HOA - 1 (Early Christian and Byzantine)

Early Christian Architecture
The Architectural response

to religious requirements
Module Outline
Lecture 1
Historical Background
Location and period
Social characteristics and beliefs
Architecture of the Civilization

Architectural Characteristics
Buildings and other architectural elements
Building materials, construction and technologies
Architectural Organizing principles
Learning Outcomes
The evolution of the Christian place of

worship and the architecture of the Early
Christian periods
Architectural response to religious
requirements and worship modes
Outline of Lecture
Lecture 1
Location and period
Social characteristics and beliefs

Location
RELIGIOUS DIFFERENCES
EARLY CHRISTIAN
BYZANTINE
Location
The Early Christian and
Byzantine architecture started
in two prominent locations
centered at Rome and
Byzantium or Constantinople
Early Christian architecture
occurred in Rome and in
areas around Rome
Byzantine architecture was
centered at Byzantium
From the two focal points
Early Christian and Byzantine
Architecture spread to other
areas in the European and
Asian region
Period
The following is a time line of events for
the Early Christian and Byzantine period:
29 A.D.
Passing of Isa (Jesus) and
beginning of Christian Religion
286 A.D.
Emperor Diocletian reorganizes
the Roman Empire splitting it into two; the
Eastern and the Western part
313 A. D.
Emperor Constantine recognizes
the Christian religion and adopts it as a state
religion
Period
324 A.D.
Emperor Constantine reunited
the Roman Empire with a new capital at
Byzantium
364 A. D.
Rome finally splits into two; the
Western and Eastern Empire
476 A. D.
Rome is sacked by Visgoth and
Vandals
632 A. D.
Muslim begin an advance on the
Byzantine empire
1453 A. D. Byzantium falls to Sultan
Muhammad II ending the Byzantine Empire
Social Characteristics & Beliefs
The Roman Empire and the Christian
Religion
The single most important social
phenomenon of the early Christian and
Byzantine period was the spread and
acceptance of the Christian religion
During the period from the first century to the
third century after the death of Jesus,
Christianity was a secret society
It was considered dangerous and subversive
by the government
Religion
Christians met secretly in tombs and
private houses
Gradually, however, it spread and became
widely accepted in Asia minor and in
Rome itself
By the third century, Rome had a
population of 50,000 Christians
The religion was tolerated but it was still
illegal
Religion
The third century was for the Roman Empire a
period of political instability and decline
The Empire was split into a Western and
Eastern Empires
In A.D. 313, the Emperor Constantine issued
the Edict of Milan making Christianity legal
He also adopted it as a state religion and he
became the first Christian emperor
Religion
The acceptance of the religion by the emperor
fueled its expansion
It also led to the early development of places
of worship for the new religion
Constantine was able to unite the Roman
Empire during his reign
He established the capital of the new empire
at Byzantium, renamed Constantinople or the
city of Constantine
After his death, the Empire was again split
Religion
The Western Empire was sacked by Vandals
and Visigoths in 476, leading to its
disintegration
The Eastern Empire with Constantinople as
its capital survived for a thousand years,
Although the Eastern Empire was not yet
"Byzantine" under Constantine, Christianity
would become one of its defining
characteristics
Religion
The empire was a multinational state
Greek became the everyday language as well
as the language of the church and everyday
commerce in this empire
The general identity of the Eastern Roman
Empire was a combination of Roman
statehood, Hellenistic culture and Christian
religion
Architecture of the Period
With Christianity widely accepted as a state
religion in Rome it was necessary for
architecture to respond to the demands of the
religion for worship space
Mode of worship was the most important
determinant of the form of the church
Requirement for church design was centered
on worship and burial
The requirements include:
A path for processional entry and exit of the clergy
An altar area, where the clergy celebrate mass
A space for the segregation of the clergy from the
congregation during procession and communion
Burial space
The focus of both Early Christian and
Byzantine architecture is on the Christian
church
Before the legal recognition of the new faith,
Christian places of worship were of necessity
inconspicuous with no fixed architectural form
Afterward, however, imposing cult edifices
were erected in many parts of the Roman
Empire, especially in its major cities
Early Christian builders adapted structures
that had been used in the Roman world
The basilica, consisting of a nave flanked by lower
aisles and terminated by an apse, was adopted as the
standard structure in Christian congregational worship
This was not however the only form adopted
More centralized plans which were of round,
polygonal, or cruciform shapes were adopted
occasionally
Martyria were erected on sites connected with certain
events in the life of Jesus and other places held to be
sanctified by the sacrifice of the martyrs
In such buildings the martyrium structure and basilica
were combined, creating a new formal synthesis of
great significance for Christian religious architecture
Development of the Christian church continued during
the Byzantine era
In the Byzantine period focus shifted from the rituals
or practices of worship to the building as an
embodiment or symbols of the majesty of the faith
Innovative structure was combined with light and
decoration to create fascinating interiors

