the behaviour of alloys and compounds, and with one on superconducting devices.
In describing the principal empirical characteristics of supercon-
temperature,
When
Tc
a metallic ring
at
have
to emphasize
My
may appear
critical
field,
R and
(LI)
7(0)exp(-i?//L).
appears the
is
/(/)
ductors
it
selection of
/(/)
known
much
smaller
There
is,
therefore,
little
is
indeed a
23
ohm-cm
t Quinn and Ittner (1962) have lowered this upper limit to 10"
by looking for the time decay of a current circulating in a thin film tube.
Basic characteristics
Superconductivity
and, as
shown
c , is
thick so that surface effects can be ignored, the critical current is that
which creates at the surface of the specimen a field equal to
c.
Smaller samples remain superconducting with much higher currents
1 ,
it
1.2.
varies approximately as
characteristic
(1.2)
investigators,
Alekseevskii
presently
and
Tc
Table
Element
Normal
119
Cadmium
0-56
Gallium
Indium
3-407
Temperature T
Fig.
T/Tc and
,
h(t)
H (T)/H
C
2
ft l-/
5-95
Lead
Mercury-a
718
4153
Mercury-/?
3-95
Molybdenum
Niobium
9-46
Osmium
0-7
Rhenium
1-70
0-49
in
terms of which
(I.2a)
is
coefficient
of the
2
t
term
differs
from
Technetium
Thallium
Thorium
Tin
Titanium
Tungsten
(gauss)
99
30
51
283
~20
~5
Lanthanum-/*
Ruthenium
Tantalum
109
014
Lanthanum-a
TC (K)
Aluminium
Iridium
ordinates
called Silsbee's
in Figure
H *H [l-(lJ],
is
Table
where
1600
803
411
340
10
4-482
1944
65-82
201
66
830
11-2
2-39
1-37
171
162
306
100
3-722
0-40
~001
Uranium-a
Uranium-y
0-6
Vanadium
5-30
0-92
1310
53
0-75
47
Zinc
Zirconium
(cf.
~2000
1-80
Superconductivity
Basic characteristics
number of
alloys
and
The Meissncr
1.3.
If a perfect
the
it
o o
A:He=0,
B%0.
C:0<H e<H o
B:H e=0
T>TC
T<TC
T<TC
T<TC
(b)
(a.)
(d)
(c)
Fig. 3
10
Fio.2
The
C:0<Hp<H
e n c.
Tc
Superconductivity has been observed only for metallic substances for which the number of valence electrons
lies between
8.
H e =0,
T<TC
(d)
Fig. 4
Because of this, the transition of a merely perfectly conducting specimen from the normal to the superconducting state would not be
reversible,
and the
final state
of Tc with
B:
(1)
about 2 and
T<TC
respectively.
The
final field
on whether one proceeded via Bov via D, and the irreversibility of the transition
is evident.
Careful measurements of the field distribution around
a spherical
Superconductivity
Basic characteristics
tion
is
threaded by magnetic
flux.
reversible.
1.4.
The
The
specific heat
specific heat
of a superconductor consists,
>'
*^n
perfect conductor
/>
He
is
the
at
of a normal
like that
(Ce) and
low temperatures
Wntt,gn = yT+A(T/0) 3
,
(1.3)
cO
all metals. Experimentally the two contribe separated by plotting CJTvs. T 2 so that the
slope of the resulting curve is A/0 3 and the intercept is y.
In the superconducting phase
butions to
Cn can
superconductor
"a
C|
= Ces +Cgs
Applied Field He
Fro. 5
external
field.
In increasing
field
H =H
5=0
until
e
c , when they become normal and B =
e If the field is now
again decreased, the induction inside the perfect conductor is kept at
its threshold value B =
c by surface currents, and in zero field the
.
returns reversibly to
its initial
state with
B=
for
< He < Hc
is
to the ex-
and Waldorf,
1961).
On this
assumption
^s
*-n
f-'es
Ces
^e
(1.4)
There has recently been some evidence that the lattice contributions
to the specific heat in the two
phases are not quite equal in the case of
Basic characteristics
Superconductivity
10
For
11
Figure 7 displays
Figure
results in
6,
CJyTc =
A subsequent chapter
existence of a finite
in the
1//.
by the equation
aexp(-b/t).
gap
Ces
(1.5)
an indication of the
The number
(deg.Kf)
Fig. 6
it
Theoretical treatments
the
the
and H.
London
(1935a, b) developed a model for the low frequency electromagnetic behaviour which is based on a point by point relation
between the current density and the vector potential associated with
a magnetic
electrons
field.
which even
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
1/t
indium (Bryant and Keesom, 1960; O'Neal et al., 1964), so that 1.4
may not be exact for this element and possibly other superconductors
as well. Ferrell (1961) has suggested that this is due to a shift in the
phonon frequency spectrum. However, the superconducting elements for which reliable values of C exist are those with a relatively
high Debye temperature for which
Cg < Ce
Fig. 7
in
both phases
down
to
important.
Pippard (1950, 1951) has shown that such effects become tractable
when one takes into account the finite coherence of the superconducting wave functions which is such as to allow them to vary only slowly
over a
finite distance.
Superconductivity
12
CHAPTER
II
an
method of
alternate
is
compatible with
plement to
it.
Fermi
and
Schrieffer
is
the reversibility of the superconducting transition by the discovery of the Meissner effect, attempts
of the transition.
one another when their Gibbs free energies (G) are equal. The free
energy of a superconductor is most easily expressed by a diamagnetic
description developed in Chapter III, which attributes to the superconductor a magnetization
(H e) in the presence of an external
field
Then
V
G,(He ) = G/0)- j
For an
ellipsoid,
their
compounds
Furthermore the
effect
temperatures as
it
) is
uniform, and
G s (H e ) = G s (0)- VJ M(He)dHe
of
(11.10
Debye
(H.l)
e.
He
and
M(H
He
dvj M(He)dH
work done on
and Garland (1963a, b) have attributed these anomalies to the existence of overlapping bands in the
electronic energy spectrum at the Fermi surface. However, there is
by the magnetic
and Olsen,
1964).
Kondo
(1962)
may
field.
As
the magnetization
is
the specimen
diamagnetic, that
is,
13
phase change
For
all
other
14
Superconductivity
shapes, there
volume,
He
(II.2)
15
II.5 also
G,(/rc)
= (7,(0)+WJc2 /87r.
is
(H.3)
that
G n (Hc) =
G(0).
H (T)
C
is
that
Gn (Hc) = G {H
S
C),
one has
01.4)
This is the basic equation of the thermodynamic treatment developed by Gorter and Casimir. As S = - (dG/dT) H differentiation
Pi
of 11.4 yields
,
Tc
(II.5)
furthermore Figure
the entropies of the two phases are equal at the critical temperature in
zero field; at any lower, finite temperature the entropy of the super-
conducting phase is lower than that of the normal one, indicating that
the former is the state of higher order. This ordering will later be
shown to follow from a condensation of electrons in momentum
space.
It
Sn = S s at T=
at
0,
so that
T= Tc
their difference
Cs -Cn =
(VT/47r)[Hc (d
upon
H /dT
multiplication by T:
+ (dHJdT) 2).
(II.6)
Atr=ro ^ = 0,and
c
C,- Cn =
(*T/4tt)
{dHJdTfj^
Te
>
0,
(H.60
so that the thermodynamic treatment predicts the observed discontinuity in the specific heat. As the entropy difference between the
tvvo
Tc
must be
16
Superconductivity
equal,
and
Cs is smaller than
C.
Both of
shown
in Figure 8.
17
cylinder parallel to the external field the area under the magnetization
gauss/dyne-cm
curve up to any
field
value
H <H
c is
QABQ-Gjm =
equal to
j%tt,
(VJ*ir)Hl
01.7)
V= (8GI8p) T H
-2
a few parts in 10
in 10
5
.
yields
V5 {He)- Vjm =
(H}l87r)(dVs !8p) T
(n.8)
Vn {Hc)-VM = *mv,EftT,p)l*n\
Vn {Hc)-Vs {0) = {H}l%ir)(dVJBp) T +{Vs HJAn)(dHcl*P)TComparing
II.9
is
first
01.9)
superconductor
upon changing the field from zero to the critical value. It is the second
term which gives the actual volume change at the transition
The
2.3.
(11.10)
metrically, with
hold
its
field curves.
to be excellent:
(11.11)
Element
(millijoules/mole)
Indium
Tin
and
*- =
(K /47r)(dHc /8p)
2
.
(IU2)
Tantalum
9-75
10-6
41-5
9-62
10-56
41-6
18
Superconductivity
The relations between the thermal properties and the threshold field
curve of course also imply that
c,
if
as given by equation
The
= 1-
a n t\
T=
(see
directly to
polynomial
to neglect
is
~^f=(MWHHT^-a
it
...)x
0,
Coc T l+X ,
tivity
have in
two-fluid
common two
The system
dependence of
Ces
is,
no matter what
CJT^Q
is
is
characterized by an
(2) The entire entropy of the system is due to the disorder of noncondensed individual excited particles, the behaviour of which is
taken to be similar to that of the equivalent particles in the normal
state.
make
its
use-
as T-+0.
Applying
to
The free energy per unit volume of the normal electrons continues
be the same as that of electrons in a normal metal, that is
where y
(l/27T)a 2 (Hl/Tl).
(11.15)
'
2
gn (T) = -\yT
this limit to
models of superconduc-
general assumptions:
'
(11.16)
model
The Gorter-Casimir
The
The
CJTozT*.
and
state.
(11.14)
the two terms on the left-hand side, the second just equals the
Sommerfeld constant y. The first is subject to the following general
so that
recalling that as
2.4.
Of
T l+X ,x >
and
Both of these last equations are exact expressions which permit the
evaluation of the Sommerfeld constant from a detailed knowledge of
the threshold field curve. Mapother (1959, 1962) has carried out a
searching analysis of the extent to which magnetic and thermal data
can actually be correlated in practice without introducing excessive
errors due to extrapolation; Serin (1955) and Swenson (1962) have
also discussed the relation between the two types of data.
at
2
2t
o:
II.6,
2
y = -(l^Tr^Hl/T^ihd^rldr )^.
(1)
any changes
equation
then obtains
this
An
(11.13)
first coefficient a,
vanish at
19
is
(11.17)
trons g (T)
s
is
CHRIST'S
COLLEGE
LIBRARY
20
Superconductivity
g s (T)
The
first
show
be
#" of
-HllSrr.
experi-
QOT.n =
(11.270
(H.1J
containing a fraction
iT(J)
s
a(\
(11.19)
(1934b) chose
3yTc t\
SS(T) = yTc t\
'
therefore
G (ir, T) =
21
= l-/4
(11.260
(11.250
and
y = (WirKHlfT?).
Here again
which
is
is
(11.230
comparison of
=
representation of h(t) to a
equation 11.23' with equation 11.15 also shows that the choice a
parabolic form. This not only indicates once again the interrelation
between the magnetic and thermal properties, but also points up that
a(l
- #") =
- ir)\
(l
b{iT)
Hr,
(11.20)
the Gorter-Casimir
tively.
so that
(11.21)
Within
this limitation,
is
very
- *0"~ m
'
2
HllA-n yT
(IL22)
chapters.
which at
Tc
with
1T - 0,
p. 280) to improve
model so as to yield
more nearly the correct exponential variation of Ces and the corresponding non-parabolic dependence of h(t). These modifications have
either tried different functional forms for a(l - 1T) and b(iT) in
reduces to
2
y = (WttxHHIIT .).
(\-1T)-
(TJT)
(11.24)
Oi.:
Some of these
Hr = |_^/(i~0
f electrons.
,
and
[(l
[5],
r2
so that
Cs (iT,T) =
(see
+ a)/(l-a)]yrc / (l+a)/(, - a \
CHAPTER
III
this
23
B = H+4ttM,
As
description
is
M/=
diamagnetism
susceptibility of
3.2.
of an external
field
in the interior: B,
H,-
M,-
0,
where M,-
is
at the surface:
3S ^
0,
outside:
Be =
U +H
1/47T.
the magnetization
s,
where
s is
where
is
B,
=
=
Be =
0,
H,
0;
and
H +H
e
0,
M, ^
0;
s,
where now H,
is
which
is
cf. [1], p.
