Dynamics Notes Ulah

ENGR 2030 DYNAMICS Lecture 2
Prepared by Gilberto E. Urroz, May 2007

RECTILINEAR KINEMATICS: ERRATIC MOTION
Erratic motion or motion with a discontinuity can be better represented graphically, rather than
with a continuous mathematical function.
Relationships between two of the the kinematic variables (s, v, a, t) and between the other
variables can be obtained from the kinematic equations: a = dv/dt, v = ds/dt, a ds = v dv.
Given the s-t graph, construct the v-t graph:

of =velocity
{stslopegraph
}
ds
=v , i.e.,
dt
Given the v-t graph, construct the a-t graph:

dv
=a , i.e.,
dt
Given the a-t graph, construct the v-t graph:

v = a dt , i.e.,
of =acceleration
{vslope
t graph}
={area under }
{ofchange
}
velocity
at graph
Given the v-t graph, construct the s-t graph:
area under
s = v dt , i.e., displacement =
v t graph
Given the v-s graph, construct the v-s graph:
s1
}{
1 change of
= area under
2
2 velocity
as graph
1 2 2
v v = a ds , i.e.,
2 1 0 s
0
Given the v-s graph, construct the a-s graph:
dv
a=v , i.e., acceleration=
ds
Examples are given in Examples 12.6, 12.7, 12.8.
L2-1
velocity multiplying
slope of
vs graph

GENERAL CURVILINEAR MOTION
Curvilinear motion: particle moving along a curved path.

Vector analysis is used to formulate the particle's position (r), velocity (v), and acceleration (a).
Position: Particle located at point P on a space curve defined by the path function s.
Position vector r(t):
measured from a fixed point, or origin, O
both its magnitude and direction change with time
Displacement:
change in position - when particle moves from r to r', the displacement is r = r' r
Velocity:
Average velocity: Particle moves through a displacement r in time t, v avg =
Instantaneous velocity:
v=
dr
dt
The direction of v is tangent to the curve.
Speed: magnitude of the instantaneous velocity is v=
ds
dt
v= lim
t0
, i.e.,
r
t
Acceleration:
Average acceleration: If the velocity of the particle changes from v to v' (at points P and
P', respectively), in a time interval t, the velocity increase is v = v' v, and the
v
a avg =
average acceleration is:
t
A hodograph is the curve described by the velocity vectors when these are referred to a
fixed point O' (similar to the path s described by the position vectors)
Instantaneous acceleration:
Also,
The vector a is tangent to the hodograph, but, in general, it is not tangent to the path.
a= lim
t 0
v
dv
, i.e., a=
dt
t
2
a=
L3-1
d r
2
dt
CURVILINEAR MOTION: RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS
Position: If at time t the particle P is at point (x, y, z), its position vector is
r = x i y jz k
Since r = r(t), then x = x(t), y = y(t), and z = z(t).
The magnitude of r is
The direction of r is specified by the unit vector
Velocity: first derivative of r, i.e.,
This result can be written as:
|r| = r =
v=
x 2 y 2z 2
r r
ur= =
r r
d r dx
dy
dz
= i
j k
dt dt
dt
dt
v=
dr
=v x iv y jv z k , where
dt
v x = x , v y = y , v z= z
v v
2
x
The magnitude of the velocity is |v| = v =
The direction of v is specified by the unit vector
Acceleration: first derivative of v, i.e., a=
2
y
v 2z
u v=
v v
=
v v
dv
=a x ia y ja z k , where
dt
a x =vx = x , a y = v y = y , a z = vz = z
2
x
2
y
2
z
The magnitude of the acceleration is
The direction of v is specified by the unit vector
NOTE: Rectilinear motion occurs along each coordinate axis, thus, we can write:
dx
dt
dy
x-direction: v y =
dt
dz
z-direction: v z =
dt
x-direction: v x =
|a| = a =
a a a
u a=
d vx d 2 x
= 2
dt
dt
d vy d2 y
a y=
= 2
dt
dt
d vy d2 y
a y=
= 2
dt
dt
ax =
L3-2
a a
=
a a
a x dx =v x d v x
a y dy=v y d v y
a z dx=v z d v z
MOTION OF A PROJECTILE
Acceleration is constant (gravity) and acts in the vertical direction (downwards), a = -gj, with
g = 9.81 m/s2 or g = 32.2 ft/s2
Particle starts at initial position (x0 , y0 ) with initial velocity ( v 0 x , v 0 y )
The velocity components can be calculated as

v 0 x =v 0cos 0
v 0 y =v 0sin 0
where v0 is the magnitude of the initial velocity, and 0 is the angle that the initial velocity forms
with the horizontal.
Horizontal Motion Uniform velocity.
With ax = 0,
v x = v 0 x , and
x =x 0 v 0 x t
Vertical Motion Uniformly accelerated motion.
With ay = -g,
v y =v 0 y g t
1
y = y 0 v 0 y t g t 2
2
v y =v o y 2 g y y 0
L3-3

CURVILINEAR MOTION: NORMAL AND TANGENTIAL COMPONENTS
When the path of motion is known, we can use normal (n) and a tangential (t) coordinates with
origin at the particle.
Planar motion: Particle moves in a plane along a fixed curve, with position s measured from a point O.
Use coordinate system with origin at the particle.
The t axis is tangent to the curve and positive in the direction of increasing s.
The n axis is perpendicular to the t axis and pointing in the direction of the center of curvature
O'.
Unit vectors in the t and n directions are ut and un, respectively.
The plane containing the n and t axes is the osculating plane
Velocity:
The position along the trajectory s = s(t)
The particle's velocity v is always tangent to the the path, and its magnitude is v = ds/dt
Instantaneous velocity vector: v=v ut , where v=s
Acceleration:
= v u t v u t
The acceleration is calculated using: a= v
s = v is the instantaneous angular velocity of the radius

n , where =
With u t =u

of curvature
The acceleration is written as a=at ut a n u n , where
a t= v or a t ds=v dv
and a n=
v2
The magnitude of the acceleration is a= a 2t a 2n
Observations:
1. Along a straight line, , and a n=0 , thus a=a t =v . Thus, at represents the
time rate of change in the magnitude of the velocity.
, and a=a n=v 2 / . Thus, an

2. Along a curve with constant v, then a t= v=0
represents the time rate of change in the direction of the velocity. The component an is
sometimes referred to as the centripetal acceleration.
L4-1
Three-dimensional motion. When a particle moves along a space curve, axis t is uniquely specified.
Select axis n as that pointing towards the center of curvature of the curve (principal normal), and select
a binormal or b axis such that its unit vector is ub=ut u n . The t, n, and b axis form a Cartesian
coordinate system centered at the particle at any time t. Note: no motion occurs along the b axis. (See
figure 12-26).
Notes from Procedure for Analysis.
Velocity:
Tangent to path.
Magnitude:
v=s
Tangential acceleration:
a t= v or a t ds=v dv
Relations similar to those of rectilinear motion:
If at = ac (constant acceleration), integrating the three equations above, with initial
conditions v=v 0 , s=s 0 , at t = 0, gives the result of uniformly-accelerated motion:
1
s=s 0v 0 t at c t 2
2
v=v 0 a t c t
v =v 0 2a t c ss 0
Normal acceleration:
a n=
v2
Magnitude:
If the path is expressed as y = f(x), the radius of curvature is:

=
[1dy /dx 2 ]3 /2
d 2 y /dx 2
L4-2

CURVILINEAR MOTION: CYLINDRICAL COMPONENTS
When the path of motion involve angular position () and a radial distance (r), it is sometimes
convenient to use cylindrical coordinates: r, , z.
Polar Coordinates
Use a radial coordinate r measured outwards from an origin O, and a traverse coordinate ,
which is the counterclockwise angle between the x axis and the radial distance, to specify the
position of a particle.
Unit vectors in the r and directions are ur and u, respectively. They're perpendicular to each
other.
Position: The position vector is
r = rur
Velocity:
Calculated using v= r =r ur r u r .
u , the velocity is written as
With u r =
v=v r u r v u , where
v r= r ,
/dt is the angular velocity.

The term =d
The magnitude of the velocity is:
v =r
2
v= r 2r
Acceleration:
r u
r u .
=r ur r u r r u
The acceleration is calculated using: a= v
n and u = ur , the acceleration is written as a=ar u ra u ,

With u t =u
where
a r =r r 2
a =r 2
r
=d 2 /dt 2 is the angular acceleration.