Introduction
The term early Christian architecture refers to the
architecture of the early Christian churches of the roman
era
This is further divided into two types; the basilica church
and the alternative church plans
With Christianity accepted as a state religion in Rome and
expanding in influence, it became necessary for
architecture to respond to the space demands of the new
religion
A building used for Christian worship had to provide a
path for the processional entry and exit of the clergy, an
alter area, where the clergy celebrated mass, a space for
the segregation of the clergy from congregation during the
procession and communion
Basilica Church Type

Apart from administering to the spiritual needs of
the living, some churches also provided burial
spaces for the dead
The early churches were generally simple and
functional in their design
The emphasis was centered on the act of
Christian worship
The architecture of the church that developed
was not a completely new style, but the use of
available Roman forms to satisfy a new program
need
The form chosen for the early church was the
Roman basilica

It was suitable for use as a church with no
serious modification and it could be easily and
rapidly built at low cost
The Basilica was also preferred because of the
emphasis on participation in mass.
The most common form of the early churches
had a rectangular hall with a timber trussed roof
It also had one or two isles on each side of a
central nave and an apse at one end facing the
principal entrance located at the other end

The apse of the basilica was used as a
location for the alter
The nave was used as a sitting for the
clergy
Common people sat in the isles
The early churches may have a courtyard
or atrium in front of it
A fountain is usually located in the center
of such an atrium; This was used for
baptism

Most of the early churches had clerestory
lighting
Clerestory windows were developed to
give light to the central part of the interior
Gradually, the clerestory windows became
a symbol of the transcendence and grace
of god
Variations in the character of the early
church reflected differences in local
resources and traditions
Early Christian Architecture-Examples
S. Giovanni in Laterano
S. Giovanni in Laterano

S. Giovanni in Laterano AD 313-320
A typical example of the
early Christian church is S.
Giovanni in Laterano Rome
It was the first church
commission by Emperor
Constantine
It was built as the
Cathedral of the Bishop of
Rome
It was remodeled several
times

S. Giovanni in Laterano AD 313-320
The image is a reconstruction
of the original church
The church consists of a
central nave flanked by two
narrow isles and separated
from them by a monumental
colonnade
The central nave rose above
the isle roof, and the inner isle
rose above the outer
The nave terminated at an
apse
The structure was of brick
faced concrete covered with
simple trussed-timber roof.
S. Peters, Rome AD 333

The nave terminated in a
triumphal arch that framed
the curve of the apse
Some of the early churches
were built over the tomb of
martyrs and are known as
martyrium
St Peters is one of the
earliest and most important of
the matyrium churches
It was built over what was
believed to be the tomb of
Saint Peter who was a
disciple of Jesus
Church Of Nativity, Bethlehem

This is the church of the
nativity Bethlehem
It was built at the place
where Jesus, is believed to
have born.
Here we also find the
standard features of a
basilica church
These include:
A central nave
2 isles on each side of the
nave

An apse at the head of the
nave
An atrium before the
entrance
The use of clerestory lighting
The most significant aspect
of this church is a large
octagon at its head covered
by a conical roof
This is the exact location
where Jesus, Isa was born
It is therefore a palace of
pilgrimage for the Christians
Church of the Holy Sepulcher

Church of the Holy Sepulcher, Jerusalem AD335
This is the church of the holy
sepulcher in Jerusalem
Affected by the constrain of
site, it has a very short atrium
It is a 5 isle church terminating
at a nave articulated by 12
columns
The side isles had a gallery on
top
The outer isles lead to a long
peristyle court closing in a
curve

Church of the Holy Sepulcher, Jerusalem AD335
This court is believed to frame
the holy sepulcher where
Christians believe Jesus is
believed to be buried
The isles therefore provide
access for pilgrims to go round
the holy sepulcher
In general, churches that cater
for pilgrims usually have a
slightly different form
Some of these churches also
serve as burial spots for those
who want to be buried along
with the saints they
commemorated
END OF LECTURE - I
Outline of Lecture
Lecture 2
Alternative church forms
Byzantine Architecture
Introduction
Domes and Domes on Pendentives
Early Prototypes
Hagia Sophia