III.l
and
III.2 yields
M,= -H /47r(l-D)
e
(IU.3)
and
H,
In the
distorted
22
t That electron currents and not, for example, spins are responsible for
the diamagnetism of a superconductor is demonstrated by its gyromagnetic
1940;
a and b
Combining
ratio
For an
given by
is
it
at the surface: 3 S
outside:
(IH.2)
-(HMS-'>
this description is
in the interior:
= B.-AirDMu
of revolution this
It is this field which causes the distorted field distribution near a superconductor as shown in Figure 3c.
formally correct, it is much more conby an equivalent one which treats the superconductor in the presence of an external field as a magnetic body with an
interior field and magnetization such that
show that
unnecessary)
H,
ellipsoid
Although
now
face currents.
venient to replace
(HI.1)
-(1/4tt)H,
= HJ{l-D).
(IH.4)
24
Superconductivity
tangential
com-
He
ponent of //that for an ellipsoidal specimen the exterior field distribution is as shown in Figure 9. At the equator of the specimen
(a) transverse
cu nder
,
and
H sphere
\p)
H~ = H,= He l(l-D),
25
(III.5)
(aX
!i
(c) longitudinal
cylinder
at the pole
Hp =
Bi
(IH.6)
0.
\\
Superconducting state
\\
Intermediate state
2H c /3
H c /2
Applied
He
Field
Fio. 10
Fig. 9
value
c.
For
all
-A-nM is
plotted against
e.
Hcq = H > H
c
e.
To assume
that a portion of
shown in
would lead to a contradiction: the boundary between the
= C) but in the
superconducting and normal regions occurs where
now normal region the field would equal e
c There is, in fact,
no simple, large-scale division of such a specimen into normal and
superconducting regions, which allows a field distribution such that
< c in the latter, and
C in the former,
C at the
the specimen near the equator then becomes normal, as
Figure
Fig. 11
11,
H <H
H>H
boundaries.
H H
H H
\
H=H
first
(1
done by
- D)HC
Peierls (1936)
and
is
**
in the others.
The
Superconductivity
26
way
linearly
from
to
Mi = -HJ47r(l - D) = - BJ4*r
at
at
Hence, for
(1
H
H
c {\
- D),
c.
Bi
is
as the
when
is
(UI.8)
c,
trapped even
(III.7)
H -A-nDMi = H
H -(MD)(H -H
e
27
volume changes
(III.9)
e).
is
given by
j MidHe = -H?I8tt.
(111.10)
This
is
field
state.
VI
The
H H
Chapter
Applied Field H e
state exists, in
some
Fig. 12
field.
Trapped flux
important to distinguish the reasons and conditions for the intermediate state from those giving rise to the phenomenon of trapped
flux or the incomplete Meissner effect. As mentioned earlier, the
3.3.
It is
is
quenched.
similar
H< H
shown
the same
c,
and
retains a paramagnetic
moment in
The
ratio of
This
to
-H
c is
called the
a nd a superconductor,
superconductor. Strains,
field.
non-homogeneous
concentration gradients, and other imper-
zero
it is
Superconductivity
28
mass
mv =
In terms of the current density J
where
eE.
form
in the
E=
(47rA /c ) J,
011.12)
A2
mc2/4wne2
(IE. 13)
length,
-6
(A)
(47rA
field
/c)curlJ+H
= 0,
(B)
0.
= H and
choosing a
(B) reduces to
4ttA
J+A
(BO
0.
for a density of
order of 10
and
and
Replacing the
E = (^AVJ),
(IU.11)
III.l
29
the
cm.
is
identical to UI.2,
= -H/c,
J+H
the important
(UI. 14)
0,
V 2 H = H/A 2
decays exponentially
(111.15)
any specimen
which decreases exponentially as one
For a
direction from the plane x =
V 2 H = H/A 2
OH. 17)
to
upon penetrating
into a superconducting specimen. For the semi-infinite slab described above, the solution of III. 17
is
H(x)
H(0)exp(-x/A),
(IU. 18)
appropriate solution
is
A,
H(x)
effect.
H(x)
Clearly, for x
interior of a perfect
it
(UI. 1 6)
1
field
Clearly the London equations (A) and (B) do not, in fact, yield the
complete exclusion of a magnetic field from the interior of a superconductor. Instead, the*y predict the penetration of a field such that
it
decays to
the
London
/e
penetration length.
Its
A.
This
is
called
for a superconductor
The
vanishes. F.
[2])
therefore proposed to
than those predicted by the defining equation ni.13, as will be discussed in a later chapter. The existence of this slight penetration of an
exterior field
Superconductivity
30
Applying curlE
/c
J]
By defining a
particle density
0,
/i(R)
E (47rA
showing that
/c ) J
postulates.
by the wave
function
^/(r
the
mean
,r2 ,...,r N ),
H(r a )
magnetic
curlA(r a )
(III. 19)
given by
tnc
field,
.drN
A(ra)
The mean
is
0,
(111.24)
field
...dr N
Q,
(IH.21)
0.
W=
follows that
2
...J
(111.25)
In the
in the
= W v + (9/c)A,
p,
t
momentum
W=W
-2J
A(R).
given by
If,
J(R)=
mc
(111.20)
[ fl^tnv^o-^VamscR-rjx
xdr
it
is
p
.
vanishes, so that
then
QSU8)
- ^-AOrJ V * f U(R-r.
8(R- ra)</r,
presence of a field
N
s
...dr N
>=
= -n(R)
J(R)
themselves.
the system
In the absence of a
R in the presence of a
field
is
j ...j P*Y8(R.-ra)dr
<f>
In a system of
grad<,
...drN . (111.22)
0.
(IIL26)
= -(qlmc)A,
(IH.27)
'
32
Superconductivity
33
its
presence.
By analogy
the hole.
and require
to the electronic
p-dl
nh,
(IU.28)
(J>
is
kC
= 2e,
2x10
that
is,
gauss-cm2
experi-
extended the
London argument
means
jMttA 2
(b
Since
this
then
that
m
J-dl+&>A-dl =
he
n-
(m.29)
integral of
Thus
H-c/S
he
J<fl+0 =
0.
(111.30)
(111.31)
is
a.
fluxoid,
and we see
quantized in integral
multiples of
he
&Note that
compared
if
the contour
is
<J)A-rfl=
(H1.32)
Tc
35
CHAPTER
IV
to an exponential penetration of an
of
its
field
has
by
H{x)dx.
(1V.1)
<^ A)
applied
field,
x/xo
The
detailed
IV.2 and
all
form of the
=
=
- A/a
2
aa /A
field
for
>
(IV.2)
A,
McLean
for a
<
(IV.3)
A.
all
into
in the
equations for
(1960).
impedance
is
it is
and
x/Xo
specimens this can only be done if one can determine absolute values
of a and of A, which is very difficult. On the other hand, one can
measure the variation of the susceptibility of large or of small specimens with any parameter affecting only A: temperature, external
S.
36
Superconductivity
when
T< Tc
from the
Dresselhaus et
A.
al.
is
This deviation
less
y(.t)
1400p
than
1200 >
4.2.
is
= (1-f4) -1
where
recently Erlbach et
magnetic
1000
field
According to the London theory, an external magnetic field penetrates into a superconductor to a depth characterized by (see equation HI. 13)
where n s
is
the
(mc
It is
400
200
reasonable to expect
this to
and
BCS
THEORY
d y 600
2 112
l4irn se
where i^it)
is
#xq*m
a1.0
av.4)
1
2.0
1.5
25
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
A(0)
(IV.5)
(IV.6)
as
*-Ww.
Fig. 13
= A(0)/(l-/4) ,/2
= (mc 2/47r/;/0)e 2) ,/2
A(/)
is
3.0
where
37
Daunt et al. (1948) were the first to point out that the empirical
temperature variation of the penetration depth can indeed be repre-
cept, yield values for A(0) if one ignores the small deviations from
IV.5. Appropriate empirical values for pure bulk samples are shown
in
Table
II.
They exceed by a
London
38
Superconductivity
London theory
will
be discussed
in the
Table
II
Al
A(0)(A)
Sn
500
1300
380-450*
640
440
390
510
Tl
470-600*
920
Cd
Hg
In
Nb
Pb
is
quite considerable.
Pippard pointed out that to assume that the entire entropy change
takes place in the thin layer into which the field penetrates would,
therefore, result in an unreasonably high entropy density in this layer.
Yet this is just what one is led to believe by the London model, according to which the superconducting wave functions or, in two-fluid
language, the corresponding order parameter #", remains rigidly
lement
39
Reference
field.
McLean and
Maxfield (1964)
Lock, 1951
Pippard, 1947; Laurmann an
Shoenberg, 1949; Lock, 1951
Schawlow and Devlin, 1959
Zavaritskii, 1952
* Anisotropy.
Z0
Pippard ( 1 950) investigated the change of the penetration of a small,
r.f. field
e is
field, is
Tc
3.0
35
TC
(9-4
raised
Figure
25
T(K)
finds that
S(He )-S(0) =
^^V/U
Fig. 14
al.,
1964) have
av>8)
is
its
~/4)]
40
4.3.
Superconductivity
41
which he calls the range of coherence of the superconducting wave functions. In terms of the microscopic theory this
certain length f ,
4.4.
The Pippard
non-local relations
mean
free
10-
superconductivity
'
up of an ordered
state,
10
20
)0
40
50
(cm)
Fig. 15
that fluctuations
.L
30.
Chambers
(1956),
and by Waldram
(1961),
whose
results are
shown
Figure 15. Such a dependence of A(0) on the mean free path is quite
incompatible with the London model, for clearly none of the para-
in
mean free
electronic
path.
42
Superconductivity
will
it
be
(IV. 10)
4-nXl
A^,
= mc 2 /4ime 2
One way
J(R)
mean
free path
is
A(R).
(IV.ll)
electronic
2
IW~
J(R)= where
43
on the
to write
rigid
field
H and A vary
is
infinite distance.
Thus the
relation
HI
H{x)
London form:
H exp(-x/X),
rapidly.
is
only
if
The
but where
now
As experimentally
that (/)
is
XL
(TV. 12)
must decrease as
is
(/)
(/)
is
if
is
somewhat analogous
to the
problem of electrical
a(/)E(R)
(IV. 14)
decreases.
if,
/-> a>,
the
could apply
clear
A relation like PI
J(R)
/, it
but that
for example,
is
valid only
if
of/.
An
which
varies inversely as the square root of the frequency. At sufficiently low
mean
S,
free
path in
normal metal may be longer than this skin depth, so that electrons
may spend only part of the time between collisions in the field penetrated region. Pippard (1947a) showed how this makes the electrons
less effective as carriers of current and leads to a higher surface
resistance, as observed by H. London (1940) and Chambers (1952).
Under these conditions Ohm's law (IV. 14) can no longer be a valid
approximation; the current at a point must be determined by the
the
(IV. 13)
10- 4 cm.
mean
mean
44
skin effect were
(1948),
who
derived that
JCR)_
3a CR(R-E)e- R "dT
4ir/J
(IV. 15)
This
where a is the d.c. conductivity and / the mean free path. The form
of this equation ensures that in the case of a rapidly varying field the
current density at a point R is determined by the integral of the field
over a distance comparable to the mean free path /.
In a superconductor of range of coherence , the current density
at a point in the case of a rapidly varying field should also be deter-
anomalous conduction
in a
3ne 2
J(R)= -
4n$
Somewhat misleadingly, as
London equation is a truly
R(R-A)e~ R ltdr
mS
this
(IV.P2)
R*
local relation,
P2
is
non-local relation.
BCS
for
5<
for
A,
(London
feM
nv
/7re(0),
striking
BCS
value
g,
= 0l8hv
/k B Tc
(IV.17)
(IV. 1 8b)
BCS value
how measurements
of the transmission of
r.
He
finds that
film to a value
(IV. 18a)
(IV. 16)
is
limit),
Hi such
an external
field
's
P2 for the
d < A and
that
HJH^Vrd^faFitld).