The term =d
/dt
The magnitude of the acceleration is:
L5-1
2
a= r r 22r 2
r
Cylindrical Coordinates. For spatial motion, the coordinates of a point in the trajectory are given by
(r, q, z). The z coordinate is the same as the z Cartesian coordinate, thus uz = k, and it's a constant unit
vector, i.e., u z = k=0

. In cylindrical coordinates, the position, velocity, and acceleration vectors
are:
r = rur + zuz
z u z
v=r ur r u
u z u z
a= r r 2 ur r 2
r
Time Derivatives. To obtain time derivatives such as r , r , , there are two types of problems:
1. Given r = r(t) and = (t), the calculations are straightforward, for example, if
then,
and
3
r =t 22t , =2 t
2
r =2 t2 , =6
t ,
r =2 , =12t
2. If the path is specified as r = f(), use the chain rule of derivatives, e.g., if the path is
r =2 cos
then,
and
r =2sin =2
sin
r =2 sin
cos =2
sin
2 cos .
In this case, values of the derivatives , may be given in order to determine those of
r , r .
Any two values of the derivatives r , r , , may be given, and the remaining values
can be found by using r = f() and its derivatives.
If the magnitude of the velocity or acceleration are given, use the following relationship to solve
for the unknown quantities:
2
v= r 2 r
2
a= r r 22r 2
r
L5-2

ABSOLUTE DEPENDENT MOTION ANALYSIS OF TWO PARTICLES
Refers to the analysis of motion of particles (blocks) attached to each other through cords using
one or more pulleys. Each particle moves in its own rectilinear motion.
Since the length of the cords remains constant, the position of each particle with respect to an
origin can be related through the geometry of the system.
Using time derivatives, relationships between the velocities and accelerations can be found.
See Section 12.9 in Hibbeler's textbook for additional information and examples.
RELATIVE-MOTION ANALYSIS OF TWO PARTICLES USING TRANSLATING AXES

Refers to using a frame of reference (or coordinate system) to describe a particle's motion when
this frame of reference is moving in pure translation with respect to a fixed frame of reference.
For example, the moving frame of reference may be attached to a train, or car, or airplane, when
these vehicles are moving in pure translation with respect to a frame of reference fixed to the
ground.
Position. The absolute position of two particles A and B is measured with respect to the origin
of a fixed coordinate system x,y,z. The corresponding position vectors are rA and rB.
Let the origin of the moving (translating) coordinate system x',y',z' be attached to particle A.
The relative position of particle B with respect to particle A is measured using the relative
position vector rB/A, such that
rB = rA + rB/A
Velocity. For purely translating coordinate systems, taking time derivatives of the equation
above, results in
vB = vA + vB/A
In this equation drA /dt = vA and drB /dt = vB are the absolute velocities of particles A and B,
respectively, and drB/A /dt = vB/A is the relative velocity of B with respect to A.
Acceleration. For purely translating coordinate systems, taking time derivatives of the equation
aB = aA + aB/A
above, results in
In this equation dvA /dt = aA and dvB /dt = aB are the absolute accelerations of particles A and
B, respectively, and dvB/A /dt = aB/A is the relative acceleration of B with respect to A.
Note: the relative position (rB/A), velocity (vB/A), and acceleration (aB/A) of particle B with
respect to particle A are the position, velocity, and acceleration of particle B, respectively, as
seen from the point of view of an observer moving with particle A.
For example, if you are moving along a straight track in a train cabin you could be particle A,
and a fly flying around the cabin could be particle B. The position of the fly with respect to
you would be rB/A. An observer at the train station could, in principle, be able to determine the
absolute position of yourself (rA) and of the fly (rB) by using rB = rA + rB/A.
L6-1

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION
First presented by Sir Isaac Newton, in England, in 1687. Newton's three laws of motion are the
following:
First Law (Law of inertia): A particle originally at rest, or moving in a straight line with a
constant velocity, will remain in this state provided the particle is not subjected to an unbalance
force.
Second Law (Law of force): A particle acted upon by an unbalanced force F experiences an
acceleration a that has the same direction as the force and a magnitude proportional to the force.
The constant of proportionality is the mass of the particle, m. Thus, the so called equation of
motion is:
F = ma
Third Law (Law of action-reaction): The mutual forces of action and reaction between two
particles are equal, opposite, and collinear. [When particle A exerts a force F on particle B,
particle B reacts with an equal, but opposite, force -F on particle A].
Notes on the equation of motion:

The equation of motion, F = ma, is of utmost importance in mechanics.
Einstein's theory of relativity (1905) placed limitations on its applications under certain
conditions:
Time t is not an absolute quantity as assumed in Newton's laws
Newton's equation of motion fails at speeds approaching the speed of light
Quantum mechanics (developed by Schroedinger's and others at the beginning of the
20th century) puts limitations to Newton's equation of motion when particles are the size
of atoms and move close to one another.
For most speeds and particle sizes encountered in engineering situations, Newton's
equation of motion apply as stated above.
Newton's equation of motion, for a particle of constant mass m, can also be written as:
F=
d m v
dv
=m
=m a
dt
dt
The quantity mv is referred to as the momentum (or quantity of motion) of a particle.
Newton's Law of Gravitational Attraction. Two particles of mass m1 and m2 located at a

distance r from each other attract each other with a force whose magnitude F is given by
Newton's law of universal gravitation, namely,
m m
F=G 1 2 2
r
-12
3
2
where G = 66.73 10 m /(kgs ) is the universal constant of gravitation.
L7-1
The force of gravitational attraction that the Earth exerts on a particle near its surface is the
particle's weight W.
Mass and Weight.

Mass is a property of matter by which we can compare the response of one body with
that of another.
Mass manifests itself as gravitational attraction.
Mass provides a quantitative measure of the resistance of matter to a change in velocity
(sometimes it is said mass is a measure of the linear inertia of a body).
Weight is not an absolute quantity as it is a measured in a gravitational field, therefore,
its measure depends on the location where the measurement is made.
2
Newton's law of universal gravitation indicates that the combination G m 2 /r =g ,
where m2 is the mass of the Earth, and r is the radius of the Earth, is the acceleration of
gravity g. Thus, the weight of a particle of mass m1 = m near the surface of the Earth, is
given by
W=mg
Due to irregularities in the shape of the Earth (e.g., a bulge in the Equator, massive
mountains in certain regions such as the Himalayas, the Andes, or the Rockies) the value
of g is not constant everywhere. However, a constant value measured at the standard
location (at sea level at a latitude of 45o) is agreed upon.
Standard values of g to be used in calculations are:
SI (International System):
g = 9.81 m/s2
1
2
FPS (feet-pound-second system) : g = 32.2 ft/s
Units of force (or weight): standard units of force in the International System (SI) and the FPS
system are shown below. The units are based on Newton's equation of motion, F = ma.
2
2
SI: m (kg = kilogram), a(m/s ), F(N) with 1 N (one newton) = (1 kg) (1 m/s )
2
2
FPS: m(slug), a(ft/s ), F(lb) with 1 lb (one pound) = (1 slug) (1 ft/s )
Non-standard units of force: A variety of units of force have been used through the years. For
example, in the FPS system of units sometimes you will hear of a lbf (pound force) and of a lbm
(pound mass, also referred to as a poundal). The use of lbf is discouraged since it is the same as
the pound (lb). A lbm is the mass of a body that weights one pound (1lb). In slugs, this will be
calculated using
W = mg, or 1 lb = m ( 32.2 ft/s2), thus 1 lbm = 0.03106 slug
Similarly, in the metric system, from which the SI was derived, there used to be a kgf (kilogram
force) and a kgm (kilogram mass). The use of kgm is discouraged since is the same as the kg. A
kgm is the mass of a body that weights a kilogram, i.e.,
W = mg, or 1 kg = m ( 9.81 m/s2), thus 1 kgm = 0.1019 kg
I will discourage the use of lbm, lbf, kgm, kgf, except for the fact that they still survive in the
unit conversion features of modern calculators. For example, in the HP calculators, when you
select the UNITS feature, and look into the MASS units available, you will find lb and oz (1 lb
1 Also known as the English System (ES), the Imperial System, or the British Gravitational System (BGS).
L7-2
= 16 oz, oz = ounce) as units of mass. Looking into the FORCE units available in those
calculators you will find units such as gf (gram force), and lbf. Thus, when using this
calculator, make sure to use lbf for lb, and ignore lb in the MASS units, using slugs instead.
A common FPS unit of force used in engineering is the kip (1 kip = 1000 lbs). The word kip
is an abbreviation of kilo pounds, kilo meaning one thousand.
A metric unit of force that is still commonly used is the dyne (dyn). This unit belongs to a subsystem of the original metric system referred to as the cgs (centimeter-gram-second) system.
The dyne is defined as the force needed to provide an acceleration of 1 cm/s2 to a mass of 1 g.
Thus,
1 dyn = (1 g)(1 cm/s2) = (10-3 kg)(10-2 m/s2) = 10-5 N.
NOTE: The basis for the SI system was the metric MKS (meter-kilogram-second) sub-system.
An on-line Dictionary of Units of Measurement

To learn more about the different systems of units visit the following on-line Dictionary of
Units of Measurements:
http://www.unc.edu/~rowlett/units/
The home page has links describing the SI, the English Customary System, the Metric System
and its CGS and MKS sub systems. Alphabetical links are shown at the top of the home page
that will give you a listing of units in alphabetical order.
More on-line information on units of measurement. Visit my useful links page at:
http://www.engineering.usu.edu/cee/faculty/gurro/Classes/Links.htm
and find the Units of Measurement link for additional on-line information on units of
measurement.
The Equation of Motion. A more general form of the equation of motion, when more than one
force F acts on a particle, the net force is the resultant force, FR = F, thus, the equation of
motion is now written as:
F = ma
In the analysis of particles subjected to forces, it is recommended that one draw a free-body
diagram showing the particle and all the forces (i.e., the left-hand side of the equation), and a
kinetic diagram showing the ma term (i.e., the right-hand side of the equation).
Inertial Frame of Reference. The equation of motion must be applied with respect to a socalled Newtonian or inertial frame of reference. Such a coordinate system does not rotate and
is either fixed or translates in a given direction with constant velocity (zero acceleration).
For spatial motion, one could consider an inertial frame of reference as fixed to the stars. For
motion on the surface of the Earth, we can use an inertial frame attached to the Earth.
(Rotational effects from the Earth on such system are negligible).
L7-3
Equation of motion for a system of particles. Suppose that we analyze the motion of a system
of particles of mass mi subject to a number of external forces Fi and of internal forces fi. For
each particle, we can write an equation of motion as:
F i f i=m i a i
Adding the equations for all particles, vectorially, we can write