Alternative Church Form
The rectangular basilica was not the only form adopted
for the early church
Alternative more centralized plans, with a focus on a
central vertical axis rather than a longitudinal horizontal
one were also adopted occasionally
The reasons for their adoption is not very clear
The centralized churches were of two broad types
There were the completely circular churches
These had a circular or octagonal space surrounded by
an ambulatory
Examples of these include Saint Constanza Rome, the
laterna Baptistery Rome and Saint Stefano Rotondo

Alternative Church Form
The second type of centralized church was the
lobed or four-lobed form set within an overall
pentagon or square
Examples of this include Holy Apostle Milan and
St Lorenzo Milan
In the early years of Christianity, the alternative
form was common both in the Eastern and
Western Roman Empires, but later the Basilica
became more popular in the West and the
centralized alternative form more popular in the
Eastern Empire
St Constanza, Rome
Round Alternative Form

St Constanza
This was a church
originally designed as
a mausoleum for
Emperor
Constantines
daughter
It was designed as a
centralized monument

St Constanza
It is symmetrical in plan
with a domed central
space
The domed central
space was ringed by an
arcade with 12 pairs of
double colonnade
Beyond the arcade is an
encircling ambulatory
A barrel vault is used to
roof the ambulatory
Lateran Baptistery

Lateran Baptistery
The lateran Baptistery was
built by Emperor Constantine
in A.D. 315
It was designed to mirror
S. Constanza
The circular scheme of S.
Constanza was in this church
changed to two octagonal
rings
A ring of trabeated colonnade
defined the central space
St Stefano Rotondo
Round Alternative form

St Stefano Rotondo
It was built in A.D. 468
and was the first
circular church in Rome
It is the largest circular
church, having diameter
of about 36 meters
The plan of the church
blends the cruciform
with a circular plan
It has a huge central
nave
Round Alternative form

St Stefano Rotondo
The central nave is
encircled by ionic
columns and is lit by
22 clerestory windows
An ambulatory
surrounds the
colonnade of the nave
and opens to four
chapels used to
define a cruciform
shape
Lobed Alternative form

Holy Apostle, Milan AD 370
This is basically a square form
church with a central plan
It was built as the church of the
imperial palace, when the capital of
the Western Empire moved to
Milan
It had a square central space 23.5
meters wide extending in all four
directions
The central space was defined by a
2-storey columnar screen
supporting some half domes
Several subsidiary octagonal
structures are grouped around the
main church
Lobed Alternative Form

St Lorenzo Milan
This church was laid out as
a huge cross shaped
structure
It has a single aisle nave
opening through columnar
screens into its transept
arms
Each of the arms terminate
with a projecting portal hall
The building is a martyrium,
holding relics of apostles in
a casket beneath the alter
The Architectural style of
Constantinople
Introduction
By the end of the 5th century AD, Rome had completely
declined
It had been sacked twice and was then under occupation
Its influence was significantly reduced and the impetus
for architectural innovation shifted to the Byzantine
Empire
This shift also marks the movement from early Christian
civilization to the Byzantine civilization
Under the Byzantine Emperor Justinian, the Byzantine
style of architecture evolved
His interest in church building led to the discovery of the
groin vault and the evolution of the Byzantine style
Introduction
Although it is impossible to identify two similar
Byzantine churches, it is still possible to identify
the basic characteristics of an ideal Byzantine
church
The attributes of the ideal church included:
The use of a centralized church plan