&=
2e(0)
V(Zolt)*L
1/3
assumes
where 2e(0)
A.-
later
fact the
45
Superconductivity
(IV. 19)
46
Superconductivity
measurement on
(Gor'kov 1959b) that the mean free path dependence of this aspect of
the range of coherence is given by
can be found by
substituting for A the empirical value for bulk samples (510 A) and
considering as being determined by the size-limited mean free path
of the electrons in the films. A similar analysis has been used by
Sommerhalder
It is
his
tin films
(1960).
oX-
1/2
47
(IV.21)
(0
A^.
where X b
is
now
\W
In the limit
<^
The
with
(IV.20)
relatively
mean
= V(to 0-
(IV.23)
free
and takes the place of the London value A L The mean free path / is
limited by boundary as well as by impurity scattering. Ittner (1960a)
(IV.22)
(s4
x(/)
is
that
it
determines the
is
expressed by the
mean
superconductor
remember
in
that
two subtly
is
it
is
different ways.
One of
these, as
men-
is
important
of the
What
means
now
equa-
that
(IV.24)
/ <g
It is this mean free path dependence which enters, for
example, into equation IV.20.
for
49
With these one then finds from V.3, remembering that the free energy
difference between the phases equals the magnetic energy, that
CHAPTER V
=
Ht2 _
The Ginzburg-Landau
47ra
P
Near
Phenomenological Theory
Tc
indeed
is
\8T/ T=Te
Pc
known
further
and
was
BCS
ip is thus a kind of 'effective' wave function of the superconducting electrons. According to the general Landau-Lifshitz theory
of phase transitions (1958), the free energy of the superconductor
trons,
depends only on
peratures near
and can be expanded in series form for temIn the absence of an external field, the supercon-
\ifj\
Tc
2
\<p\
listed) is
then
(V.l)
Tc
H H
M>l
=-/A
i/j,
as
ifj
is
in the
e.
*/>
too abruptly.
One is thus
J-L/^-^aJ
equilibrium value
2
usual
theory.
make
all
(V.6)
(V.2)
and
from which
/?
(7,(0) - (7(0) =
-<x /20.
(V.3)
jB(D
= p(Tc ) -
t2
(V.4)
and
48
fie
be discussed presently.
G s(He ) =
m~M
*
GM + fr+^A
Uc-W*~A
12
-
(V.7)
50
Superconductivity
this
tp
and to A, which
geometry
this
H=
curlA
~
dz
2m\
(V.G-L1)
The meaning of
dtfj*
these equations
becomes
clearer
by introducing a
V2 A =
-^J, =
c
t^'w^-W^
mc
2e*
KT
:=
h
Aire*"'
+
In a very
weak
stant (that
is,
A.
4>
A-ne*
0o>
l^ol
iff
mc'
Ag-
where
A=
Aire*
to
The
mc2
mentally,
C A.
(V.8)
and
be expressed.
G-L
c is
field, k,
and
in terms of
(V.12)
4ne* 2 ifa
subscript
parameters of the
(V.ll)
<
(V.G-L2)
the function
V0 = 0,
V2 A
I0I
mc
HxO,
field,
rigid),
.,/ZcAq,
.-,
which various
field.
field
is
weak
and
size effects
can
and
is
the
is
just
Tc
for
two reasons:
taining impurities A
increases, as
1 1
because of the simple forms assumed for the functions a(T) and fi(T),
and secondly because only near Tc is A > and can the non-local
The
set
in
ifj
and
x-axis,
and potential
A along the
dz
-tN**w^*-t^-*
^4
A
2
dHr
dT T=Te
so that
dH
8/jV dT T=T
mc 2
(V.10)
xAT,
Thus k
is
xT 2 xX 4 (0).
(V.l 3)
T& Tc
52
Superconductivity
One can
from the
very near
Tc
larly in
53
measurements used to evaluate A L (0), and in part, particuthe case of aluminium, due to the large value of because of
skin-effect
>
-^
V2
(l
_-./!
_y?/ik-
J/2
V2 \ATj
so that
,*2
,2
4/i
2
,
dH
dT t=t
x7?xAf(0).
(V.14)
is
the
state
calculated
from
resistance
to
BCS
this value
and
= 216xl0
field
tp
field
H = dA/dz = H
and
e,
difi/dz
tp
for z
i/j
= 0,
the value of
tp is
CV 13)
'
4(+V2)
^o
dH
dT T=T
tMo),
(V.130
= ipl, and
dz
At
is
With
tp
can be calculated
anomalous skin
(Chambers, 1952).
Another method of calculating k for a given superconductor
the
dHc
dT T=T
Tc X L (0).
(V.140
For
tin,
the
first
of these yields k
= 0-158,
two
8(k+V2) 2 # 2
(
An
For a measuring
field parallel to
(V.16)
e,
the effect
is
tripled.
54
Superconductivity
It is
ifj
evident that in the limit k-*0, the effect of the external field on
vanishes, so that one returns to a situation formally
and on A
CHAPTER
equivalent to the
for k
= 0,
one can
j/tq
is
in certain cases,
VI
such
as, for
G-L
6.1.
wave
on a
boundary between the superconducting and normal phases. H.
London (1935) already pointed out that the total exclusion of an
is
external field does not lead to a state of lowest energy for a super-
more favourable
much reduces
is
narrower than A, a slab of thickness c/must have d/X such layers. This
is avoided by an interphase surface energy cc, per unit surface whose
contribution exceeds the gain in magnetic energy, that
is:
Hid
2d
'
(VI.l)
8tt
where the energies have been calculated for a volume of slab of unit
surface area.
Hence
>
XH[
28tt
55
(WW)
Superconductivity
56
sharply to zero at
(VI.2)
have the same superconducting free energy as the actual amount. The
free energy per unit volume of the superconductor is lower than that
(VI.3)
8tt
Thus one
Similarly
57
in the
sees that
as
A'>
'
C-M
field.
Figure 16
A m -A.
Position
Fio. 16
is
H H
Empirical values of
'
is
field
iV and
One can
define
t F.
London
detailed field
field
equal to
H(z)-Hc
-MH = -
ducting phase the increase in the free energy in the region where
is changing is given by V.6; in addition there is a reduction of the
(VIA)
The condition for the Meissner effect is that f > A, i.e. that A > 0.
The Ginzburg-Landau theory was formulated so as to lead explicitly to the existence of a surface energy, which arises as in the
Pippard approach from the gradual variation of the order parameter
*p over a finite distance, from the zero value in the normal region to
its full equilibrium value in the superconducting domain. Again the
surface energy is that amount which is needed to equate the energies
= c In the superconof the two phases in equilibrium, with
e
(VI.5)
If,-
4tt
is the value of the penetrated field at any point inside the
superconducting region. Thus the surface energy is given by the
integral of the difference between the superconducting and normal
where H(z)
free energies
G s {H,z)-
H:
H(z)Hc H\
.
4tt
+-P-G
/I
(0)--^
(VI.6)
Superconductivity
58
tent,
59
tin.
CO
its
/,
and Wipf
work
(1961) has traced this decrease to actual negative values. All the
where A
ductor,
is
in the previous
For k <^
it
reduces to
A =
1-89-
(VI.8)
The
This prediction
is
>
A<
from the
for
(VI. 10)
1/V2.
atomic per cent of indium to tin about doubles the penetration depth
coherence
first
is
shown by Gorkov's
principles.
terms of the
He
finds
critical
derivation of
G-L parameter k in
momentum and
compared
make k
0-6,
which
6.2.
A
0-96
?-
(VI.9)
50
G-L
size.
netization coefficient
magnetic
Comparing VI.8 and VI.9 shows that, as expected, the Pippard range
of coherence g and the surface energy parameter A as derived from
In short, both approaches
field
e satisfies
Landau
It therefore also follows from both theories that the surface energy
must decrease and may even become negative when the range of coherence decreases and the penetration depth increases. Equations
IV.12 and IV.21 show that this is just what happens to A and to when
one
c.
All
normal layers
approaches
B = Hc
c.
while
Landau
B=
is
field.
mean
(1
ture of alternating
the
the inequality
the
is
this simplifies
to
the
as
1),
the
sum a
Landau
mag-
finds that
a, is given
by
LA
(VI.11)
60
Superconductivity
where
is
e jHc Numerical values for Y(HJH have been calcuby Lifshitz and Sharvin (1951). A typical result is a value a 1 -4
= 0-8. A similar equation has also been
for L = 1 cm and
C
derived by Kuper (1951), who predicts numerical values which are
smaller by a factor of two or three. Typical experimental results fall
in between these predictions.
These results have been obtained by a variety of methods, all
making use of the fact that in the intermediate state lines of flux pass
only through the normal laminae, and emerge from the specimen
wherever these laminae end on the surface. A number of authors
(Meshkovskii and Shalnikov, 1947; Shiffman, 1960, 1961) have
critical field
lated
mm
HJH
i\,\t\
e2&
&&
The
61
series
regions
is
clearly visible.
in the
i\i\i\i\
shows a
all if
is
everywhere
fields less
'supercooling'
passed very fine bismuth wire probes across the surface of a specimen,
and observed the magnetoresistive fluctuations in the probe resistance
move onto
The
resulting
powder
method
is
shown
c.
This
is
in Figure 18.
The degree of
= H IHc
t
this
or by
the parameter
<j>,
m 1-af - {Hl-Hf)IHl
(VI.12)
is
than
A typical magnetiza-
For
be
De
and on
fields above
This is very rarely observed.
c
Garfunkel and Serin (1952) have shown that this is so because the
ends of any conventional specimen cannot resist the initiation of the
ducting phase at
its
Faber
62
Superconductivity
on supercooling in tin
and aluminium. His technique consisted of winding on a long cylindrical specimen several small, spaced coils the field of which could be
made to add or to subtract from a field produced by a large solenoid
surrounding the entire sample. With the sample normal, the field of
the solenoid could be lowered to some value between H, and
c and
the field could then be lowered locally by a suitably directed current
through one of the smaller coils. The superconducting phase then
(1952, 1955, 1957) in a series of measurements
coil,
and spread
63
of local strain,
is
density of dislocations.
(1952) has
normal
shown
that there
is
Faber
Hc
H,
Applied Field
He
Fig. 18
where A
is
flaw size,
At a
given temperature the degree of supercooling varied confrom point to point in a given specimen but at a given point
siderably
frequently remained reproducible even when in between measurements the specimen was warmed to room temperature. This indicated
that nucleation must occur at particular spots, some of which promote nucleation more effectively than others. As the surface energy
can be lowered and may even become negative due to strain, it is
reasonable to assume that the spots favouring nucleation are regions
(VI. 13)
and
//
demagnetization factor.
perature variation of
-+n,
</>,
The measurements in fact show that the temis very much like that of A, as determined
CHRIST'S COLLEGE
IDDADV
I
Superconductivity
64
A(I/o)A- (lHc
The uncertainty
The
table
below
lists
for tin
and for
Element
= J(0)(l-/4 )- ,/2
(VI.15)
Aluminium
Indium
18
Tin
0-50
16
4-4
0-64
2-3
2-3
0-51
Near
Tc A becomes
,
large,
ideal,
= 0036,
1.
(VI.150
for In 016,
and
for
Sn
agreement. These results can be compared with theoretical predictions arising from the G-L model. Equation V.9' has an interesting
consequence with regard to the normal phase. One would expect that
with
described by the equation would be
e S*
c , the half-space
= 0. This is indeed a solution, but the equation
entirely normal, with
H H
</<
is
this solution
#/>
<^ 1,
so that H(z)
ifj
# 0.
Assuming that
for
becomes
for/
(0).
3-4
j-o--w
number
10 5 Ao(0)
(cm)
10 5
(cm)
10 <d(0)
(cm)
A(t)
of course
The
6.4.
where / is the electronic mean free path in the normal phase, a the
normal electrical conductivity, and A is a constant of the specimen.
By measuring the temperature variation of v, Faber has used this
measured in
dependence of
(VI. 14)
in the temperature
-H ]/H y
e
65
7ES
= H(z)z,
the equation
Superconductivity
66
This has the form of a wave equation for a harmonic oscillator, which
known
is
(which
is
tp
V2^(/+i), =
67
critical fields
0,1,2,...
tic
k,
HJH =
C
K/(n +
J)
< B and
the field
IHc = V(2)k.
c2
is
c2 is
2V5^H
a
V8jHc
that of
and
(VI. 18)
1
/V2.
= 0, is
c2
= V6-/Z,
(VI. 17)
V2,
C2
c2
c2
Hc2
For all
these geometries
mono-
The compatibility of the G-L theory with the Pippard range of cosize, or mean free
c).