F i f i= m i a i
By Newton's third law, however, internal forces will cancel each other so that fi = 0, and the
resulting equation of motion is now:
F i = mi a i
By definition, the center of mass of a system of particles is located at position rG given by

m i r G = m i r i
where ri is the position of particle mi. Since, the masses mi are constant, taking the time
derivative of the above equation, twice, results in
mi aG = mi a i
Making m = mi represent the total mass of the system of particles, and using the result shown
immediately above, the equation of motion for the system will be written as:
F=m a G
This result indicates that the sum of external forces acting on a system of particles is equal to
the total mass of the particles times the acceleration of the system's center of mass.
Thus, a body of mass m, consisting of a number of point particles, can be analyzed as a particle
if we concentrate on the motion of its center of mass. The latest result justifies applying
Newton's law of motion to bodies such as cars, bicycles, trains, airplanes, human bodies, etc.
EQUATIONS OF MOTION: RECTANGULAR COORDINATES

The equation of motion F =m a expressed in Cartesian coordinates becomes
F x i F y j F z k=ma x ia y ja z k
Expressed in terms of its components, we have:
F x=ma x , F y =m a y , F z =m a z
L7-4
PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS

Free body diagram
Select inertial coordinate system
Draw all forces on the particle
Draw kinetic diagram showing the quantity ma
Identify unknowns
Equations of motion
If forces can be resolved into components, apply equations of motion in components
If problem is three-dimensional, use vectors
Friction forces. If a body slides over another body there may be a friction force Ff between
them, whose magnitude is given by
Ff = k N,
where k is the coefficient of kinetic friction between the surfaces (a property dependent on the
nature of the surfaces), and N is the normal force acting perpendicular to the surfaces.
In the free-body diagram, the friction force Ff in such a way that is opposes the motion of the
particle relative to the surface of contact.
Springs. The force exerted by an elastic spring of negligible mass is given by
Fs = k s
where k is the spring constant, and s is the stretch or compression of the spring, defined as
s = l-l0,
where l and l0 are the deformed and undeformed lengths of the spring, respectively.
Kinematics
Once an expression for the acceleration of the particle in the free-body diagram has been found,
use your knowledge of kinematics if it is necessary to determine velocities or positions for the
particle.
Use the same coordinate system used in the free-body diagram to describe the kinematics of the
motion.
L7-5

EQUATIONS OF MOTION: NORMAL AND TANGENTIAL COORDINATES
The equation of motion
F =m a expressed in tangential-normal-binormal coordinates becomes

F t u t F n u n F b u b=ma t ut an u n
Expressed in terms of its t, n, and b components, we have:

F t=m at
F n=m a n
F z =0
Recall that at (= dv/dt) represents the time rate of change in the magnitude of the velocity. Thus, Ft =
mat will point in the direction of at. Likewise, an (= v2/ ) represents the time rate of change in the
direction of the velocity. Thus, Fn = man, the centripetal force, acts in the direction of an., i.e., towards
the center of curvature of the path.
KINEMATICS
See Lecture 4 for the kinematics of motion in the t-n-b coordinate system.
Tangential direction (tangential accleration): a t= v or a t ds=v dv
Normal direction (centripetal acceleration): a n=
L8-1
v2

Prepared by Gilberto E. Urroz, May 2007 Modified January 2008
EQUATIONS OF MOTION: CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES
The equation of motion
F =m a expressed in cylindrical coordinates becomes

F r u r F u F z u z =m a r u ra ua z u z
Expressed in terms of its r, , and z components, we have:

F r=ma r
F =m a
F z =m a z
See the KINEMATICS section (below) for the acceleration components.

TANGENTIAL AND NORMAL FORCES (see Figure 13-17 in textbook)
The normal force N which a path exerts on the particle is always perpendicular to the tangent to the
path, whereas the frictional force F always acts along the tangent in the opposite direction of motion.
The directions of N and F can be specified relative to the radial coordinate r by using the angle (psi),
measured counterclockwise starting from a line in the extended radial coordinate and measured towards
the tangent line. The angle can be calculated from
tan =
r
dr / d
L9-1
KINEMATICS
See Lecture 5 for the kinematics of motion in cylindrical coordinates.
Radial acceleration:
a r =r r 2
Transverse acceleration:
a =r 2
r
Acceleration in the z direction:
a z= z
In case you need to use velocity components, recall that:
L9-2
v r= r ,
v =r

THE WORK OF A FORCE
A force F will do work on a particle only when the particle undergoes a displacement in the
direction of the force.
A force F acting on a particle that undergoes a small displacement dr (of magnitude ds)
produces a work dU given by
dU = F ds cos = F dr
where is the angle between the tails of the vectors F and dr.
if 0o < 90o, F and dr have the same sense, and
dU > 0
o
o
if 90 < 180 , F and dr have the opposite sense, and dU < 0
if = 90o ,
F and dr are normal to each other, and dU = 0
Units of work:
SI: The joule, 1 J = (1 N)(1 m)
FPS: basic unit (1 lb)(1 ft) = 1 ft lb
Use ft lb to distinguish from units of moment lb ft
Although the units are similar, moment is a vector and work is a scalar
Work of a variable force
If the particle, under the effect of force F, undergoes a finite displacement along its path from r1
to r2 with the force being a function of the position along the path s, i.e., F(s), as the particle
moves from s1 to s2, the work is calculated as:
r2
s2
r1
s1
U 12= F d r = F cosds
U1-2 can be interpreted as the area under the curve of the function F cos() as a function of s,
between the values s1 and s2.
Work of a constant force moving along a straight line
If the force Fc has a constant magnitude and acts at a constant angle from its straight-line
path, the work done by Fc as the particle moves from s1 to s2 is:
s2
U 12=F c cos ds=F c cos s 2s1

s1
L10-1
Work of a Weight
A particle of weight W = - W j moving along a path such that dr = dx i + dy j + dz k yields a

work
r2
r2
r1
r1
U 12= F d r= W j dx idy jdz k

y2
W dy=W y 2 y 1
y1
or
U 12=W y
The work of a weight is independent of the path of the particle, and is equal, in magnitude, to
the weight multiplied by the vertical displacement.
If the particle displaces upwards y > 0, and U1-2 < 0.
If the particle displaces downwards y < 0, and U1-2 > 0.
Work of a spring force
A particle attached to a string elongated by an amount s is subject to a force Fs whose

magnitude is given by Fs = -k s, where k is the spring's constant (force per unit elongation). The
minus sign results from the fact that the force acts in the opposite direction to the elongation.
Suppose that the particle moves from position s1 to position s2 (these positions also representing
spring elongations), then the work exerted by the spring on the particle is
s2
1
1
U 12= k s ds= k s 22 k s21
2
2
s
1
When using this equation notice the direction of the spring force acting on the particle and
compare it with the direction of displacement of the particle:
If both are in the same direction, positive work results

If they are opposite to one another, the work is negative
PRINCIPLE OF WORK AND ENERGY
Consider a particle subject to a system of forces F, then the equation of motion in the
tangential direction is Ft = mat = mv(dv/ds). As the particle moves from position s1 to
position s2, its velocity changes from v1 to v2. Integrating the equation of motion produces:
s2
v2
s1
v1
F t ds= m v dv
L10-2
Since the left-hand side of the equation represents the work exerted by the system of forces on
the particle we refer to it as U1-2. The integral above produces the principle of work and
energy:
1
1
2
2
U 12= m v 2 m v 1
2
2
The terms of the form

1
2
T= mv
2
in the right-hand side of the equation represents the particle's final and initial kinetic energy,
respectively. (Kinetic energy means energy of motion, and it has the same units as work).
Using the concept of kinetic energy, the principle of work and energy can be re-stated as:
U 12=T 2T 1
or
T 1 U 12=T 2
Since this principle is obtained from integrating the tangential equation of motion, it can be
used as an alternative way to solve problems described by that equation of motion (i.e., by
Ft = mat = mv(dv/ds)).
For example, if v1 for a particle of mass m is known, and U1-2 can be calculated, the final
velocity v2 can be calculated from T 1 U 12=T 2 .
The principle of work and energy cannot be used to solve for forces normal to the path of
motion since these forces produce no work. In this case, use Fn = man = mv2/. The value of
v needed for the solution could be obtained from the principle of work and energy.
PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS

Work (Free-Body Diagram)
Establish inertial coordinate system and draw a free-body diagram to account for all forces that
do work on the particle as it moves along its path.
Principle of Work and Energy
Kinetic energy is always positive.
A force does work when it moves through a displacement in the direction of the force.
Work is positive when force component is in the same direction as its displacement, otherwise it
is negative.
Work produce by a variable force typically requires an integration procedure.
Work produced by weight is UW = W y, positive when weight moves downwards.
2
Work of a spring is of the form Us = k s , k = spring constant, s = stretch or compression of
spring.
L10-3
PRINCIPLE OF WORK AND ENERGY FOR A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES
For a system of particles the principle of work and energy can be written as:
T 1 U 12= T 2 ,
where T1 = system's initial kinetic energy, T2 = system's final kinetic energy, and U1-2 =
work done by all external and internal forces acting on the system.
Strict accountability of the work done by all forces acting on the particles of the system must be
made.
Work done by internal forces is not necessarily zero (even if the internal forces between two
particles cancel each other), since the paths of two interacting particles may be different.
Work done by internal forces is zero if:
particles are contained within the boundaries of a translating rigid body

particles are connected by inextensible cables
In these two cases the path of any two interacting particles will either be the same (rigid body)
or the particles will translate by the same amount (particles connected by cables).
If a body is nonrigid, some energy due to internal force interactions is given off as heat or
stored in the body as permanent deformations occur (see end of section 15.4). Problems of
work-energy in the textbook include only cases where these energy losses do not have to be
accounted for.
Only one equation representing the principle of work and energy is to be used for a given
system. However, for particles attached by cords, kinematics will contribute additional
equations to the solution.
Work of Friction Caused by Sliding
Read this sub-section of Section 14.3 in the textbook for a detailed explanation of the origin of
heat due to sliding friction.
L10-4