The use of surrounding isles
The use of pendantivesand dome on pendentives
And the use of a complex program of interior
structure, lighting and decoration to create fascinating
interiors
Introduction
ICONOCLASM
Iconoclasm, or "image-breaking", is
the deliberate destruction within a
culture of the culture's own religious
icons and other symbols or
monuments, usually for religious or
political motives.
People who engage in or support
iconoclasm are called iconoclasts, a
term that has come to be applied
figuratively to any person who breaks
or disdains established conventions.
Introduction
ICONOCLASM & ITS EFFECT ON
ARCHITECTURE ::
Huge Interiors
Use of Glasses and Windows
Use of openings to cast mysterious
shadows
Symbolism
POST - ICONOCLASM
Domes and Domes on Pedentives
Byzantine architecture gave us the pedentive domes and
the dome on pedentives
The pendentive dome and the dome on pendentives
provided the Byzantine architects with a unique way of
adjusting the circular form of a dome roof to a square or
polygonal plan
This type of dome was invented by the Romans but was
seldom used by them
It was the Byzantine builders who used it to create
dramatic interiors
In the Pantheon in Rome, the Dome roof had to be
supported by a circular plan
The walls of the plan had to be thick to counterbalance
the forces from the Dome
Domes and Domes on Pendentives
The pendentive dome is
derived by trimming the sides
of a regular dome over a
square plan as shown in A.
The pendentive dome enables
the transfer the total load of the
dome to the four corners of a
building, meaning that only the
four corners need to be
reinforced
This allows the dome roof to be
adapted for a square building
as shown in B
Additionally, the top of the
pendentive dome can be trim to
introduce another dome on top
of it as shown in C
The additional dome can
further be raised to introduce a
cylinder between the
pendentive dome and the
additional dome as in D
Windows can then be
introduced in the cylinder
enabling architects to creating
dazzling interior light effects
Early Prototypes
St Vitale Ravenna
St Vitale Ravenna
Early Prototypes
St Vitale Ravenna AD 526-547
Byzantine architecture has its
early prototypes in two
churches, San Vitale (526-47),
Ravenna and in Saint Sergius
and Saint Bacchus in
Constantinople
Ravenna once served as the
seat of the Roman Empire
The church is among the most
important monument of
Byzantine architecture
It was also the prototype for the
Hagia Sophia which was built
10 years later
Early Prototypes
The church is octagonal in
plan
It has a domed octagonal core
surrounded by ground level
ambulatory with a gallery
above it
The outer wall of the
ambulatory is also octagonal
It has an apse which extends
from the central core to one of
the 8 sides of the outer
octagon
Early Prototypes
The domed roof of the church is
raised on a drum allowing it
greater height and lighting
The dome has a diameter of 17
meters and a height of 30 meters
The Byzantine characteristics of
the church include:
Its central planning
The structural arrangement of its
central dome
The use of surrounding isles
And the way structure, lighting and
decoration have been integrated in
the interior of the church
St. Sergius and Bacchus
Early Prototypes
St. Sergius and Bacchus, Constantinople
It was built as a palace
church between A.D. 527-536
It is based on the four-lobed
alternative church plan of
early Christian architecture
The church in plan consist of
an octagonal core set in a
very loose rectangular form
The form of the church was
not a perfect square
Early Prototypes
St. Sergius and Bacchus, Constantinople
The central space was covered by
a dome
The octagon of the central dome
has a small but true pendentive
dome
This church was constructed very
shortly before Hagia Sophia and
was believed to be a experiment
The dome, its adaptation to a
squarish form, the use of
pendentive and the lighting and
decoration scheme in the interior
gives it its Byzantine
characteristics
Hagia Sophia
Hagia Sophia
Hagia Sophia
Hagia Sophia
Hagia Sophia
Hagia Sophia
Hagia Sophia or the church of
the holy wisdom is the most
accomplished master piece in
the history of architecture
The church was constructed in
532 A.D. by Emperor Justinian
in Constantinople now Istanbul
Hagia Sophia was the greatest
vaulted space without
intermediate supports that has
ever been built and it remained
so throughout the history of
the Byzantine Empire
Hagia Sophia
Its architects were Isidore
of Miletus and Anthemius
of Tralles, professors of
geometry at the University
of Constantinople
The church provides an
expert solution to the
problem of how to place a
dome on a square base
The solution was to use
pendantives
Hagia Sophia
Hagia Sophia is covered by a
central dome 102 feet (31 m)
across, slightly smaller than
the Pantheon's
The dome seems rendered
weightless by the unbroken
arcade of arched windows
under it, which help flood the
colorful interior with light
The dome is carried on
pendentives
The weight of the dome
passes through the
pendentives to four massive
piers at the corners
Hagia Sophia
Between them the dome
seems to float upon four great
arches
These four concave triangular
sections of masonry solved
the problem of setting the
circular base of a dome on a
rectangular base
The church form is a
combination of centralized
and longitudinal structure
Longitudinal direction is
defined by domes to the east
and west
Hagia Sophia
At Hagia Sophia, two
opposing arches on the
central square open into
semi domes, each pierced
by 3 smaller radial semidomes
At the west (entrance) and
east (liturgical) ends, the
arched openings are
extended and by great half
domes carried on smaller
semi-domed exedras
Hagia Sophia
Thus a hierarchy of domeheaded elements build up to
create a vast oblong interior
crowned by the main dome, a
sequence never seen before in
antiquity
Of great artistic importance was
its decorated interior with
mosaics and marble pillars and
coverings
The combination of interior
decoration with lights flooding
from its domes creates a
glittering internal environment
Hagia Sophia
Hagia Sophia
Hagia Sophia
Hagia Sophia
Hagia sophia dominated
church architecture after the
6th century AD
For over 900 years it was the
seat of the Orthodox patriarch
of Constantinople and a
principal setting for imperial
ceremonies
Hagia Sophia was converted to
a mosque at the Fall of
Constantinople to the Ottoman
Turks under Sultan Mohammad
II in 1453
Its rich figurative mosaics were
covered with plaster and
replaced by Islamic motifs
Hagia Sophia
It was for almost 500 years the
principal mosque of Istanbul
Hagia Sophia served as model
for many of the great Ottoman
mosques of Constantinople
such as the Shehzade Mosque,
the Suleiman Mosque, and the
Rustem Pasha Mosque
After continuing as a mosque
for many years, it was in 1934
turned by Turkish authorities
into the Hagia Sophia Museum
Byzantine Arch. in Other Places