The values of k calculated in this fashion from Faber's measurements of St are: 01 64 for tin, 0112 for indium, and 0026 for aluminium. The first two of these agree very well with k values deduced
from experimental penetration depths. In aluminium the lack of
agreement is probably due to the appearance of non-local effects very
close to Tc Ginzburg (1958b) has noted that this is more likely to
path which eliminate the need for a non-local electromagnetic formulation is brought out once again by the similarity of VI. 18 with the
corresponding expression derived by Pippard (1955). He finds, also
c-
(VI. 19)
become important
when
when >
6.5.
the
/.
Superconductivity
68
which
this
It is,
energy
is
free
In the limit k
1/V2, H =H
cl
= Hc2 Goodman
.
69
(1962a) has inter-
polated between the latter value and those given by VI.21 to get a
graphical representation of
when
the electronic
is
the intrinsic
H
H Goodman (1961) has shown that this can already
,
fields
higher than
still
holds; that
is,
the
stability limit at
H given by equation VI. 18, which shows that for k > 1/V2,
H > H Abrikosov (1957) has used the G-L equations to analyze
field
c2
c2
in
some
detail the
Hcl
Hc
H c2
Applied Field H e
Fig. 19
-4tt^=
1-18/(2^-1),
(VI.20)
and vanishes
c2
= V(2)kHc
ko
(VI. 18)
fully reversible.
(1962a) to have
+7-5xloy /2 p.
(VT.22)
entirely at
BL =
k>
Goodman
cl
for all
is
ohm-cm. For
V(2)kHc i/Hc =
In k+ 0-08
(VI.21)
deg
-2
,
which the
Using
he obtains
cm -3
model
this equation,
Goodman
70
Superconductivity
such as
(1960)
The negative
most
effects to
be discussed
in the
71
fields, this
H H
conducting nor
region the
in the
= 1/V2
conductivity.
one
critical
value.
There
is
964).
II
superconductivity (Shubnikov et
al.,
1937).
It is
mixed
state the
interphase surfaces as
or laminae
G-L-A
(Goodman,
its
maximum
the order of .
filaments,
means
and
falls off
over a distance of
at the
is
>
normal
.
This
mixed
state structure
can
72
Superconductivity
One can
if
the superconducting
number of infinitesimally
thin filamentary
containing magnetic
flux.
From the
discussion in Chapter II
it
there-
fore follows that the total flux associated with each normal thread
quantized in units of
is
Rcif, 1964).
The
A.
This means that when the formation of vortex lines becomes energeti= ci they can essentially immediately achieve
cally favourable at
H H
field increasing
beyond
cX
latter
Mh
finite
normal filaments of
negligible
volume. Thus the material can still be considered as entirely superconducting. Abrikosov (1957) showed in fact that in the mixed state
and that near Hc2 this varied linearly with the magnetization.
The correctness of this and therefore the validity of the vortex
structure has been substantiated by measurements of the specific heat
(Morin, et al., 1962; Goodman, 1962b; Hake, 1964; Hake and
Brammer, 1964) and of the thermal conductivity (Dubeck et al.,
y*2 ,
1962, 1964).
(cf. [14],
such
of the mixed state by slow neutron diffraction. Preliminary results have recently been reported (Cribier et al., 1 964).
line structure
In an ideal type
II
if
the
(1963).
c2
everywhere
Kleiner et
is
lines tends to
array has a
73
With
phenomena (Anderson
this has been done
Tinkham
mixed
shown that
pure films
if
74
Superconductivity
At Tc
this
Surface Superconductivity
As mentioned in Chapter V,
the
CHAPTER
Hi
Gn (0)-GM =
sheath up to a
c3
1-695
c2
In
Its existence, explicitly
an external
netization
field
M(He
only
= 2-40kHc
if
c2
so that
>
c.
As
Hc3 > H
c2
for k
= \/2kHc
>
it
follows
that
a measurement of
c3
/Hc
is in
0-42.
fact a
that
if
samples
mag-
verified
detected
(VII.l)
field
H
1963;
VII
lie
M{H )dHe = -*
e
The
(VII.2)
077
ni
"I
Hi
Xo
(VII.3)
X
75
76
Superconductivity
and
CVII.4)
11
Hauser and Helfand, 1962), and have been used by Lutes (1957) in the
interpretation of his measurements of the critical field enhancement
in tin whiskers.
v^3
=
7T
using the
It is possible to relate
(VII.5)
mean
free
<
this yields
(Alloy*
(VII.8 ')
when one
The
the modi-
of A (Tinkham, 1958).
field
(Douglass and Blumberg, 1962). The use of the thin film susceptibility
as derived by Schrieffer (1957) with non-local electrodynamics leads
to
20-40 per cent higher values of the numerical constant (Ferrell and
7.2.
High
The
size effect
field
on the critical field is particularly striking in experiments using extremely thin evaporated films. In their experiment on
the Knight shift in tin, Androes and Knight (1961) used films of thickGinsberg and Tinkham
ness a 100 A and found
c (0) 25 kgauss.
(1960) saw no effect on the superconducting properties of their
10-20 A lead film in a field of 8 kgauss.
The equivalent of small superconducting specimens can exist also
in bulk material. In an inhomogeneous specimen there will be local
variation of the surface energy due to varying strain or to varying
sir
(VII.6)
la
in
equation V. 1 6,
electronic
mean
ti c
field
to
(Pippard,
(VII.8)
the same expression which for thicker films gives the supercooling field
c2 Expressions similar to VII.6 and VII.8 have also
been derived for spheres and wires (Silin, 1951; Ginzburg, 1958a;
is
is sufficiently
sohn, 1935;
This
it
it is
field
of these
Pippard, 1955b; Cochran et al, 1958) that such regions can persist in
78
Superconductivity
high
fields.
many
In
men
speci-
extending to much higher fields than the magnetic one (Doidge, 1 956).
are, of course, likely to touch each other in many places,
The threads
resulting in
called a superconducting
model with an
artificial
79
which has been verified by Zavaritskii (1951, 1952). Note that as the
penetration depth is inversely proportional to 0, A(//) for thin films
even in fairly small fields (Douglass, 1961c).
is much larger than A
Douglass (1961a) has pointed out that because of the proportionality
/r,
as derived
energy gap
e\Hs)
for 2a
< V(5)A
(VII. 11)
filamentary superconductor
made by forcing mercury into the pores of Vycor glass (Bean et a/.,
1962). The possible relevance of this to superconducting magnet wire
will be discussed in
7.3. Variation
Chapter XIII.
field
From equations V.G-L1 and V.G-L2 one can also calculate the variation of the order parameter
stant,
H
"6
K 0.
\"c/ OA 6J/ L
30 \H
3oUc7\V
X o/)
A
(VII.9)
For thicker
films, VII.9
G-L2 must be
<l<i
For such films, therefore, i/j(Hs ) = 0, which means that the transition
into the normal state is of second order, without a latent heat and with
a discontinuity only in the specific heat, and not in the entropy. There
can be no supercooling, and therefore, no hysteresis. For thicker films
and bulk samples the transition in an external field, as discussed in
Chapter II, is always of first order. The critical thickness below which
there
is
2a
is
V(5)A
energy gap at
H =H
e
VII. 10
calcu-
H H
gap with
,
and
solved numerically.
field closely
80
Superconductivity
order parameter
is
make tenable
the basic
G-L
on the
basis of the
CHAPTER
The Isotope
8.1.
VIII
Effect
the empirical
Ginzburg-Landau
theory, including the vanishing of the energy gap and a resulting
characteristics of a superconductor provide an astonishingly complete macroscopic description of the superconducting phase. How-
ever, they do not give any clear indications as to the microscopic nature
One of the first such clues arose through the simultaneous and independent discovery, in 1950, by Maxwell, and by Reynolds et al., that
the critical temperature of mercury isotopes depends on the isotopic
down
all
to
= 0- 14.
of the phenomenon.
Tc M a =
199.5
r-
constant,
(vm.i)
200.7 (nat)
202.0
203.3
J
4.20
4.00
Fig. 21
81
82
Superconductivity
The isotope
The
been established in a number of other elements. The following table contains the most reliable experimental
values of the exponent a, together with quoted probable errors.
Element
Cd
0-51
Hg
0-504
Mo
0-33
Os
Pb
Rh
Ru
0-461 0.025
0-501
0-4
001
Zn
was recog-
Shaw
Hake
The
measurements
lished
field
as a function of temperature,
etal., 1961
et al.,
1958
Gcballee/o/., 1961
0-505 0019
0-46 002
0-462 001
0-50 005
0-62 01
Tl
<01
<005
Sn
Olsen, 1963
0-21
Reference
010
83
effect
0-5
Maxwell, 1952a
al., 1952
Serin et
Lock
et al.,
1951
Maxwell, 1952b
Alekseevskii, 1953
mental
reliability,
as
is
ent measurements
it is
superconductivity
the electrons
is
and the
this to
zero
field.
Magnetic measurements of
can be made in one of two ways either the change in flux through the
sample at the transition induces an e.m.f. in a pick-up coil which is
connected to a suitable galvanometer, or the changing susceptibility
of the sample is reflected in the change of the mutual inductance of
coaxial coils of which the sample forms part of the core. Either of
:
apparatus,
84
Superconductivity
The isotope
A polynomial which fits the data for all tin isotopes as found by
erratic results
electrical resistance.
The
//
85
effect
of a per cent
Lock
is
(VIII.3)
polynomial.
One
same
critical field
4-LEAD
Fig. 23
number of interesting
of the reduced
isotopic mass.
characteristics. Figure
critical field
m Hc /H
is
a polynomial
W) = - S of,
i
n=2
(vni.2)
It
has also been found that in going from one element to another,
show small but definite variations.
For
all
strictly
parabolic varia-
86
Superconductivity
CHAPTER
IX
Thermal Conductivity
9.1.
Low
is
phonons. The
k en -r k
total
contributions
(IX.1)
where e and g denote the electrons and the lattice, respectively. The
is limited by two scattering mechanisms the
phonons and the lattice imperfections, and one can write at T< :
electronic conductivity
\\k cn
The
first
= aT 2 + Po /LT.
(1X.2)
due
resistivity
and predominates
to the
at higher tem-
maximum:
TL* =
(IX.3)
Po/2aL.
number
material which
is
inversely proportional to
@2
>
taining as
much
two contri-
The
two-fluid
to predict qualitatively
what hap-
pens to the thermal conductivity of a metal when it becomes superconducting (see Mendelssohn, 1955; Klemens, 1956). The condensed
'superconducting' electrons cannot carry thermal energy nor can
87
88
Superconductivity
in
kgs and
Hulm
(1950)
on pure
Hg shown
in
Thermal conductivity
89
For moderately impure specimens the superconducting conductivity will then not be very different from the
corresponding normal one. This is shown, for example, by the results
of Hulm (1950) on a Hg-In alloy, also displayed in Figure 25. The
results of Lindenfeld (1 96 ) on lead alloys shown in Figure 26 indicates
what happens with increasing inpurity content: as the phonon contribution to the normal conductivity becomes more appreciable, the
the thermal circuit.
0.30
K (watt/cm-deg)
Pb + 6%Bi
Pb+3*h
-Pb+6%ln
0.20-
0.10-
Fig. 25
conductivity
is
hardly scattered by anything except the specimen boundaries, resulting in a large value of kgs This has been observed, for example,
by
gain in
k^ increasingly outweighs
tivity in the
in the
the decrease in
much
normal one.
9.2. Electronic
conduction
Calverley et
If the effect
is
process, then
(IX.4)
90
Superconductivity
Thermal conductivity
where x(if) and y(ir) are functions only of the order parameter or
which indicates the fraction of condensed electrons. Equation 11.25
shows that IT is a function only of / = T/Tc so that one can write
,
instead
written in this
form
(IX.4)
nomen-
ratio
pure
tion
is
BCS
theory.
is
Uk = aT 2 /g(t) + PoLT/f(t).
The equation has been
Hg and Pb, and for extremely pure Sn and In, the heat conducjust below Tc is by electrons limited by phonon scattering. For
91
on a
series
by the
of monocrystalline tin
specimens.
Goodman
At)
= aexp(-*/0,
(IX.7)
and suggested that this implied the existence of an energy gap between
the ground state and the lowest excited state available to the assembly
of superconducting electrons.