POWER AND EFFICIENCY
U
dU
, instant: P=
dt
t
Power: amount of work per unit time: average: Pavg=
Since dU = F d r , then
Units of power:
SI:
watt,
FPS:
horsepower,
Conversion factor:
Power can be used to determine the type of machine required to do a certain amount of work in
a given time (e.g., pumps, car motors, etc.).
The capacity of electric plants is given by its power, e.g., a 200 MW plant will produce more
electricity per unit time than a 100 MW plant.
Efficiency: The mechanical efficiency of a machine, , is defined as:
P=
dU d F r
dr
=
=F
, i.e.,
dt
dt
dt
1 W = (1 J)/(1 s) = 1 Nm/s
1 hp = 550 lb ft/s
1 hp = 746 W
power output
power input
If energy input and output occur during the same time interval, we can also write
=
P=F v
energy output
energy input
Frictional forces between moving machine parts require extra energy to overcome those forces,
thus the efficiency of a machine is always less than 1.
CONSERVATIVE FORCES AND POTENTIAL ENERGY

Conservative Force: When the work performed by a force in moving a particle is independent
of the path, this force is called a conservative force. Examples:
Work of a weight: depends only on the vertical displacement
Work of a spring: depends only on the spring's compression or extension.
Frictional forces are not conservative.

L11-1
Potential Energy:
Energy: capacity for doing work
Energy of motion: kinetic energy
Energy of position: potential energy - Note: position is measured from a fixed datum or
reference plane.
Potential energy is a measure of the amount of work a conservative force will do when it
moves from a given position to the datum.
Gravitational Potential Energy (Vg):

At the datum, Vg = 0
At a distance y above the datum, Vg > 0
At a distance y below the datum, Vg< 0
In general, for y>0 upwards, the gravitational potential energy of a particle of weight W
is:
V g=W y
Elastic Potential Energy (Ve):

A spring elongated or compressed a distance s from its unstretched position, the elastic
potential energy is
1 2
V e= k s
2
Notice that Ve > 0 always, thus, a spring has the capacity of performing positive work on
the particle.
Potential Function. If a particle is subject to both gravitational and elastic forces, the total
potential energy is expressed by the potential function:
V =V g V e
For a particle located at position (x,y,z), the potential function is V = V(x,y,z).
If a particle moves from point 1 (with potential function V1) to point 2 (with potential function
V2), the work done is:
U 12=V 2V 1
At a differential level:
With the vector operator del,
dU = - dV(x,y,z)
[]
[ ]
[]
i
j
k , the conservative force F
x
y
z
corresponding to the potential function V, is given by:
[ ]=
F= V
L11-2
With
F= F x iF y j F z k , then force components are

F x =
V
,
x
F y =
V
, and
y
F x =
V
x
Example: for the gravitational potential function, Vg = - W y, the corresponding force is the
weight of the particle:
F= V g =
W y
W y
W y
i
j
k =W j=W
x
y
z
L11-3

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
When a particle is acted upon by both conservative and non-conservative forces, the work
performed by conservative forces is U 12 cons=V 1V 2 . With this result the principle of
work and energy can be written as:
T 1V 1 U 12 noncons =T 2V 2
If only conservative forces are applied to the particle U 12 noncons=0 , resulting in the
equation of conservation of mechanical energy (or simply, conservation of energy)
T 1V 1=T 2V 2
System of particles. If a system of particles is subject only to conservative forces, the equation
can be written as:
T 1V 1= T 2V 2
The two expressions above are only to be used when a particle or system of particles are under
the effect of conservative forces, such as:
Gravitational Potential Energy:
Elastic Potential Energy:
Kinetic Energy:
V g=W y
1 2
V e= k s
2
1
2
T= m v
2
L12-1

PRINCIPLE OF LINEAR IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM
dv
can be integrated over a time interval
dt
from t1 to t2, with the velocity changing from v1 to v2, to produce the principle of linear impulse
F=m a=m
The equation of motion for a particle:
and momentum:
t2
v2
t1
v1
F dt=m d v=m v 2m v 1
L=m v
Linear momentum. It's the vector
Linear impulse. It's the integral
For a force F(t), of magnitude F(t), the impulse is the area under the F-t curve.
Principle of linear impulse and momentum: it's re-written as (see impulse momentum diagram
in section 15.1):
I = F dt . It has units of force-time, i.e., Ns or lbs.
t2
m v 1 F dt=m v 2
t1
Scalar equations. Resolving the above vector equation into its components we get:
t2
m v x 1 F x dt=mv x 2
t1
t2
m v y 1 F x dt =m v y 2
t1
t2
m v z 1 F x dt=m v z 2
t1
PRINCIPLE OF LINEAR IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM FOR A SYSTEM O F PARTICLES

For a system of particles, the principle can be generalized to :
t2
mi v i 1 F i dt = mi v i 2
t1
An alternative form of this equation, using the center-of-mass m v G= mi v i , is

t2
mvG 1 F i dt=m vG 2
t1
L13-1
CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM
When the sum of external impulses acting on a system of particles is zero, we obtain the
following statement of conservation of linear momentum:
mi v i1= mi vi 2
Using the velocity of the center of mass, m v G= mi v i , conservation of linear momentum

shows that:
v G 1 = v G 2
The principle of conservation of linear momentum is often applied when particles collide or
interact.
Perform careful analysis of free body diagram to identify forces that create internal and external
impulses.
Internal impulses will always cancel out

External impulses of very short duration can be neglected (non impulsive forces)
External impulses of large magnitude acting in short periods of time produce significant
change in momentum, these are called impulsive forces
Impulsive forces occur in explosions or when one body strikes another.
Non impulsive forces may include the weight of a body, elastic forces in strings with
small k and small deformations, or any force that is very small compared to other
impulsive forces.
L13-2

IMPACT
Impact occurs when two bodies collide with each other during a very short period of time,
causing relatively large (impulsive) forces to be exerted between the bodies.
Central impact occurs when the direction of motion of the centers of mass are along the same
straight line (the line of impact). [Otherwise we have the case of oblique impact].
Collision occurs if v A 1v B 1
When the particles first collide there is a period of deformation
At the point of maximum deformation both particles move with the same velocity v
Afterwards, a period of restitution occurs
Just after separation v B 2 v A 2
For this case, conservation of momentum produces

m A v A 1m B v B1=m A v A2m B v B 2
Conservation of momentum for the deformation period is written in terms of the

deformation impulse, P dt , as
m A v A 1 P dt =m A v
Conservation of momentum for the restitution period is written in terms of the restitution
impulse, R dt , as
m A v R dt =m A v A 2
The coefficient of restitution is the ratio of the restitution impulse to the deformation
impulse
R dt = v v A2
e=
P dt v A 1v
L14-1
A coefficient of restitution can be written in terms of particle B also as

e=
R dt = v B 2v
P dt v v B 1
Eliminating v from the last two expressions, we get:

e=
v B2 v A2
v A 1 v B1
Coefficient of Restitution: ratio of relative velocity of the particle's separation just after impact,
v B 2 v A 2 , to the relative velocity of the particle's approach just before impact,
v A 1v B 1 .
Experimental results are used to obtain values of e, but they vary appreciably with impact
velocity as well as with size and shape of colliding bodies.
The value of e ranges from 0 to 1.
Elastic impact (e = 1). Perfectly elastic collision. Deformation impulse is the same as the
restitution impulse.
Plastic impact (e = 0). Inelastic, or plastic, impact. No restitution impact is provided, and both
particles move together after impact.
It is not possible to use the principle of work and energy for the analysis of impact problems,
because it's not possible to know how the internal forces of deformation and restitution vary or
displace during collision.
Oblique Impact. After impact the particles move with velocities whose magnitude and
directions are unknown. If the initial velocities are known, there will be four unknowns for the
case of a planar collision, namely the two magnitudes and the two directions of the final
velocities.
L14-2