Introduction
Byzantine churches, each with a central dome
opening into surrounding semi domes and other
vault forms and accompanied by the
characteristic iconography proliferated
throughout the Byzantine Empire Greece,
Balkans, Asia manor, part of north Africa and
Italy
It also influenced the design of churches in
western Christendom
The later churches however lacked the power
and vigor of the Hagia Sophia and were of a
smaller scale compared to it

Introduction
As Byzantine architecture spread, it also
developed with a regional flavor
Many cities built Byzantine churches that
were reflective of regional practices
Some of the most prominent ones are
Santa Sophia Kiev, Saint Basils Moscow,
Monastry of Hosios Loukas, and Church
of Graenica Yugoslavia
Santa Sophia, Kiev
Santa Sophia, Kiev
Santa Sophia, Kiev

Santa Sophia, Kiev
Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev
was named after the Hagia
Sophia cathedral in
Constantinople
The first foundations were laid in
1037 by prince Yaroslav
The church measures 37 X 55
meters
The cathedral has 5 naves, 5
apses, and 13 cupolas (domes)
It is surrounded by two-tier
galleries from three sides
In 1934 the cathedral was
confiscated by the Soviets and
turned it into an architectural
and historical museum
Saint Basils, Moscow

St Basils, Moscow AD 1551-1536
Commission by Ivan the Terrible of

Russia and built as the capitals
main parish church
The ground plan is an eight pointed
star at the center of which is a
rectangular chamber and an apse
Eight domed tower chapels are
distributed around the central
chamber
In Saint Basil Moscow, the
Byzantine dome finally became
onion shaped tops of towers,
The Byzantine program of interior
lighting and decoration was also
lost
Instead, it was replaced by the use
of brilliant exterior colors
St Marks, Venice
St Marks, Venice

St Marks, Venice
St Mark is also a notable
example of Byzantine
architecture
It lies on St Mark's Square,
one of the most famous
squares in the world
The church has five domes
each toping a square
The church is based on a
Greek cross floor plan,
based on part on the Hagia
Sophia and the Basilica of
the Apostles, both in
Constantinople

St Marks, Venice
Each arm of the cross is of
the same length and is
covered by a dome
A dome also covers the
square space at the center
While the basic structure
of the building has been
little altered, its decoration
changed greatly over time
The front faade is Gothic
and was added much later
Architectural Features
SUMMARY WITH REFERENCE TO Buildings and other architectural elements
Building materials, construction and
technologies
Architectural Organizing principles
Buildings & Other Arch

Elements
Buildings & Other Arch. Elements

Early Christian and Byzantine architecture was
a continuation of the Roman Empire
Buildings and building practices continued from
the Roman period to the Early Christian and
Byzantine period
All Roman civic and Residential buildings were
used during the Early Christian and Byzantine
period
The only new element and the focus in the
examination of the Early Christian and
Byzantine Architecture is the Christian church
Buildings & Other Arch. Elements

The spread of Christianity in Rome led to the
evolution of the Christian place of worship
The form of the early church was not new but
an adaptation of the Roman Basilica
This form later evolved into an alternative
church plan that was either round or lobed
The Byzantine church form evolved much later
than the Early Christian church forms
Materials, Const. & Tech.
Materials, Construction & Tech.