This conclusion can be inferred from thermal conductivity results
in the following manner. Simple transport theory shows that
such samples
KJKn *
All pertinent measurements
show
the
same
and Graham, 1963; see also Klemens, 1956). Calculations by Kadanoff and Martin (1961), by Kresin (1959) and by Tewordt (1962,
1963a) appear to explain the experimental results for Sn and In,
but not for Hg and Pb.
For specimens for which Tmax ^ Tc , the electronic conduction in
the superconducting phase
is
by impurity
*/*,
Ce
(IX.8)
/ is
the
mean
free path,
mean
f(t)
Cen
is
known
* kjk M
CJC
(IX.9)
a'Tc texpi-b/t).
(IX.10)
(IX.6)
shown
(1/3) lv
where
Ces =
* /CO.
it
that
lower temperatures
ke
(IX.5)
sit).
that at
slope,
git).
and
The
/=
that at
results
by
on
number of thermally
is
to
92
Superconductivity
an electron and a
hole.
Thus the
Thermal conductivity
heat.
The parameter b
1.0
in IX. 10
is
93
free
.6
equal to 3-50 k B Tc
is
Aluminium
K en
.4-
(.Zavaritskii)
axis of rotation.
{Aluminium(Satterthwaite)
ITheory (BRT)
.4
.6
.8
1.0
Fig. 27
<T)
kB
where
(0)
Tc
*(0)
kB Tc
"
x
e(D
(0)
kjk en
1958).
still
appre-
Thus
and varying
in this range
kjk s = aT-\
where a
is
(IX.11)
as several hundred.
For example, a
94
k n /k s
Superconductivity
10 at 0-1 K.
1955)
suggested using such wires in ultra-low temperature experiments
as
thermal switches which would be 'open', i.e. non-conducting, in
the
CHAPTER X
10.1. Introduction
Tc
to
its
although the
reflectivity of a
Thus
9.4.
is
related
a constant, inde-
that
it
96
Superconductivity
and
and
electron excitations
97
Ces when
this
BCS
1/r.
Figure 28
curvature with
3CWT)3
results of
Corak
of obtaining
is then
necessary to separate the electronic from the
lattice contribution in
the normal phase in order to be able to
subtract the latter from the
total specific heat in the superconducting
phase. Unfortunately,
at
low temperatures,
Cga
even
Fig. 28
theory of Anderson
(1
from the
BCS
theory. According to a
Ccs from
98
Superconductivity
a fre-
i/
? such that hv ? = 2e(0). It is at this frequency that one would
expect the change from the characteristically superconducting re-
quency
99
Table
III
Element
Aluminium
316
2-9
3-37 b , 3-43 c
3-3 d
3-5
...
...
3-3
...
...
3-5
3-9
3-63 a , 3-45 b
3-5
Cadmium
Gallium
Indium
4-1
Lanthanum
2-85
Lead
414
...
3-9
3-7
...
4-0
4-33 a , 4-26 b
...
3-9
418 d
4-6
2-8
Mercury
Niobium
...
...
...
4-4
3-7
...
3-84 e ,3-6*,
3-7
3-59 8
Rhenium
Ruthenium
Tantalum
3-3
...
31
< 30
3-6
3-6
3-60, 3-5',
3-65 u
2-8
3-2
Thallium
Thorium
3-5
...
3-6
Tin
3-3
3-5
3-6
3-46 a , 3-47 b
3-6
3-65 d
J-VL
10
15
Vanadium
20 25 30 35 40 45 50
FREQUENCY (cm -1 )
Fig. 29
tained at high frequencies. Unfortunately, the frequencies corresponding to gap widths inferred from the specific heat measurements
are 10 u -10 12 c-sec~ \ which is an experimentally awkward range
at
the upper limit of klystron-excited frequencies, yet very
low for
mercury arc ones. Only recently have Tinkham and collaborators
developed the techniques needed to detect the very low radiation
intensities available in this far infrared region.
Zinc
3-4
...
...
...
...
3-6
3-4'
3-6
2-5
...
3-4
1962;
lanthanum: Leslie et al., 1964; all others Richards and Tinkham, 1960).
B from infrared transmission (Ginsberg and Tinkham, 1960).
C from microwave absorption (aluminium: Biondi and
Garfunkel, 1959; tin: Biondi et ai., 1957).
1961;
d
Douglass and Merservey, 1964;
Sutton. 1962; 'Giaever, 1962; "Sherrill and
Douglass, 1962;
Townsend and
1959).
100
Superconductivity
detector.
the cavity
At
g,
shown
not due to gap anisotropy. The effect may be due to states of collective
excitations lying in the gap (Tsuneto, 1960)
BCS
theory.
Tsuneto (1962) lead one to expect that the energy of collective excitations should be drastically shifted by impurity scattering.
Richards (1961) has reported measurements on single crystals of
pure tin and of tin containing 01 atomic per cent indium. His results
show
more
this
101
this
would
in a
needed to sustain an alternating current even in a superconductor because of the inertia of the superconducting electrons.
Into a normal metal an alternating field penetrates to a skin depth
such a
field is
below
Tc
compared
to
0K where
there are
and
fairly constant,
no more 'normal'
finally vanishes at
electrons.
Unpublished calculations of the variation of RJR with temperaand with frequency have been made by Serber and by Holstein
on the basis of the Reuter-Sondheimer equations, the London theory,
ture
and the two-fluid model. Typical results are the solid curve labelled
rc and the dashed one labelled 2-37 k B Tc in Figure 30. With
10
c/sec there is general experimental agreefrequencies up to 8 x 10
calculations,
as shown, for example, by the recent
ment with these
results of Khaikin (1958) on cadmium and of Kaplan et al. (1959) on
tin. Their temperature dependence for a given frequency can be
represented by an empirical function, suggested by Pippard (1948):
0-65Ar B
an explanation.
#0 =
(l-/2 )0-/4
4/3
2
.
(X.1)
is as v
at low frequencies, tending toward a constant value at higher frequencies.
However, surface impedance measurements at frequencies con10
siderably higher than 8 x 10 c/sec show appreciable deviations from
the predictions of the simple two-fluid model. Figure 30 shows the
4
/
102
ratio
Superconductivity
RJR n
measured
aluminium as
Biondie/A/ (1957) The
of kB TJh. For 0-65, the results
agree
calorimetrically the
103
it is
O.^r^k
0.6
07
'
'
'
0.8
'
0.9
1.0
Fio. 30
and of course
mechanism occurs
c,
are not
gap at / = 0, but become effective at that temperature at which the gap has shrunk
to a width of 2-37
B T A series
of measurements of the resistance ratio
as a function
both of frequency
no?
(1959)
1.0
due to the boosting of condensed electrons across the energy gap. If this
gap had a constant width at all
t< 1 the appearance of this extra absorption
would depend only on
the frequency. Its temperature
dependence, however, clearly shows
that the energy gap varies with
temperature, tending toward zero as
/-M. As a result, photons of energy 2-37k T
for example,
Garfunkel
u
have
obtained values of the resistance
ratio by measuring
1.5
Energy
this is
2.0
(in
2.5
units of
3.0
3.5
4.0
kTc )
Fig. 31
The accuracy of the measurements was such that the absorption of 10 " 9 watt could be detected. Their results give a temperato 0-35K.
gap which
is
in close
BCS theory.
Mattis and Bardeen (1958) and Abrikosov et ul. (1958) have developed a theory of the anomalous skin effect in superconductors on
the basis of the BCS theory. Miller (1960) used the work of the former
to calculate the surface impedance for many different frequencies
temperatures.
8
The
and
and the
104
105
Superconductivity
no gap
effects.
10.5.
When
only
if
vicinity
To
there
is tempted to use again a simple twomodel, according to which the number of 'normal' electrons
available decreases rapidly below T To this should, therefore, correc
spond a decrease in the relaxation rate as compared to that in the
fluid
'0
normal phase. But the energy gap severely modifies the density of
gap there are, by
definition, no available states at all, and the missing states are 'piled
up on either side. The presence of the energy derivative of the Fermi
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Fig. 32
'
ultrasonic elastic
ductors
7;.,
the gap
states
is still
on either side
the gap, since the relaxation process samples the gap over all directions simultaneously. With this interpretation, the data on aluminium
106
of
Superconductivity
Masuda and
metal,
all
107
fill
all
available states
up to the Fermi level EF in the superconductor, there is a gap of halfwidth e(0), and states up to EF e(0) are filled. With such conditions
there can be no tunneling either way, as on neither side of the barrier
are there any available states.
A potential difference applied between the two metals will shift the
energy levels of one with respect to the other. It is evident from
Figure 33 that tunneling will abruptly become possible when the
;
The subsequent
variation of tunneling
At
first,
there
is
a very rapid
rise
(0)
Voltage
Fig. 34
superconductor
normal metal
variation of I vs.
insulator
tion of
Fig. 33
and the
is
summarized
in
gives with the solid line the current- voltage characteristic of the
Quantum-
<
T< T
the behaviour at
'08
different,
is
shown
Superconductivity
and
in Figure 35.
begin to flow
0K
when
superconductor
tion of the energy gap with magnetic field was discussed in Chapter
VI I. Recent tunneling studies have verified other aspects of the energy
gap, in particular its relationship to the phonon spectrum of the
lattice. This will be summarized in Chapter XI.
Simultaneous tunneling of two electrons has been observed by
Taylor and Burstein (1962), in agreement with the calculations of
superconducting
superconductor
109
6,-e 2 e,+e2
insulator
Voltage
Fig. 35
Fig. 36
the current / at
The energy gap values obtained by this method for several superconductors are listed in Table III, and can probably be considered
as
10.7.
110
Superconductivity
independent of frequency
in the
1 1
= T^Hi-rt^)
+[( I
(X- 3 >
ho < k B Tc
from
this that
the real, lossy part of the conductivity must also vanish in this range,
or a,
samples of tin and lead with widely varying normal conductivity, all
the data of Glover and Tinkham fit a universal curve represented by
il n
As a n
is
(\la)(kB TJtiw),
0-27.
(X.4)
a2
This
is just
cc
(X.5)
1/cu.
London
equation
curlJ + -_-2
Fig. 37
The
transmissivity of a substance
is
related to
curlE
real
= -H
c
leads to
a2
c2
4ttA
(X.7)
2
,
its
normal state by a
(X.6)
0,
plotted
against frequency.
H=
is
An
is
CHRIST'S
I
COLLEGE
mm nw
112
Superconductivity
Substituting X.7 into the first of these two relations shows that the
imaginary conductivity o 2 must be accompanied by a real conduc-
effect
calculated
why a2 /cr
tivity
l< A,
A2
(c /8A ) 8(co
at the origin:
- 0).
(X.9)
have
TT\
k B Tr
o~
2a
a, (to)
1 1
(lo/OAl,
S(o)-O).
(X.10)
afiv /k B
Tc
introduce losses.
Hence
ne2
CT
On
XI X X
to
mvQ
6
leads to
10
12
8
-h<y/k BTc
Fig. 38
kB T
On
htxi
is
strikingly verified
by the
results of
The real and imaginary parts of any linear response function, such
as the electrical conductivity, are related by a pair of integral transforms known as the Kramers-Kronig (K-K) relations. In terms of the
conductivity these take the form:
Tinkham et al. do not determine the gap quite unambiguously (see Forrester, 1958). However, accepting the existence of
+ 00
a 2 (co
i<)
t0
)dco\
(0 2
o 2 (to)
is,
+ 00
co x
-.
co
to
(X.8)
Superconductivity
14
\a n are
it
2e(0)
1 1
K-K
relations to
show
that
where 2c(0)
a,(oi)
A8(oj-0)
(X.12)
that, as for
calculate
as well as the
sum
rule about to be
of aj/a near
co
<x 1/eo,
function,
a 2 (o>)
TTOi
9f(a>i)dh>|.
CX.11)
ff2 ccl/o,
which was
A\on
(7Tl2)(k B
Tclh)(Ma).
(X.14)
Determining A/a from their transmission data and using this relation, Ginsberg and Tinkham obtain values for a of 0-23 for lead, 0-26
for tin,
value of 0-27 for both tin and lead, are in remarkable agreement both
with the Faber-Pippard data (0-15 for tin and indium) and with the
BCS
prediction for
all
metals (0-18).
The agreement
is
particularly
if
At these very high frequencies all electrons are free in both the normal
and the superconducting phases, and one would thus expect cr 2 (co)
and, therefore, the integral in X.l to have the same value in both
phases. In other words, there exists the sum rule that this integral
by Gor'kov.