ANGULAR MOMENTUM
Angular momentum of a particle about a point O is defined as the moment of a the particle's
linear momentum about O = HO.
It is also defined as the moment of momentum.
Scalar Formulation.
The magnitude of HO is H O z = d mv , where d = moment arm (perpendicular
distance from O to the line of action of mv).
2
2
Units of H O z are kgm /s or slugft /s.
The direction of H O z is defined by the right-hand rule.
Vector Formulation.
H O=r m v
In Cartesian coordinates,
i
j
k
H O= r x
ry
rz
mv x mv y mvz
RELATION BETWEEN MOMENT OF A FORCE AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM
Strating from the equation of motion, we can derive: M O= H O , i.e., the resultant moment
about point O of all the forces acting on a particle is equal to the time rate of change of the
particle's angular momentum about point O.
A similar result for linear momentum is F= L , i.e., the resultant force acting on a particle
is equal to the time rate of change of the particle's linear momentum.
ANGULAR MOMENTUM FOR A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES
The angular momentum of internal forces cancels out, leaving only those of external forces to
take into account. Thus, the equation to use is the same as for a single particle: M O= H O .
This states that the sum o f the moments about point O of all the external forces acting on a
system of particles is equal to the time rate of change of the total angular momentum of the
system about point O. Point O could be any fixed point in an inertial frame of reference.
L15-1
ANGULAR IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM PRINCIPLES

t2
Principle of Angular Impulse and Momentum.
MO dt=H 0 2 H 01 , or
t1
t2
H 0 1 MO dt=H 0 2
t1
t2
t2
t1
t1
Angular Impulse= M O dt= rF dt

t2
For a system of particles:
H 01 M O dt= H 0 2
t1
Vector Formulation. Linear and angular momentum principles for a particle:

t2
m v1 F dt=m v2
t1
t2
H 0 1 MO dt=H 0 2
t1
Scalar Formulation. Using Cartesian coordinates in the x-y plane:

t2
mv x1 F x dt=m v x2
t1
t2
mv y1 F y dt=m v y2
t1
t2
H 01 M O dt=H 02
t1
CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM
When the angular impulses acting on a particle are all zero during the time interval t1 to t2:
H 0 1=H 02
For a system of particles, when the angular impulses are all zero:
H 01= H 0 2
L15-2

Prepared by Gilberto E. Urroz, June 2007
PLANAR RIGID-BODY MOTION
All particles of a rigid body moving along paths equidistant from a fixed plane
Types of planar rigid-body motion:
Translation: every line segment remains parallel to its original direction
Types of translation:
Rectilinear translation: motion along equidistant straight lines
Curvilinear translation: paths of motion along curved lines
Rotation about a fixed axis: all particles move along circular paths
General plane motion: combination of translation and rotation
TRANSLATION
Consider points A and B in a rigid body in translation:
Position:
r B=r Ar B / A
Velocity:
v B =v A
Acceleration:
a B=a A
All points move with the same velocity and acceleration.
ROTATION ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

Any point on the body travels along a circular path
Angular Motion: Only lines or bodies undergo angular motion
Angular Position: Defined by the angle
Angular Displacement: a vector d with magnitude d, directed along the axis of rotation
Angular Velocity: a vector along the axis of rotation, with magnitude:
=
d
dt
Angular Acceleration: a vector along the axis of rotation, with magnitude:

=
d
,
dt
d
dt 2
also,
and,
d = d
L15-1
Constant Angular Acceleration: motion starts at position , with angular velocity , at t = 0:

= 0c t
1
2
=0 0 t c t
2
2=20 2 c 0
Motion of a point P. A point P travels along a circular path.

Position. Defined by a constant position vector r from the axis O to point P
Velocity.
Scalar approach:
Vector approach:
Acceleration.
Scalar approach:
Vector approach:
v=r
v=r P or
v=r
a n= 2 r
a t=r
a t =r P =r
2
a n =r P = r
or
a=a t a n=r 2 r
Magnitude:
a= a na t
2
ABSOLUTE MOTION ANALYSIS Procedure for Analysis
Position Coordinate Equation

Locate point P with coordinate s measured from fixed point along a straight line
Measure angular position of a line
Relate s to , i.e., s = f()
Time Derivatives
Take the first derivative of to get a relationship between v and
Take a second derivative to get a relationship between a and
Use chain rule as needed
L15-2

INSTANTANEOUS CENTER OF ZERO VELOCITY
The velocity of a point B in a rigid body undergoing a general motion is calculated using:
v B =v Ar B / A
If we can identify a point of zero velocity and take that to be point A, then vA = 0, and
v B=r B/ A .
For planar motion, we can work simply with the magnitudes of the velocity, angular velocity, and
radius, i.e.,
v B =r B/ A
The figure below illustrates a wheel that rotates without slipping. Point A is the instantaneous center
of rotation for the wheel. The distance from points C, B, and D with respect to A are given by rB/A, rC/A,
and rD/A, respectively. The velocities of each of those points is shown as a vector perpendicular to the
radii rB/A, rC/A, and rD/A, respectively. The magnitude of those velocities are
v B =r B/ A ,
vC =r C / A ,
and
v D =r D / A .
L18-1
LOCATION OF THE INSTANTANEOUS CENTER (IC)

There are a few possibilities:
Given the velocity vA of point A, and the angular velocity : IC is located in a line
perpendicular to vA, at a distance
r A /IC =v A /
Given the non-parallel velocities of two points A and B, draw lines perpendicular to the velocity
vectors. The IC is located at the point where the two lines intercept, and
v A=r A/ IC
v B =r B/ IC
L18-2
Given two parallel velocity vectors vA and vB, there are two possibilities:
The vectors are in opposite directions: the IC is located in the line joining the two points.
Let d be the distance between points A and B. Then we have
Also, =
vA
r A / IC
vB
r B / IC
r A/ ICr B/ IC=d .
, i.e.,
r A / IC v A
=
.
r B / IC v B
Thus, we have two equations with two unknowns, r A/ IC and
r B/ IC .
The two vectors are in the same direction: in this case, the equations to solve are:
and
r B / IC r A / IC=d
r A / IC v A
=
.
r B / IC v B
L18-3

RELATIVE-MOTION ANALYSIS: ACCELERATION
As illustrated in the figure, the acceleration of a point B in a rigid body undergoing a general motion is
calculated using:
a B=a Aa B / A t a B / A n ,
where
a B = acceleration of point B
a A = acceleration of point A
a B / A t = relative tangential acceleration component of B with respect to A. Its magnitude
is a B / At = r B / A , and its direction is perpendicular to r B / A .
a B / A n = relative normal acceleration component of B with respect to A. Its magnitude
is a B / At = 2 r B / A , and its direction is always from B towards A.
Expressions for the vector acceleration components are shown below:

a B / A t=r B / A
a B / A n=r B / A = 2 r B / A
With these expressions the acceleration of point B, based on that of point A, is given as:
a B=a Ar B / A2 r B / A
L19-1
NOTE: if two bodies contact one another without slipping, and the points in contact move along
different paths, the tangential components of acceleration of the points will be the same; however, the
normal components will not be the same.
For example, in the figure above, a Bt =a C t , but a B n a C n .
L19-2

RELATIVE-MOTION ANALYSIS USING ROTATING AXES
Useful for analyzing rigid bodies (mechanisms) in which sliding occurs.
Use a coordinate system that rotates and translates
There is an absolute reference system (X,Y) with unit vectors I, J
The translating/rotating coordinate system is (x,y) with unit vector i, j
The angular velocity and acceleration of the rotating coordinate system are and
respectively.
POSITION
r B=r A r B/ A
r A, r B :
position vectors of points A and B with respect to the X-Y system
r B/A
relative position of point B with respect to A, with r B / A= x B i y B j
VELOCITY
Taking the derivative of the equation above with respect to time, we get:
v B =v A
with
d r B/ A
,
dt
d r B/A d
dx
dy
di
d j
= x B i y B j= B i B j x B y B
.
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
L20-1
In this equation we have,
dx B
dy B
i
j= v B / A xyz ,
dt
dt
i.e., the relative velocity of B with respect to A in the xyz coordinate system. Also, with
di
=i ,
dt
we have:
xB
Thus,
di
d j
yB
= x B i y B j =r B / A
dt
dt
d r B/A
=r B / A v B / A xyz
dt
With this result:
d j
= j ,
dt
v B =v Ar B / A v B / A xyz .
ACCELERATION
Skipping the derivation details (available in the textbook), the acceleration of B, based on that
of A, is given by
a B=a A r
r B / A 2v xyz a B / A xyz
B/A
In this expression, the term 2 v xyz is referred to as Coriolis acceleration. Coriolis

acceleration must be taken into consideration whenever rotating reference frames are used. For
example, motion of rockets, long-range projectiles, or other bodies whose measurement are
significantly affected by the rotation of earth.
L20-2

MOMENT OF INERTIA
For linear motion Newton's second law indicates that a force F is needed to produce an
acceleration a on a body of mass m, i.e., F = ma.
For rotational motion the equivalent expression is M = I, where M is the moment (=rF)
applied to a body of moment of inertia I to produce an angular acceleration .
Thus, the moment of inertia is equivalent to mass in rotational motion.
Definition. The moment of inertia is the integral of the second moment about an axis of all the
elements of mass dm which compose the body.
For the z axis in the figure shown below, the moment of inertia would be calculated as
The moment of inertia is always a positive quantity. Units: kg m2 or slug ft2
If the body consists of a material with variable density = (x,y,z), the elemental mass dm is
expressed as dm = dV, and the moment of inertia is calculated as:
I= r dV
2
If the density of the body is constant, then the equation simplifies to:
I = r 2 dV
V
In the most general case, we can use dV = dx dy dz, and try to calculate the moment of inertia
using a triple integral.
Integration can be simplified for solids of revolution, as illustrated in the figure below. In a
solid of revolution, a curve in the y-z plane rotates about the z axis generating the solid.
L21-1
SHELL METHOD.
If the curve generating the body is of the form z = f(y), we can use a shell of thickness
dy to calculate the elemental volume, dV = (2 y)(z)dy = 2 y z dy . Thus, the volume
of the body is:
y=a
y=0
V = dV = 2 y z dy= 2 y f y dy
If the density of the body is , then the elemental mass is dm = dV = (2 y z dy),

and the mass of the body is:
y=a
y=0
m= dm= dV = 2 y z dy= 2 y f y dy
The moment of inertia of the body, with respect to the z axis is calculated as
y=a
3
I z = y dm= y dV = 2 y z dy= 2 y f y dy
2
y=0
DISK METHOD
If the curve generating the body if of the form y = g(z), use a disk of thickness dz. The
elemental volume is now dV = ( y 2) dz, and dm = dV = ( y 2) dz. The integrals
are:
z =b
z =b
V = y dz = [ g z ] dz , m= y dz = [ g z ] dz , and
z=0
z =0
z =b
1
1
I z = dm y 2= y 4 dV = [g z ]4 dz
2
2 z =0
0
L21-2
NOTES:
Example 17.1 uses a shell similar to the one shown in the figure above, with r replacing
y, due to symmetry. In this case, make y = r, and f(y) = f(r) = h.
Example 17.2 uses a disk similar to the one shown in the figure above, but replacing y
for x and z for y, i.e., the generating curve is x = g(y) = y2, and b = 1 ft. Thus, the
corresponding integrals are:
y=b
V = x dy= [ g y ] dy= [ y ] dy = y dy =? ,
2
y=0
2 2
y=1
m= x dy = [ g y] dy= [ y ] dy= y dy=? , and

2
y=0
1
1
2
I z = dm y =
2
2
y=1
y=0
2 2
dV = [g y ] dy= [ y ] dy= y 8 dy=?