The Early Christian and Byzantine period also
had access to similar building materials and
construction technology as the Roman
civilization
Building Materials were common between the
two locations
Where materials were not available, they were
imported from colonies of the empire
In construction technology, the greatest
contribution during the Early Christian and
Byzantine era was the discovery of the
pendentive and Dome on pendentive

Using pendentives and Dome on pendentive,
Byzantine architects were able to adapt the
circular profile of a dome roof to a square
plan
By using several overlapping domes,
Byzantine architects were able to create an
intricate interior structural system and
external roof system
Intricate interior structural systems combined
with decoration and lighting created
fascinating interior effects

Technology
The Early Christian and Byzantine period saw
the most extensive use of clerestory windows
From early basilica churches to Byzantine
churches, clerestory windows were used to
provide lighting in the interior of churches and
together with decoration enabled the creation of
interesting interiors
Principles of Arch.
Organization
Principles of Arch. Organization

Introduction
It is possible to understand forces and
principles shaping Early Christian and
Byzantine architecture by examining the
following issues:
Religious Ritual
Symbolism
Construction Technology

Religious Rituals
The various ritual that comprise Christian
religious worship played a fundamental part in
the evolution of the Christian place of worship
Design closely mirror rituals of the religion
The initial choice of the Basilica was because of
its easy adaptability to a Christian church
Later when practices started changing, the
alternative church forms evolved
Ritual practices and function played a more
significant influence on church form during the
Early Christian period than during the Byzantine
period

Symbolism
Symbolism also played a significant role in the
evolution of the form of the Christian church
Spirituality and mysticism were integrated into
the experience of church spaces
During Christian architecture, Symbolism in the
experience of space become a predominant
issue in design
The use of light and decoration to create
fascinating interiors but function still
predominated

Symbolism
During the Byzantine period the Church itself
became a symbol of the faith
The Church is viewed as a house of god and its
design and construction as a reflection of this
symbolism
The scale of the church was therefore
increased and its decoration became more
complex
In this respect we see a contrast between an
overriding emphasis in Early Christian
architecture on function and rituals, and in
Byzantine architecture on symbolism

Construction Technology
Construction technology was a major influence on
Church form during the Early Christian period
The Basilica was chosen during the Early
Christian period partly for its ease of construction
Ease of construction means places of worship
could be provided for the expanding believers
During the Byzantine era, discovery of
pendentives and dome on pedentives changed
technology for church construction
Provided means to achieve church forms that
reflected the significance of churches as house of
God
END OF LECTURE

HOA - 1 (Early Christian and Byzantine)

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Early Christian Architecture

The Architectural response

Architecture of the Civilization

The evolution of the Christian place of

Architecture of the Civilization

Architecture of the Civilization

Early Christian Architecture

Basilica Church Type

Early Christian Architecture

Early Christian Architecture

Early Christian Architecture

Early Christian Architecture

Early Christian Architecture-Examples

Early Christian Architecture

Early Christian Architecture

S. Peters, Rome AD 333

S. Peters, Rome AD 333

S. Peters, Rome AD 333

Early Christian Architecture

Church Of Nativity, Bethlehem

Early Christian Architecture

Early Christian Architecture

Church of the Holy Sepulcher

Early Christian Architecture

Early Christian Architecture

Early Christian Architecture

Early Christian Architecture

Round Alternative Form

Round Alternative Form

Round Alternative Form

Round Alternative form

Round Alternative form

Lobed Alternative form

Lobed Alternative Form

The use of a centralized church plan

Domes and Domes on Pedentives

St. Sergius and Bacchus

Byzantine Arch. in Other Places

Byzantine Arch. in Other Places

Santa Sophia, Kiev

Santa Sophia, Kiev

Santa Sophia, Kiev

Byzantine Arch. in Other Places

Saint Basils, Moscow

Saint Basils, Moscow

Saint Basils, Moscow

Byzantine Arch. in Other Places

Commission by Ivan the Terrible of

Byzantine Arch. in Other Places

Byzantine Arch. in Other Places

Buildings & Other Arch

Buildings & Other Arch. Elements

Buildings & Other Arch. Elements

Materials, Const. & Tech.

Materials, Construction & Tech.

Materials, Construction & Tech.

Materials, Construction & Tech.

Principles of Arch. Organization

Principles of Arch. Organization

Principles of Arch. Organization

Principles of Arch. Organization

Principles of Arch. Organization