From this
A2
(X.13)
IA/tho.
The argument has now come through a full circle. An energy gap
corresponds to a disappearance of a^w) in the superconducting
phase over some frequency range in which this conductivity is finite
in the normal metal. This, according to the Ferrel-Glover sum rule,
corre-
aiiai)
c I8A.
(X.15)
117
under suitable conditions. The absence of statistical fluctushows that the superconducting state is a highly correlated one
involving a very large number of electrons. Thus it is necessary to find
inherent in the basic properties common to all metals an interaction
transition
ations
CHAPTER
XI
is
how much
herent in a general, idealized model of a metal which ignores the complicated features characterizing any individual metallic element. It
in such a
this that an explanation for superconducshould be fairly easy, until he realizes the extreme smallness of
the energy involved. A superconductor can be made normal by the
tivity
conducting
number of electrons
specific properties
correlating a large
11.2.
The
Frohlich and, a little later, Bardeen (1 950) pointed out that an electron
moving through a crystal lattice has a self energy by being 'clothed'
with virtual phonons.
through the
What
this
it
unnecessary
lattice as
is
118
Superconductivity
used above
this
means
is
distorted
by a moving
elec-
19
between a pair of electrons just above the Fermi surface, these elecform a bound state. The electrons for which this can occur
as a result of the phonon interaction lie in a thin shell of width ^ hu) q
where hco q is of the order of the average phonon energy of the metal.
If one looks at the matrix elements for all possible interactions which
trons can
take a pair of electrons from any two k values in this shell to any two
others, he finds that because of the Fermi statistics of the electron
these matrix elements alternate in sign and, being all of roughly equal
distance away
which
is
is
in turn affected
absorbed by an electron
element
k + k2
1
that
is,
that
all
bound
k,'
pairs should
+ k^ = K
(XI.1)
momentum K.
Fig. 39
To
the
is
is
attractive
screening charge greater than the electronic one, so that the second
11.3.
The Cooper
pairs
if
there
is
same time
lie in
a narrow
and k 2 which
1 and at
Fermi surface k F
satisfy XI.
one can construct the d iagram shown in Figure 40, d rawing concentric
of radii k F - 8 and k F + 8 from two points separated by K. It is
clear that all possible values of k, and k 2 satisfying XI. 1 are restricted
to the two shaded regions. This shows that the volume of phase space
circles
available for
sharp
maximum
transitions
obtained by pairing all possible states such that their total momentum
vanishes. It is also possible to show that exchange terms tend to reduce
the interaction energy for pairs of parallel spin, so that it is energetically most favourable to restrict the pairs to those of opposite
spin.
BCS
120
Superconductivity
theory as follows: At
0K
momentum space
the
is
a highly
The energy of this state is lower than that of the normal metal by a
finite amount which is the condensation energy of the superconducting
0K must equal Hi/Sir per unit volume. Furtherhas the all-important property that it takes a finite
quantity of energy to excite even a single normal ', unpaired electron.
state
and which
more,
at
this state
'
For not only does this require the very small amount of energy needed
121
ducting as for the normal ground state at 0K. Taking as the zero of
energy the normal ground state energy and including in this all
normal state correlations and even the self energy of the electrons due
to virtual phonon emission and reabsorption, BCS proceed to calculate the superconducting ground state energy as being due uniquely
to the correlation between Cooper pairs of electrons of opposite spin
and momentum by phonon and screened Coulomb interaction.
The interaction leading to the transition of a pair of electrons from
the state (k t -k | ) to (k' t -k' I ) is characterized by a matrix
,
element,
-]^
fc/
= 2(-k'i,k'tl#int|-k!M),
(XI.2)
where i/ int
is
to the normal
Fig. 40
single
energy gap.
It
conductivity,
teristic
BCS
of individual substances.
Vkk
therefore
make
the further
is
isotropic
can state
this formally
by the equations:
it is
(XI.4)
limit.
Vkk =
and
The
basic
BCS
elsewhere.
condition
V<
0.
is
equivalent to the
Superconductivity
122
It is well to
interaction parameter
all
superconductors, that
exist,
and
respect to h k
virtually
is,
30.)
This leads to
[h k (l-h k)}
is
123
'
= vw
(XI.6)
2e k
l-2h.
By defining
KStMl-Ml
e(0)=
1/2
(XI.7)
kf
h,==*-!)
(XI.8)
states are empty. W(Q), the ground state energy of the superconducting
state at
0K
as
compared
normal metal,
is
then
where
Ek = [4+e 2 (0)]
given by
1/2
(XI.9)
relation
Substituting XI.8 back into XI.7 one obtains a non-linear
^(0)=
S^ArSW^l-MMl-^}"
k
2
.
(XI.5)
for(0):
Ky
kk"
e{0)
g(0)
"2Z[ I + eW
for
which
Vkk
9* 0
k hk
- v2
{h k (i
kK
-MMi -h)) m
(Xi.50
to an
This can be treated most readily by changing the summation
k
to e.
integration
from
integration and transforming the variable of
surface
Fermi
the
of
either
side
states
on
Assuming symmetry of
=
introducing the density of single electron states of one
(c
0),
and
The first term gives the difference of kinetic energy between the superconducting and normal phases at 0K. The factor 2 arises because for
every electron in state k of energy e k there is with an isotropic Fermi
surface another electron of the same energy in k. This first term can
be either positive or negative, and is smaller than the second term
which
to XI.4,
from a
For such a transition to be
k)
to another (k',
k').
(XI. 10)
so that
wm - Sk 2e
'
M0)
The
[e
the
+ 2 (0)] ,/2
V=0.
solution of XI. 11
possible,
e(0)
is
= /mysinMl/MO) V\.
(XI.12)
one finds
Putting this back into XI.9 and XI.7 and finally into XI.5',
given by
is
state
superconducting
of
the
that the ground state energy
W(0)
= -
2MQ)(W 2
exp[2/M0)F]-l
(XI. 13)
124
Superconductivity
Morel, 1959; Morel and Anderson, 1962) indicate that the values
Vx 0-3, derived from a knowledge of
are reasonable.
of N(0)
Q,
Debye
H
~=
2
discussed by Ehashberg(1961),Bardeen[9],Schrieffer(1961),Betbeder-
the
off of the
in
XI .4,
is in
contradiction to
formation.
Section 11.7.
^(0)
cc {hu>
q)
finds
(k D Q)
Tc
cc
Tc Mr* 12
cc
Mfol
(XI. 14)
Cohen
so that
(XI.15)
Any
trons are not the bare, non-interacting electrons of the simple BlochSommerfeld model. Instead they are so-called quasi-particles
'clothed' by their interactions with each other and with the lattice
\1], pp. 184-95). As a result the wave functions describing them
are not eigenfunctions of the system, so that the particles
have a finite
lifetime. The effect of this on the pair interaction
has been further
(see
125
(1963).
electron-electron interaction.
1
Cooper
perhaps in other metals. Matthias (see for example, 1960) has repeatedly suggested that in all transition metals there exists an attractive
magnetic interaction responsible for superconductivity. However,
both Kondo (1963) and Garland (1963a) have tried to explain the
126
on
Rondo assumes a
mass
As
1/N(0)
11.6.
As
attractive interaction
by exchange of
virtual
phonons.
all
reduced
2c(0)
with
2^^/sinh [1 /N(0)
(XI. 1 7)
V\.
in the
all
127
Superconductivity
This also
2 (0)
The superconductor
4Aco9 exp [-
(XI. 1 8)
/tf(0) V\.
at finite temperatures
called
tatively,
configuration of
1964).
As at 0R, one can write down an analytic expression for the ground
The energy gap at 0K
From XI.5' one can see that the contribution of a
state energy
11.5.
(k,
-k)
is
Letting
Wk =
2* k h k -2Vj:
{0-MM
,/2
.
fk =
probability of occupation of
(XI.16)
1
-2fk =
first
pair state k,
Wn] K E
.
-k
k nor
occupied by a
2 M[fk + V-2fk)h k
k
(XI. 19)
electron.
At 0R
by a single
is
normal
The
-k
k or of
],
where the summation is over the same range as at 0R, and h k retains
the same definition, though no longer the same value. The second
term
(k,
in the brackets clearly gives the probability that the pair state
The
is
kk'
x(l-2/*)(l-2/*0.
(XI.20)
128
Superconductivity
It is
where
Wm-TS =
expression for
fk
with respect to
fk
(XI.21)
fk =
to the
Wv
W
1
free
this
Ml-hM* = V S[Mi-M]"
l-2h
As long
(i-2A0
(XI.24)
One
now
(XI.28)
k B Tc
= M4/K^exp[-
1/W(0) V\.
(XI.29)
11.7.
hi
is
Ek
f de tan .
all
<XL27)
(XI.23)
where
as
2e 4
(XI.26)
7^^(-^H'
(XI.22)
J [e2+
C xp(Ek /k B T)+])-
Jiuia
an
free energy
XI.26, XI. 18, and XI.24 yield for e(T) sl non-linear relation which,
changing as before from a summation over k to an integration over
e, becomes
129
find
first
This yields
now
be found
quite readily by writing down the free energy of the system and
requiring this to be at a minimum. The free energy is
G=
To evaluate
defined as
-Hi
Ek m [e k + e 2 (!T)] ,/2
(XI.25)
energy gap at
XL 18
and XI.29
0K
2e(0)
3-52 kB Tc .
(XI.30)
of a
and that to break up
one such pair at any finite temperature removes from the superconducting energy at least this amount. In other words, the superconducting state continues to contain an energy gap 2e(T) separating the
lowest energy configuration at any given temperature from that with
one less correlated pair.
single pair state to the total correlation energy,
Combining equations
This
ter
the energy gap does not appear to deviate from this idealized value
number of experiments.
this
Superconductivity
130
1.0
131
so as to
OB
em
o.6
02
0.2
0.6
0.4
0.8
t.O
Fig. 41
which
hold.f This similarity principle had of course emerged from
much pre-
dence for gap variations from one metal to another, as well as for gap
anisotropics, clearly indicates the need to refine the details of the BCS
calculations. For one thing it is of course desirable to take into account
t Deviations from such a law can occur even with the BCS assumption
of constant Kif in solving equations XI.27 and XI.28 one takes into account
higher order terms in k B Te lhwq (Muhlschlegel, 1959). The resulting correction factors appearing in equations XI. 30, XI.35, and XI.36 are, however,
too small to explain the empirical deviations from similarity discussed in
this section. Thouless (I960) has shown that in the BCS formulation the
energy gap at 0K is only 4-0 k B Tc even in the non-physical limit
the
Tc <
is
e.
0K
in
to
Superconductivity
132
on moving from
jump
for lead at
Tc The
.
relation
itself
ek
in
is
/sla
.
n
SaTh V S+
3.6
kT c
calculation
V^g
Al|
26(0)
1 InRe
3.2
Ru
IS, -
fTl
Zr
(1964).
2.4
Pb
4.0 _
was carried
out for lead by Culler et al. (1962), using an on-line computer facility.
The relation between the phonon spectrum and the tunneling
characteristics has been fully discussed by Scalapino and Anderson
ek ,
et al.
The tunneling discussed thus far in this section and in Section 10.6
more quasi-particles. Josephson
(1962) has predicted an additional tunneling current when both sides
Rowell
it
longitudinal
133
cannot
e(0) is
ek
in
10r4
Ek
the energy
(Bardeen, 1961a,
Fig. 43
is
10"
Tc /)
observed
10' 2
10' 3
have
one cannot use the standard
1962).Schrieffer<?/a/. (1963)
for tunneling
Cooper
pairs
from one
relative
phase of the
potential difference.
when an
electron tunnels
the initial
and
from one
is
m)
because
is
Ek
Hvv^}
electrons
on each of
constant, that
is,
the
two
sides
The Josephson current is very difficult to detect because it is quenched by a magnetic field of a few tenths of a gauss. It was first observed
Superconductivity
by Anderson and Rowell (1963) and by Shapiro (1963). The temperature dependence has been studied by Fiske (1964), following calculations by Ambegeokar and BaratofF (1963). Ferrell and Prange
(1963) have discussed the self-limitation of the Josephson current by
the magnetic field it generates itself, and De Gennes (1963) has derived
an expression for the current from the Ginzburg-Landau-Gor'kov
except for the upward deviation at the lowest temperature which was
34
mentioned
=
yTc
equations.