4
2 4
Adjust the shell or disk for the solution according to the orientation of the body, and the
axes used. Problems 17.1, 17.5, 17.6, and 17.7 shows a body of revolution about the x
axis, while problems 17.3, 17.10, and 17.12 show cases similar to that of Example 17.2.
The bodies of problems 17.4 and 17.8 can be rotated about either axis.
Problem 17.2 is better solved using polar coordinates. Take an element of length ds = R
d, whose mass is dm = ds = R d, where is a density per unit length (i.e., in
units of kg/m or slug/ft). The moment of inertia of that element of mass is dIz = R2dm.
To calculate the mass or moment of inertia, integrate with respect to , from = 0 to
= 2.
To calculate moments of inertia of regular figures (e.g., sphere, cone, cylinder,
parallelepiped, etc.) use the table entitled Center of Gravity and Mass Moments of
Inertia of Homogeneous Solids, which is available in the back cover of your book.
PARALLEL-AXIS THEOREM
If the moment of inertial of the body about an axis passing through the body's center of mass
(IG) is known, its moment of inertia about any other parallel axis (I) can be determined using
the parallel-axis theorem (d = perpendicular distance between parallel axes):
I =I Gmd 2
RADIUS OF GYRATION
2
It's the quantity k described from I =mk or k = I /m . It represents the radial distance k
from the axis to a point that would produce the same moment of inertia I for the body if the
body's mass m where concentrated at that point.
COMPOSITE BODIES
Algebraically add or subtract the moments of inertia of the component bodies.
L21-3

PLANAR KINETIC OF MOTION
Limited to to rigid bodies symmetrical with respect to a fixed reference plane.
Path of motion of each particle of the body is a plane curve parallel to the fixed reference plane.
Use an inertial reference frame x,y,z whose origin coincides with a point P in the body.
Equation of Translational Motion
Vector form: the sum of all external forces is equal to the body's mass times the acceleration of
G (center of mass):
F =m a G
Components in the x-y plane:

F x =ma G x
F y =m aG y
Equation of Rotational Motion

Based on center of mass G: the sum of moments of all external forces about G (center of mass)
is equal to moment of inertia about an axis through G times the body's angular acceleration:
M G= I G
Based on another point P (origin of x-y system): the sum of moments of all external forces about
point P (origin of x-y system) is equivalent to the sum of the kinetic moments of the
components m a G about P plus the kinetic moment of I G I:
M P = k P
The kinetic moments (k) are the moments about point P of the vectors m a G x and
m a G y , as well as the product I , which would result in the equation:
M P = y ma G x
x m aG y I G
General Application of the Equations of Motion

Three independent scalar equations may be written:
F x =ma G x
F y =m aG y
M G= I G or M P =k P
Always draw a free-body diagram, and sometimes the kinetic diagram showing the vectors
m aG x , m a G y , and I .
L22-1
EQUATIONS OF MOTION: TRANSLATION

In pure translation, every particle of the body has the same velocity and acceleration (i.e., a =
aG), and there is no rotation, thus, = 0.
The equations of motion to use are listed below.
Rectilinear Translation
All particles move along parallel straight-line paths. The equations of motion are:
F x =ma G x
F y =m aG y
M G=0 or
M P =k P , with =0 .
All particles move along parallel curved paths. The equations of motion are:
F n=m aG n
F t=ma G t
M G=0 or
M P =k P , with =0 .
KINEMATICS
Use kinematics to determine velocity and position of the body
For rectilinear motion with variable acceleration, use
a G=dv G /dt , a G ds G=v G dv G ,
For rectilinear translation with constant acceleration, use

vG =v G oaG t ,
vG =ds G /dt
2
2
vG =v G 02 aG [s G s G o] ,
1
2
sG =s G o vG o t a G t
2
For curvilinear translation, use

aG n =v 2G / , aG t =dv G /dt , aG t dsG =v G dv G
L22-2

EQUATIONS OF MOTION: ROTATION ABOUT A FIXED AXIS
Consider two-dimensional rigid body forced to rotate about point O. The center of mass G will
describe a circular path, and the equations of motion to use are:
F n=m aG n
F t=ma G t
M G= I G
If we calculate moments about the point of rotation O, the equations to use are:
F n=m aG n
F t=ma G t
M O=I O
KINEMATICS
Use kinematics if a complete solution cannot be obtained strictly from the equations of motion.
If the angular acceleration is variable, use
=
d
d
, d = d , =
dt
dt
If the angular acceleration is constant, use

=o c t
1
2
=o o t c t
2
2
2
=o 2 c o
L23-1

EQUATIONS OF MOTION: GENERAL PLANE MOTION
The following set of equations can be used to solve for the general plane motion of a rigid body:
F x =ma G x
F y =m aG y
M G= I G
An alternative set of equations is:

F x =ma G x
F y =m aG y
M P =k P
where the kinetic moments (k) are the moments about point P of the vectors m aG x and
m a G y , as well as the product I .
FRICTIONAL ROLLING PROBLEMS
Problems involving wheels, cylinders, or bodies of similar shape, which roll in a rough plane
surface.
See Figure 17-21 for the Free-Body Diagram used to develop the following three equations:
F x =ma G x
F y =m aG y
M G= I G
PF =ma G
N mg=0
F r =I G
with four unknowns (F, N, , aG).

To obtain a fourth equation, it is necessary to know if the body rolls without slipping or if it
slides as it rolls.
No Slipping. If the frictional force is great enough to allow the disk to roll without slipping,
then
a G=r
Slipping. In the case of slipping, there is relative motion at the points of contact between the
disk and the ground, and so a and aG are independent of one another, so, instead of using
a G=r , use:
F =k N
L24-1

KINETIC ENERGY
In translation, the kinetic energy of a rigid body is calculated as

1
2
T= mv G ,
2
where m is the mass and vG is the velocity of the body's center of mass.
For a rigid body rotating around a fixed axis O, the kinetic energy is calculated as:
1
1
2
T = m v G I G 2 ,
2
2
where IG is the moment of inertia of the body about an axis through the center of mass G, and
parallel to O , and is the angular velocity of the body.
vG =r G , where rG is the distance from axis O to the axis through G, we can also
1
2
2
write T = m I Gmr G . Also, since IGmr2G=I O (parallel-axes theorem), we can also
2
write, for the kinetic energy in this case:
Since
1
2
T= IO
2
For a rigid body undergoing general motion, the kinetic energy is calculated as:
1
1
2
2
T = m vG I G .
2
2
This term includes the translational kinetic energy ( mvG2)and the rotational kinetic energy
( Ig2 ).
The total kinetic energy of a system of connected rigid bodies is the sum of the kinetic energies
of all the moving parts.
L25-1
THE WORK OF A FORCE

The work of a variable external force acting on a rigid body as it moves along a path s is given
by
U F = Fd r = F cos ds
s
If the force is constant in magnitude and acting on a constant direction while the body
undergoes a translation s, the work becomes:
U F=F s coss
Work of a weight:
Work of a spring force:
Forces that do no work:
1 2 1 2
U s= k s 2 k s 1
2
2
Those that act at a fixed point of a body
U W =W y
pin support about which the body rotates

point of contact of a wheel rotating without slipping
Those that act in a direction perpendicular to their displacement
THE WORK OF A COUPLE

A force couple produces work only if the body rotates. Consider a couple of forces F (parallel
and in opposite directions) separated by a distance r, producing a moment M = Fr. As the body
rotates, the work performed by the couple is
2
U M= M d
1
If the couple's moment has a constant magnitude, then

U M =M 2 1 .
PRINCIPLE OF WORK AND ENERGY

The expression for the principle of work and energy for a rigid body is represented by the same
equation as that for a particle:
T 1 U 12=T 2
L25-2

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
Conservation of energy for rigid bodies is expressed by equations similar to those used for particles.
V g=W yG
Gravitational Potential Energy:
Elastic Potential Energy:
1 2
V e= k s
2
Total Potential Energy:
V =V g V e
Conservation of Energy:
If non-conservative forces are involved:

T 1V 1 U 12 noncons =T 2V 2
If all forces involved are conservative:
T 1V 1=T 2V 2
L26-1

LINEAR AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM
Linear Momentum for a rigid body:
L=m v G
Angular Momentum for a rigid body:

Referring to an arbitrary point P:
H P = y m v P x x mv P y I P
where x , y represents the location of the center of mass G referred to point P, IP
is the moment of inertia of the body about an axis through point P, and vP represents the
velocity of point P.
Referring to the center of mass G:

H G=IG
Referring to an arbitrary point P, but using velocity of and moment of inertia about G:
H P = y m v G x x m v g y I G
i.e., when the angular momentum of a body is computed about point P, it is equivalent to
the moment of the linear momentum mvG or its components m(vG)x and m(vG)y about
point P plus the angular momentum IG.
Since is a free vector, HG can act at any point of the body, provided it
preserves its same magnitude and direction.
Since angular momentum is equal to the 'moment' of the linear momentum, the
line of action of L = mvG must pass through the body's center of mass G in order
to preserve the correct magnitude of HP when moments are calculated about P.
Applications of linear and angular momentum to different types of motions:
Translation.
L=m vG and
H G=0
Rotation about a fixed axis O:
L=m vG and
H G= I G or
General plane motion:
L=m vG and
H G= I G
L27-1
H O= I O
PRINCIPLE OF IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM
Principle of Linear Impulse and Momentum

t2
F dt=mvG2mvG 1
t1
Principle of Angular Impulse and Momentum

For general motion:
t2
M G dt =I G 2 I G 1
t1
For rotation about a fixed axis O:

t2
M O dt =I O 2I O 1
t1
Summarizing (see Figure 19-4 for diagrams):

t2
m v Gx 1 F x dt=m v Gx 2
t1
t2
mv Gy 1 F y dt=mv Gy2
t1
t2
I G 1 M G dt =I G 2
t1
For a system of connected bodies, the impulses due to reactions at the connections are not
included in the equations since they are internal to the system. For a system of connected
bodies we can write:
L27-2

CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
Conservation of Linear Momentum: if the sum of all the linear impulses acting on a system of
connected rigid bodies is zero, use:
Conservation of Angular Momentum: the angular momentum of a system of connected rigid

bodies is conserved about the system's center of mass G, or a fixed point O, when the sum of all
angular impulses created by the external forces acting on the system is zero or appreciably
small (nonimpulsive) when computed about these points:
Applied to a single rigid body the principle is written as:
L28-1
I G 1= I G 2

UNDAMPED FREE VIBRATION
Definitions:
A vibration is a periodic motion of a body or system of connected bodies displaced from
a position of equilibrium.
Free vibrations occur when the motion is maintained by gravitational or elastic restoring
forces (e.g., swinging of a pendulum or vibration of an elastic rod)
Forced vibration is caused by an external periodic or intermittent force applied to the
system.
Undamped vibrations can continue indefinitely because frictional effects are neglected
in the analysis.
Since both external and internal frictional forces are always present the motion of all
vibrating bodies is actually damped.
Simplest type of undamped vibration: body of mass m subject to a spring force F = - k x, where
x is the displacement from the position of equilibrium. Newton's second law produces the
equation (here x =a ):
kx=m x
This equation can be rearranged to read:

x n2 x =0 ,
where
n=
k
m
is called the circular frequency or natural frequency (rad/s).
x n2 x =0 , is
The solution to the differential equation:
x = A sin n tB cos n t
where A and B are constants of integration.
Constants A and B are determined from the initial conditions of the problem, e.g., using x = x1,
and v = v1 at t = 0, produces A=v 1 / and B=x 1 , converting the solution into:
x=
v1
n
sin n tx 1 cos n t
L29-1
x n2 x =0 , can also be written as
The solution to the differential equation:
x =C sin n t
where C is the amplitude and is the phase angle of the motion.
Constants A, B, C and are related by:

A=C cos ,
B=C sin
or
C= A B
2
1
, =tan
B
A
The equation x =C sin n t , when plotted in an x-t graph, represents a sinusoidal signal
of amplitude C shifted by a time t=/ n with respect to a simple sine curve.
The sinusoidal curve completes one cycle in a time . the period of the vibration, given by
=
2
n
The frequency is the number of cycles per unit time, i.e., the reciprocal of the period, i.e.,
1 n
f= =
2
Frequency is expressed in Hertz (Hz), 1 Hz = 1 cycle/s = 2 rad/s.
For the case of the mass-spring system described earlier, the period and frequency of vibration
can also be written as:
=2
m
, and
k
f=
1 k
.
2 m
The equation developed earlier for the mass-spring system, namely, x n2 x =0 , can be
developed for many other vibrational systems displaced from their equilibrium position. Thus,
the equations developed here for , and f apply to other systems as long as they have a single
degree of freedom (i.e., it requires a single coordinate to describe the position of the system).
The natural frequency n for any vibrating system will be calculated after the governing
differential equation is developed. This differential equation will result from an analysis of the
specific system.
L29-2
ENERGY METHODS
The case of the spring-mass system described above involves only conservative forces (spring),
thus the principle of conservation of energy can be used to develop the governing differential
equation, as follows:
Start from:
T + V = constant,
or
1
1
m x 2 k x 2=constant ,
2
2
where
x =v .
Differentiating with respect to time, we get:

m x x k x x =0
or
x m x k x =0
Since, in general, x0
, this equation simplifies to equation of free undamped
2
vibration: x n x =0 , with n= k /m .
The energy equation written for a system of interconnected bodies can be used to develop the
corresponding equation of free undamped vibration and identify the system's natural frequency
of vibration n.
L29-3

UNDAMPED FORCED VIBRATION
Forced vibration is caused by an external periodic or intermittent force applied to a vibrating
system.
Periodic Force
Consider again the system formed by a body of mass m subject to a spring force F = - k x,
where x is the displacement from the position of equilibrium. Let now this body be subjected
to an external force described by F =F 0 sin 0 t . The magnitude of the force is F0 and its
forcing frequency is 0.
Newton's second law produces the equation:

F 0 sin 0 tkx =m x
This equation can be rearranged to read:

x n2 x =
where
n=
F0
sin 0 t ,
m
k
m
is called the natural frequency of vibration (rad/s).
The differential equation written above is a non-homogeneous (its right-hand side is nonzero),
second order (it involves second derivatives), linear (no powers or products of the dependent
variable or its derivatives is present), ordinary (involves only total and not partial derivatives)
differential equation. The abbreviation ODE is used to refer to ordinary differential equations.
Thus, this equation is a non-homogeneous, 2nd order, linear ODE.
The general solution of a non-homogeneous ODE involves adding a complementary solution,

xc, and a particular solution, xp, i.e., x = xc + xp.
The complementary solution is the solution to the ODE: x n2 x =0 obtained by setting the
right-hand side (rhs) of the original ODE to zero. This solution was found to be:
x c= A sin n tB cos n t .
Since the motion is periodic, a particular solution can be obtained by assuming that
x p=C sin 0 t
L30-1
Replacing this particular solution into the original ODE, and solving for C results in:
C=
F 0 /m
2
0
This result, substituted into the expression

x p=
2
n
F 0 /k
10 / n 2
x p=C sin 0 t produces the particular solution:
F 0 /k
2
10 / n
sin 0 t
The general solution to the original ODE is, therefore,

x =x c x p = A sin n tB cos n t
F 0 /k
2
1 0 /n
sin 0 t .
The response or signal x describe two types of vibrating motions of the mass m:
1. The complementary solution xc defines the free vibration which depends on the natural
frequency (or circular frequency) n and on the constants A and B. Because all natural
vibrating systems are subject to friction, the free vibration is eventually damped out.
Thus, xc is also referred to as a transient vibration.
2. The particular solution xp describes the forced vibration of the mass caused by the
applied force F =F 0 sin 0 t (also known as the excitation) . After the transient
signal is damped out, only the forced signal remains. The forced vibration is, therefore,
known as the steady state vibration.
NOTE: Constants A and B in the complementary solution can be determined from the initial
conditions of the problem, e.g., using x = x1, and v = v1 at t = 0, produces A=v 1 /n and
B=x 1 , converting the solution into:
x=
v1
n
sin n tx 1 cos n t
F 0 /k
10 / n2
sin 0 t
The following figure shows the plots of the complementary, particular, and general solution for
a undamped forced vibration. This graph was produced using Maple 11 with the following
data: k = 10 N/m, m = 0.5 kg, v1 = 5 m/s, x1 = 0.25 m, F0 = 2.5 N, 0 = 1.25 rad/s, which
produces n= 4.472 rad/s and C = 0.271 m. The crosses represent the complementary solution,
while the circles represent the particular solution. The sum of these two signals is the
continuous line representing the general solution for undamped forced vibrations.
L30-2
Define the magnification factor MF as the ration of the maximum amplitude of the steady state
vibration (xp)max to the static deflection corresponding to the maximum force, F0/k, i.e.:
MF=
x pmax
F 0 /k
1
2
1 0 /n
If 0 / n0 , MF 1 . I.e., low frequency excitation produces a vibration in phase with

the excitation.
If 0 / n1 , MF . I.e., if the frequency of the excitation is close to the natural
frequency of the system, the amplitude of the response grows without bound. This condition is
known as resonance. Resonance can cause very large stresses and rapid failure of system
components.
If 0 / n , MF 0 . I.e., very high frequency of excitation produces an almost
stationary response.
Periodic Support Displacement

Forced vibrations can also arise from the periodic displacement of the system's support, e.g.,
= 0 sin 0 t . In this case, the general displacement of the spring is x 0 sin 0 t , and
the resulting equation of motion is:
k x 0 sin 0 t=m x ,
or,
x
k 0
k
x=
sin 0 t
m
m
which is similar to the case of a forced vibration with a forcing force

L30-3
F 0=k 0 .