A more
realistic cut-off
The following
table
is
taken from
BCS theory
Goodman
[7] (p.
11.8.
The
One can
Element
yTc
Lead
Mercury
Niobium
Tin
Aluminium
Tantalum
3-65
listed in
Table
215
2-60
2-60
2-58
2-57
2-25
Zinc
Thallium
III.
specific heat
> k D Tc
this yields
closely
318
307
Vanadium
V3
how
CJTJ
k B Tc
(XI.35)
(1958),
include
2 43.
suggested by
135
Hi
this.
The theory
0170,
(XI.36)
of
2
t
in the
yTc
a2
107.
(XI.37)
where K and Kj, are first and third order modified Bessel functions of
the second kind. This simplifies in the temperature regions indicated
This agrees exactly with the experimental value for tin (VIII.3) and
closely with that for several other elements. In terms of the deviation
of the threshold
yT
2-5
field curve from a strictly parabolic variation as displayed in Figure 23, any value of a 2 greater than unity corresponds
to a curve below the abscissa; only mercury and lead are seen to have
6,
(XT.34)
26 exp (- -62TJT),
1 1
Experimental data at
this
first
of these two
values,
10
'
Superconductivity
136
They
137
in Xl.35 should be smaller than 2-43, the quantity in XI. 36 larger than
mental data.
01 70, and
by impurity
have been well confirmed
experimentally, as was discussed in Chapter IX. The derivation of
BRTforthecaseofelectronicconductionlimitedbyphononscattering
(equation IX.5) does not, however, lead to the empirical behaviour.
Calculations by Kadanoff and Martin (1961) and by Kresin (1959)
are in better agreement, but further theoretical work is needed for this
when
involved. There
is
constructive
The
experi-
(Figure 32).
On
two
transitions inter-
phonons, such as
occurs in the attenuation of ultrasonic waves. This destructive interference so decreases the probability of absorption that the effect of
is
completely
wiped out, and the absorption just below Tc drops very sharply. For
low frequency phonons, ha> <^ 2e(0), the ratio of attenuation coeffi-
conduction mechanism.
BRT as well as Geilikman and Kresin (1958, 1959) have derived
the lattice conductivity limited by electron scattering. Experimentally
with an
this
-?
a
This function
is
and
shown
is
o.J<x
2/{l+exp[2e(T)lk B T]}.
in
Tc
drops below
given by
(XI.38)
(1957). It should
One
consequence of the pairing concept, and experimental verification of this point is thus of particular importance. In a normal metal
the scattering of an electron from state k t to state k' t is entirely
independent from the scattering of an electron from - k | to -k'
or of any other transition. The coherence of the paired electrons in
the kf and -k j states in the superconducting phase, however,
direct
makes
(see
these
[7],
rate,
shown
in
Figure 32.
electrons which
is
138
Superconductivity
propagation. Thus a measurement of the attenuation of sound propagated in a particular crystalline direction involves only those electrons
To
whose velocity
a thin disk at right angles to this direction. The value of the energy gap appearing in equation XI. 38 i > thus
one averaged over this particular disk. Such measurements have been
1.0
directions
lie in
interaction as a perturbation,
in terms of the
spectrum of excited states in the absence of the field. This wave function is then substituted into an equation of the form III. 20 to calculate
the current density. Mattis and Bardeen (1958) and also Abrikosov
et al. (1958) have expanded this to treat fields of arbitrary frequency.
The
TIN
0.8
139
x INDIUM
0.6
in
Chapter X,
to
its
if the
energy gap
is
fields at
empirical value.
0C n
BCS
0.4
by Gor'kov (1958). A simplified version of this method has been presented by Anderson (1960). The electromagnetic equations occurring
in this formulation were shown by Gorkov (1959, 1960) to be equivalent to the Ginzburg-Landau expressions in the region near Tc and
under circumstances where A > . As was pointed out in Chapters V
and VII, Gor'kov showed that the energy gap is proportional to the
G-L order parameter, so that the dependence of the latter on temperature, magnetic field, and co-ordinates, also applies to the former.
02
in
Chapter VII.
Wave
vector q
2e(0)/k B Tc
parallel to [001]
3-2 01
parallel to
4-3
[1 10]
0-2
3-5
01
'40
Superconductivity
(Hammond and
The Knight shift is defined as the fractional difference in the magnetic resonance frequency of a
nucleus
in a free ion and the same nucleus in a metallic medium. It is
due to
the field at the nucleus created by the free electrons, and is usually
Kelly, 1964).
CHAPTER
XII
12.1. Introduction
Knight
shift
the
Knight shift
the
BCS
offers
theory.
vanadium
contribution due
superconductivity
among
Compounds
shift in
achievements.
One of
the
many ways
is
sys-
number of experiments.
12.2. Dilute solid solutions with
Serin, Lynton,
non-magnetic impurities
et
al.,
1957; Chanin et
al.,
mean
Tc decreases linearly
with the
the solute.
is
in
1960).
is
141
Superconductivity
142
so-
MO)
on the concentration of
states
impurities.
This general mean free path effect on Tc has also been found in
tantalum by Budnick (1960). It has been verified by using a number
of different ways of scattering the electrons by mechanical deforma-
143
+.02
ELECTRONEGATIVE
+.01
Aoll
is
-.01
-02
solvent,
-04
combination.
-05-
concentration in
Fig. 45
Tc
by an amount approxi-
resonance in aluminium (Masuda and Redfield, 1960a, 1962) and ultrasonic and infrared absorption in tin (Morse et al., 1959; Bezuglyi,e/ al.,
1959; Richards, 1961) have
shown
be lowered by about
confirm
Kadanoff
per cent
its
that the
gap
in these elements
when /
Recently Caroli et
al.
(1962),
Markowitz and
varies
Tc depends on three
increase in
increase
is
effects
energy V.
144
Superconductivity
145
et al., 1956).
show
that the transitions for such alloys are nevertheless not fully
shown
in Figure
transverse to an external
field.
Tc more than
Ad
He
the
number of valence
electrons per
atom toward
The
Fig. 46
3d electrons
is
is
difficult to esti-
et al.
(1962) and by
Markowitz and
annealed solid
conductors according to several
criteria.
because the number of valence electrons per atom rises beyond five,
but with Fe the apparent magnetic interaction counteracts this in
part. It must be pointed out, however, that ferromagnetic transition
fifth column superconductors (Nb,
V) lower Tc in approximate agreement with the expected effect due to
the change in valence electrons per atom (MUller, 1959). There does
not appear to be any added effect due to the magnetic nature of the
impurities. Why such effects should appear with fourth column
metals but not with fifth column ones is far from clear, as in neither
It is interesting
a number
five,
146
Superconductivity
958b, 1959a).
case are there any localized magnetic moments associated with the 3d
solute atom.
et al.,
Quite recently Cape (1963) has measured the electrical and magnetic properties of very carefully prepared alloys of Ti containing
effective
0.2 to 4 at
Mn. Depending on
the
method of preparation
these
moments
is
147
/x
eff are
Tc
centage of neodynium, which has the same spin but a smaller moment.
superconducting. This
moments (see
The non-magnetic bec phase, on the other hand, has a transition temperature which is raised above that for pure Ti by an amount
commensurate with the increase in the number of valence electrons.
Hake et al. (1962) had earlier deduced from their measurements of
transport properties that the hep phase of Ti-Cr, Ti-Fe, and Ti-Co
also carried localized magnetic moments. In addition there is calorimetric evidence (Cape and Hake, 1963) that in Ti-Fe samples only a
small fraction of the volume is superconducting. These results throw
considerable doubt on Matthias' speculation that iron-group impurities which do not carry a localized magnetic moment enhance
superconductivity by means of a magnetic interaction between
below).
electrons.
Nb-Mo solutions
expect
Fig. 47
is
is
a short-range
rare earth elements with 4/electrons are put into lanthanum (Matthias
which
is
Ir,
Pt)
and A is either
148
Superconductivity
a rare earth with 4/ electrons (A') or one of the group Y, Sc, Lu, or
La {A"), none of which contain 4/ electrons (Suhl et al., 1959). A'B2
is
always ferromagnetic,
A"B 2 always
superconducting. Comparing
149
energy gap. As a result the free energy of the normal phase is lowered
more than that of the superconducting one, and the onset of super-
but one of a number of interesting correspondences which Matthias has found between superconis
(1960)
ductivity
zed
moments when
a ferromagnetic impurity
electrons in a
manner
is
may
binary
(Matthias et
al.,
is
not
two phe-
V,
in the interaction
impurity concentrations
show
is
matrix element
on
V initially
lowers
Tc
and
similar work.
Abrikosov and Gor'kov (1960) as well as De Gennes and Sarma
(1963) show that magnetic impurities will lower the energy gap more
rapidly than the transition temperature. There should thus be a
range of concentration for which the alloy has a finite critical tem-
perature at which
its
of an energy gap. Indeed Reif and Woolf ( 1 962) have found this para-
Suhl and Matthias (1959) have treated the general problem of the
lowering of Tc due to the presence of magnetic impurities by extending
an argument of Herring (1958), according to which the polarization
does not violate any fundamental principle. The spin-flipping scattering of the conduction electrons by the magnetic ions gives the former
a very short lifetime. This broadens the electron states, particularly
those nearest the gap, so much as to spread the states into the gap.
At a certain impurity concentration states will have spread throughout
due to the coupling of the conduction electrons with the spins of the
paramagnetic impurity ions lowers the free energy in both the normal
and in the superconducting phases. The free energy is lowered by each
Superconductivity
50
The
details of this
may be
He emphasized
12.4.
Superimposed metals
'size'
superconducting material deposited on a normal metal would themselves become normal, and whether conversely sufficiently thin layers
of normally non-superconducting metal would become superconducting when in contact with a superconductor. Such superimposed metals
differ
in the tunnelling
experiments by the
BCS
zero-momentum
pairs
of h k 12 and of
-h k ) 112
(1
of the
is
-4
is characterized by some average over both metals of the parameter N(0) V, which in turn determines the energy gap of the layer and its transition temperature,
manner on the
normal
would have
Similarly a combination of
to
have a
11
two
layers.
Te
if
Superconductivity
52
CHAPTER XIII
bimetallic film are sufficiently thin so that the coherent electron pairs
extend over the entire volume. One expects the critical thickness for
this to be of the order of the coherence length, although it is not clear
whether this should be the ideal value or the mean free path limited
value (f). If one of the two superimposed metals is much thicker than
whatever critical length is appropriate, then presumably the average
Superconducting Devices
interaction
is
critical length.
silver films
(1
A indicate
a de-
13.1.
The
Research devices
characteristics of superconductors
0TK
Chapter DC.
More
com-
electric
001
A super-
fields as
low as
gauss.
d.c. signal is
con-
wire which
is
state
by being
Superconductivity
154
Many low
much
to
make
alloys
as high as 5 x 10
amp/cm2
in fields
almost up to the
critical
value.
The
critical fields
thermodynamic
critical fields
much
as defined by equation
II.4.
How-
have discussed two reasons why superconductivity can persist in a given specimen to fields higher than
c One
possibility is that the material is sufficiently inhomogeneous, so as to
cycle.
D. H. Andrews
et al. (1946)
in resistivity
A different
RF
detection
in Section 7.2.
1931,
H >H
s
c,
much
smaller
On
the
mechanism for high field superconductivity was discussed in Chapter VI, where it was shown that superconductors of the second kind remain in a superconducting mixed
other hand, a quite different
Goodman
short electronic
mean
free path.
field
As
Parkinson (1964).
As early as
155
(Goodman,
magnets
rela-
limit for
Hake
(1962) as well as
Superconductivity
Superconducting devices
of 4-3 kgauss, and since then the interest in the subject has grown
156
carried out by
is
is
157
may
still
13.3. Superconducting
Much
computer elements
work
is
have a very high critical field while carrying a low current density,
but turn normal when the latter is increased. Rose-Innes and Heaton
(1963) have used Ta-Nb wire to show very strikingly how sample
treatment can change the current carrying capacity without changing
the critical
large so as to
Thus
field.
energy.
is
that
by a negative surface
They are
fields if
high
fields,
Yntema
densities
wound with
is
in.)
furthermore kept
D its diameter,
then
(/,)m
H ttD,
c
(xni.i)
Superconducting devices
Superconductivity
158
flows only
and
open,
*c
(XIII.2)
(XIII.3)
This
is
(a)
59
are discussed by
(1959),
where n
if:
(c) neither
articles
by Young
greater than unity in order that the gate current of one cryotron can
INPUT
"ONE"
INPUT
"ZERO"
37
;-!
READ
"ZERO"
READ
"ONE"
Fig. 48
Fig. 49
by placing a further cryotron gate in series with each branch, and conan outside signal, which can 'open the gate', making
the corresponding branch resistive and forcing the current into the
other path. This is shown in Figure 49, which also indicates that if
each branch also controls the gate of a read-out cryotron, the position
of the bi-stable element can be read. Figure 50 shows other basic
logical circuits using cryotrons; the current through the heavy line
trolling this by
with which the resistance can be inserted, that is, the speed with which
a given gate can be made normal, depends on the basic phase transition time
( as
10~
10
On the other hand, the switching time from one current path
to another is determined by the ratio L/R, where L is the inductance
1961).
made up
R the
resistance introduced by an opened gate. The usefulness of wirewound cryotrons is severely limited by the fact that this time is no less
than 10~ 5 sec, even if the gate consists of a tantalum film evaporated
on
development
effort
is
directed toward
all
making
current research
and
Superconducting devices
Superconductivity
160
161
insulating layers,
of 2x 10
sec have been operated (Ittner, 1960b). An account of
many of the design considerations governing such thin film cryotrons
can be found
second narrow
in several
papers in
is,
[9].
INPUTS
a\or
IB
xr5=-fo
_<ztXp
SENSE
B
-^^Zpr*^
(neither
c\
t
nor B
WIRE.
cnto
QXlo
Fio. 51
Fig. 50
original value,
is
memory
which we
shall take to
film.
be zero. Therefore
keep the
possibility of a two-state
a current
will
if
it
flux
When
the induced
current exceeds this critical value, the cross-bar becomes normal. The
flux now changes to the configuration shown in Figure 52b, as the
is
when
is
now removed,
The
163
Superconducting devices
Superconductivity
162
in Figure 53,
complications.
STORE
"0"
Id
READ STORE
READ
"1"
_
V
v--
STORED STORED
"0"
"0
-
is
removed a
persistent current l
v
stored. Pulse 3
is
it
is
now
4,
READY
a 'readFig. 53
"I"
IV
K READO"
STORED
however, the
state
read-out.
persistent current
is
The memory
very close to
duced
it
is
in the sense
wire because of
is,
be in-
its
is
'.
as
well within the capacity of closed cycle helium refrigerators such
the one described by McMahon and Gifford (1960).
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t. (1962),
munication.
1, 101, 166.
82
Superconductivity
USSR
USSR
USSR
37,
J.E.T.P.
USSR
USSR
USSR
zavaritskh, n.
v. (1960a),
Index
Adiabatic Magnetization, 15
Anisotropy of energy gap
Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer (BCS)
theory - cont.
high frequency conductivity, 103,
114
Knight shift, 139^10
nuclear relaxation rate, 104-6, 137
penetration depth, 37, 52, 130
range of coherence, 48, 115
similarity principle, 122, 130
specific heat, 97, 130, 134-6
thermal conductivity, 91, 92, 136
thermal properties, 127-36
weak coupling limit, 131
106, 142
deduction from
infrared absorption, 100
nuclear spin relaxation, 106
96
thermal conductivity, 92
ultrasonic attenuation (table),
138
specific heat,
effect
101
103
heat, 9
Bulk modulus, 16
Tc 6
on
Atomic volume,
effect
on
Tc
Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer (BCS)
theory, 12, 117-40, 150
(See also energy gap, interaction parameter
V,
quasi
Condensation energy,
particles)
52, 139
effect,
Condensation of electrons
mentum
103
films,
mo-
effects,
80
in
130
critical temperature, 129, 143
electromagnetic properties, 103,
critical field,
in
114, 139-40
electron -phonon
in
Cooper
136-8
collective excitations, 100
critical
85, 91,
41
coherence
19,
117, 126
anomalous skin
interaction,
118-20, 125
ground state energy, 120-6
(table), 5
of thin
183
Index
184
Critical
and
lo,
relation
to
thermal
properties,
135
temperature dependence, 4, 18,
84-6, 130, 135
very high values, 27, 70-1, 109,
4, 85,
155
Critical field for supercooling, 66,
74,76
for surface superconductivity, 74
Critical temperature, 3
dependence on
atomic mass, 6
atomic volume, 6
discontinuity of specific heat,
9,
of magnetic impurities,
145-50
effect of non-magnetic impurities,
141-4
in BCS theory, 129-43
Matthias' rules,
6, 141,
superconducting
Energy
148
elements
(table), 5
161-3
Cryotron, 157-63
Cylindrical specimens, 13, 16, 24
{See also thin wires)
cell,
Demagnetization coefficient, 23
Density of electron states, 104-8,
123, 127, 129, 134, 143
Diffusion, 152
Dilute alloys
critical temperature, 141-4
magnetization curve, 144-5
11,91,96-7
Thomson
14,
150
Ferromagnetism, 145-8
Flux creep, 73
Flux quantization, 32-3, 72, 120
Free energy, 13-4, 19-20, 47-8,
57, 75, 93, 128, 148-9
heat, 95
18,38,78,128
185
G-L
parameter k - cont.
value for negative surface
energy, 59, 66, 67, 70
critical
deduction from
penetration depth, 51-3
supercooling, 51-3, 66
in thin films, 54, 78
normal
Gapless superconductivity, 149
Gauge
Gap
Entropy,
114-15,
relation to
G-L
rule,
12,
relation to
Debye temperature,
sum
Ferrell-Glover
cont.
specific heat,
effect
Crowe
Dilute alloys
77
of
Index
in
in
and
conductivity
invariance
69
surface energy, 58
12,
48-54, 150
basic equations, 50, 139
critical field of small specimens,
75-7
extension to lower temperatures,
49,80
temperature dependence, 70
Gorter-Casimir thermodynamic
treatment, 11, 13-19
Gorter-Casimir two-fluid model,
11, 19-21
{See also two-fluid model;
two-fluid order parameter)
application to G-L theory, 49
relation to penetration depth, 36
Gyromagnetic
ratio,
22
BCS
to
energy gap,
53^, 78
-,
see
mean
free
path
BCS
of
non- magnetic impurities, 1 43-4
magnetic impurities, 149
effect
influence
on
isotope
effect,
124-6
quasi-particle
lifetime
124-5, 131
variation
with
energy, 131
Intermediate state,
effects,
quasi-particle
14,
23-6,
29,
59-61,94
G-L parameter
effects
effects
anisotropy, 131
Impurity
68-70
Index
186
Isotope effect - cont.
Index
of quasi-particle
124-6
in the BCS theory, 124
table of values, 82
effect
life
time,
16, 26, 75
effect, 109,
ideal
1 ,
29,36
Low
frequency behaviour
diamagnetic description, 22-6
influence of geometry, 23-6
relation to high frequency response and energy gap, 1 14-15
small specimens, 75-80
field
distribution,
field
13-14,
small specimens, 75
45-6,58, 112
range of coherence, 42-3, 45-7,
152
surface energy, 58-9, 70, 77
Mechanical effects, 16-17, 143
field dependence of
energy gap, 79-80
entropy, 37
free energy, 13-14, 49
G-L order parameter, 53, 78
penetration depth, 35, 38-9, 53, 76
Magnetic
superconductors,
24-6,68
Mean
penetration:
see
Nuclcation of superconducting
phase, 61-3
susceptibility,
53
Quenching, 143
mean
field, 35,
38-9, 53, 76
superconducting
the
phase, 14, 19
Order parameter, see G-L order
parameter; two-fluid order para-
Order
in
meter
23,
in
penetration
46
through thin
films,
45
45-6
of thin
58
energy gap, 44
field dependence of penetration depth,
mean
40
on
Tc
and
BCS
Semiconductors, superconducting,
6
Silsbee's rule, 5
Size effect
on
76-7, 155
supercooling field, 67
critical temperature, 143
energy gap, 79-80
critical field, 46,
critical
magnetic
susceptibility,
34
films,
77
75-8
G-L
142
penetration depth, 40, 44-6
sharpness of transition 40-1
surface energy, 57
uncertainty principle 40, 45
values for Al, In, Sn (table), 65
Small specimens
BCS theory, 44
G-L theory, 49,
relation to
relation to
theory, 44-5
14,
Range of coherence, 1
and superimposed metals, 150-1
dependence on mean free path,
penetration depth
Magnetic
45-6,58,112
Magnetostriction, 16
Matthias' rules, 6, 141, 148
Magnetic
22-4
Magnetic
magnetic
superconductors,
78
133-4
Quantized
cont.
dependence on
field direction, 39,
187
frequency, 39
filamentary
Josephson
Penetration
Magnetization
area under magnetization curve,
depth -
Small specimens -
cont.
independence of isotopicmass,85
relation to
G-L parameter
comparison
of
17,
and
19-21,
dependence on temperature, 9,
11,18,20-1, 86,91,96-7,134
Tc
132, 135
BCS
relation to
21,86, 96
energy gap, 11, 90, 96-7, 132
thermal conductivity, 91, 95
Rutgers' relation, 15, 17
Specific heat of the lattice, 9-10, 18
Spherical specimens
critical field of small spheres, 76
magnetization, 8, 26
penetration
depth
of small
spheres, 29, 35, 46
supercooling in small spheres, 67
critical field, 15, 17,
intermediate state, 59
phase nucleation and propa-
gation, 61-6
range of coherence, 56-8
154
Superconducting elements
(table),
6,
141
heat, 9,
15,
17,
78,
134
entropy, 14
free energy, 13-14,48
in dilute alloys, 144
in thin films, 78-81
length
and
volume
changes,
16-17
reversibility, 7, 13, 17,
144
speed, 159
critical fields
61-3,
65-7,
74
and temperatures,
surface energies, 65
Temperature dependence of
4,
18,
84-6,
130,
135
energy gap, 90, 103, 108, 130
G-L parameter k, 70
penetration depth,
35-8,
51-2,
130
specific heat, 9, 11, 18, 20-1, 86,
Superheating, 61
Superimposed metals, 150-2
Surface currents, 22
Surface energy, 55-74, 150, 156
dependence on temperature, 64-5
effect of strain, 62, 77, 156
in G-L theory, 57-8
in inhomogeneous specimens, 77,
156
36
BCS
of thin
films
93
cont.
relation to
Thin
Table of
critical field,
Supercooling,
relation to
discontinuity at
devices,
189
Thermal conductivity -
cont.
rectifiers,
magnetic
calorimetric data,
in
mean
60-4
radiation detectors, 154
69
*,
Surface energy
Superconducting devices
cavities, 154
computer elements, 157-64
d.c. amplifiers, 153-4
galvanometers, 153
memory
19-21,135
critical field,
in
Index
Index
188
75-80
order
transition, 78
cryotrons, 157-63
magnetic
75-80
behaviour,
73
33,
73-4,
and
&77
second order transition, 78
supercooling, 67
susceptibility, 34-5, 76, 77
thermal conductivity, 79, 93
total field penetration, 36, 45
variation of G-L order parameter, 78
Thin wires, 29, 35, 67, 76
Thomson heat, 95
Threshold magnetic field: see critical magnetic field
Time-reversed
wave
functions,
144
Index
190
Transition metals
absence of isotope effect, 12, 82,
125-6
effect
on
Trapped
Tc
145-50
flux, 3,
161
Tunnelling, 106-9, 132-4
Two-fluid model
(See also Gorter-Casimir twofluid
and
model)
BCS
theory, 127
extension of G-L theory, 49
penetration depth, 36
surface energy, 56-7
thermal conductivity, 89
rigidity in London theory, 39
relation to
Valence elections,
143, 145
Vortex
lines,
72-4
effect
on
Tc
6,
s>
continued
L. C. JaCKSOl
LIVERPOOL
Taylor
turn this
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to th
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R. Barker
A. Ratcliffe
sbismology K. E. Bullen
SBMI-CONDUCTORS D.A.Wright
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THB SPECIAL THBORY OF RELATIVITY
M<
Dingle
gramming
S. Vajda
W. H. Aldoi
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J.
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