SOLVING HOMOGENEOUS, LINEAR ODE's WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS
A n-th order, homogeneous, linear ODE with constant coefficients is represented by the
expression:
dn x
d n1 x
d2x
dx
a
...a
a1 a 0 x=0
n1
2
n
n1
2
dt
dt
dt
dt
dn
D = n , the general n-th order equation can be written as:
dt
n
Introducing the notation
D n x a n1 D n1 x...a2 D2 x a 1 Dxa0 x =0 .
This expression can be factored in terms of the D operators to read:

n
D an 1 D
n 1
...a 2 D a 1 Da 0 x =0
If we take the expression between parentheses and replace the D operators with the variable ,
and make it equal to zero, we would have produced the so-called characteristic equation of the
ODE, i.e.,
n
n1
2
an 1 ...a 2 a1 a 0=0
There are, in principle, n solutions of this polynomial equation, namely, 1, 2, ..., n. Some of
these solutions could be complex (or imaginary), or even repeated. In the case that all solutions
are real and non-repeating, the general solution to the original homogeneous ODE is given by:
x t= A1 e t A2 e t ... An e t
1
In the case of viscous damped vibrations (described below), the governing ODE turns out to be
a second-order equation, i.e.,
2
d x
dx
a1 a 0 x =0 , or D2a1 Da 0 x =0
2
dt
dt
The corresponding characteristic equation is:

2
a1 a 0=0 ,
whose solutions are:

1,2=
a1
a1 2
a 0
2
2
L31-1
If the two solutions, 1, 2, are real and 1 2,, then the general solution is:
x t= A1 e t A2 e t
1
If the two solutions, 1, 2, are real and 1 = 2,, then the general solution is:
x t=e t A 1 A2 t
1
If the quantity under the square root in the solution to the characteristic equation is negative,
i.e., if 2 =a 1 /22 a 00 , then the solutions to the characteristic equation can be written as
1,2=
a1
a
i a 0a 1 /22= 1 i .
2
2
The solution to the second-order ODE, in this case, is:

a1 /2 t
x t= A1 e
cos t A 2 e
a1 / 2 t
sin t= A e
a1 / 2 t
sin t .
VISCOUS DAMPED FREE VIBRATION

All vibrations die out in time, thus damping forces should be included in the analysis.
In many cases damping is produced by the resistance from the substance (water, oil, air) in
which the system vibrates.
If the body moves slowly through the substance, the damping force is proportional to the
body's speed, e.g., F =c x .
This type of force is referred to as a viscous damping force.
The coefficient of viscous damping, c, has units of Ns/m or lbs/ft.
A mass-spring system provided with a dashpot connected to the block represents the type
viscous damped free vibration of interest.
The equation of motion for this system is written as:

kxc x =m x ,
or,
2
x x n x =0 ,
where
n=
c
k
.
, and =
m
m
L31-2
Comparing the governing ODE with the general second-order ODE shown earlier, we find that
a1 = and a2 = n2. Thus, the values of l for this case are:
2
1,2= 2n
2
2
The critical damping coefficient is that for which the quantity under the square root above
becomes zero, i.e., c = cc if
2
cc 2 k
2
=0 .
n=
2
2m
m
This results in:

c c =2m
k
=2 m n .
m
Overdamped system
2
2
When c > cc, then /2 n 0 , the two roots 1 2 are real, and the solution to the
governing ODE is:
x t=A1 e tA2 e t .
1
The motion corresponding to this solution is nonvibrating. The effect of the damping is so
strong that when the block is displaced it simply creeps back to its original position without
oscillations.
In this case the system is said to be overdamped.
Critically damped system

2
2
When c = cc, then /2 n 0 , the two roots 1 = 2 = -cc/2m = - n, are real, and the
solution to the governing ODE is:
. x t=e t A1 A2 t
n
In this case, c = cc is the minimum value of the damping coefficient to cause the system to be
nonvibrating.
In this case the system is said to be critically damped.
Underdamped system
When c < cc, then the solution to the characteristic equation are complex numbers of the form
1,2=/2i d , with
2
= = n 1
2
2 n
2
d
2
n
L31-3
=n 1
c
cc
Thus, the roots to the characteristic equations are given in terms of a damped natural frequency,
wd, which is a function of the natural frequency, n, and of a damping factor, c/cc:
d =n 1
c
cc
The solution to the second-order ODE, in this case, is:

x t= A1 e c/ 2 m t cos d t A2 e c/ 2m t sin d t =D ec /2 m t sin d t .
The constants D and are determined from the initial conditions of the motion.
The motion corresponding to this solution is a decreasing, periodic function.
The period of oscillation is given by
d =
2
.
d
Note, d =2 /n .
In this case the system is said to be underdamped.
EXAMPLES OF OVERDAMPED, CRITICALLY DAMPED, AND UNDERDAMPED SYSTEMS
This graph was produced using Maple 11, with the following values: m = 10 kg, k = 20 N/m,
x(0) = 1 m, v(0) = -2 m/s, and values of c = 2cc, c= cc, and c = cc/5.
L31-4
VISCOUS DAMPED FORCED VIBRATION

This is the case of a mass-spring-dashpot system subject to the effect of an oscillating force
(excitation) of the form F =F 0 sin 0 t , or to a moving support oscillating according to
= 0 sin 0 t . [These two excitations are equivalent if we take F 0=k 0 ].
The resulting governing ODE is:
x x 2n x =
F0
sin 0 t
m
This being a non-homogeneous ODE, its solution consists of adding a complementary solution
to a particular solution, i.e., x = xc + xp. The complementary solution is that corresponding to
the homogeneous equation (as determined above), while the particular solution is of the form:
x p= A ' sin 0 tB ' sin 0 t
Replacing into the ODE, and solving for A' and B' results in:
2
A '=
F 0 /m n 0
2
2 2
and
n 0 c 0 /m
F 0 c 0 /m
A '= 2
2 .
2 2
n 0 c 0 /m
The particular solution can also be written as:

x p=C ' sin 0 t ' ,
with
C '=
F 0 /k
[1 / ] [2c /c / ]
2 2
and
'=tan1
2 c /cc 0 / n
10 / n 2
The angle ' represents the phase difference between the excitation and the response.
The magnification factor MF is defined as the ratio of amplitudes due to force vibration over
that of the static force F0, i.e.,
C'
1
MF = F /k =
2 2
0
[10 /n ] [2c /c c 0 / n]2
The magnification factor is a function of the ratios c /c c and 0 / n , as indicated in the

following figure.
L31-5
L31-6

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ENGR 2030 DYNAMICS Lecture 2

Prepared by Gilberto E. Urroz, May 2007

Given the s-t graph, construct the v-t graph:

Given the v-t graph, construct the a-t graph:

Given the a-t graph, construct the v-t graph:

Given the v-t graph, construct the s-t graph:

Given the v-s graph, construct the v-s graph:

Given the v-s graph, construct the a-s graph:

ENGR 2030 DYNAMICS Lecture 3

Curvilinear motion: particle moving along a curved path.

Average velocity: Particle moves through a displacement r in time t, v avg =

The direction of v is tangent to the curve.

Speed: magnitude of the instantaneous velocity is v=

CURVILINEAR MOTION: RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS

Since r = r(t), then x = x(t), y = y(t), and z = z(t).

The direction of r is specified by the unit vector

Velocity: first derivative of r, i.e.,

This result can be written as:

The magnitude of the velocity is |v| = v =

The direction of v is specified by the unit vector

Acceleration: first derivative of v, i.e., a=

The magnitude of the acceleration is

The direction of v is specified by the unit vector

Particle starts at initial position (x0 , y0 ) with initial velocity ( v 0 x , v 0 y )

The velocity components can be calculated as

Horizontal Motion Uniform velocity.

Vertical Motion Uniformly accelerated motion.

ENGR 2030 DYNAMICS Lecture 4

s = v is the instantaneous angular velocity of the radius

The magnitude of the acceleration is a= a 2t a 2n

, and a=a n=v 2 / . Thus, an

If the path is expressed as y = f(x), the radius of curvature is:

ENGR 2030 DYNAMICS Lecture 5

Position: The position vector is

/dt is the angular velocity.

The magnitude of the velocity is:

n and u = ur , the acceleration is written as a=ar u ra u ,

=d 2 /dt 2 is the angular acceleration.

The magnitude of the acceleration is:

vector, i.e., u z = k=0

ENGR 2030 DYNAMICS Lecture 6

RELATIVE-MOTION ANALYSIS OF TWO PARTICLES USING TRANSLATING AXES

ENGR 2030 DYNAMICS Lecture 7

Notes on the equation of motion:

The quantity mv is referred to as the momentum (or quantity of motion) of a particle.

Newton's Law of Gravitational Attraction. Two particles of mass m1 and m2 located at a

Mass and Weight.

An on-line Dictionary of Units of Measurement

Adding the equations for all particles, vectorially, we can write

By definition, the center of mass of a system of particles is located at position rG given by

EQUATIONS OF MOTION: RECTANGULAR COORDINATES

PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS

If problem is three-dimensional, use vectors

ENGR 2030 DYNAMICS Lecture 8

F =m a expressed in tangential-normal-binormal coordinates becomes

Expressed in terms of its t, n, and b components, we have:

Tangential direction (tangential accleration): a t= v or a t ds=v dv

Normal direction (centripetal acceleration): a n=

ENGR 2030 DYNAMICS Lecture 9

F =m a expressed in cylindrical coordinates becomes

Expressed in terms of its r, , and z components, we have:

See the KINEMATICS section (below) for the acceleration components.

Acceleration in the z direction:

In case you need to use velocity components, recall that: