Building Layout:

The real meaning and purpose of layout is to transfer the plan,length and width of its foundation
on the ground so that the foundation can be excavated for construction of purposed building as
per drawing.
The following preliminary works should be excavated before actual planning of layout for any
kind of building or house;
1- Clear the site from all grassess, bushes and trees .
2- Construct a permanent bench mark in the construction site.
In order to understand layout of a building we must understand some of the technical terms
related to this job which are described below.
Base Line:
A baseline is a straight reference line with respect to which corners of the building are located on
the ground.For the layout,the most important requirement is to establish a base line.This is
marked on the ground according to the requirment with the help of offsets which are taken from
existing road or building.
Center Line:
Center line divides the plan into two equal parts.This can be marked in the field with help of the
base line.This line is very necessary and useful for layout.
Horizontal Controls:
Horizontal controls are the points that have known co-ordinates with respect to a specific point.
These points are then used to locate other points such as corners of a layout using various
techniques.
Vertical controls
In order that design points on the works can be positioned at their correct levels, vertical control
points of known elevation relative to some specified vertical datum are established. In practice,
20mm diameter steel bolts and 100mmlong, with known reduce levels driven into existing
steps, ledges, footpaths etc. may serve as vertical controls.
Procedure for rectangular building
Starting from a baseline (line AB in Figure 4-1) that is parallel to construction, establish the
maximum outer borders (AB, CD, AC, BD) of the building area.
Suppose we know the co-ordinates(x,y) of the points X with respect to point A then we can
locate it by measuring their x distance along line AB and y distance along line AC and BD
respectively to locate them. These two points can be joined to make line XX. To locate point G

and H, straight line are set out using 3-4-5 triangle rule and distance XG and XH which is known
is marked on those lines. After the four corners (X, X, G. and H) have been located, drive stakes
at each corner. Dimensions are determined accurately during each step.

Procedure for irregular building

Where the outline of the building is other than a rectangle, the procedure in establishing each
point is the same as defined for laying out a simple rectangle. However, more points have to be
positioned, and the final proving of the work is more likely to disclose a small error. When the
building is an irregular shape, it is sensible to first lay out a large rectangle which will includes
the entire building or the greater part of it. This is shown in Figure 4-2 as HOPQ When this is
established, the remaining portion of the layout will consist of small rectangles, each of which
can be laid out and shown separately.

EXTENDING LINES
Since the corner pegs of the building are to be removed during excavation these points are
transferred outside that periphery by extending lines and driving pegs in the ground. The
following procedure applies to a simple layout as shown in Figure 4-4, page 4-4, and must be
amended to apply to different or
more complex layout problems:
Step 1: After locating and dipping stakes A and B. erect batter boards
1, 2, 3, and 4. Extend a chalk line (X) from batter board 1 to batter
board 3, over stakes A and B.
Step 2: After locating and dipping stake C, erect batter boards 5 and
6. Extend chalk line Y from batter board 2 over stakes A and C to
batter board 6.
Step 3: After locating and dipping stake D, erect batter boards 7 and
8. Extend chalk line Z from batter board 5 to batter board 7, over
stakes C and D.
Step 4: Extend line O from batter board 8 to batter board 4, over stakes D and B.
Where foundation walls are wide at the bottom and extend beyond the outside dimensions of the
building, the excavation must be larger than the laid-out size. To lay out dimensions of this
excavation, measure out as far as required from the building line on each batter board and stretch
lines between these points, outside the first layout.

Factors Affecting The Slection Of Foundation:

Following are the factors that affect the slection of any foundation for building.
1-Loads From Building:
The first factor considered is load from building on the foundation.This load is the combination
of the dead load and imposed loads on the buildings.Other loads such as wind loads,earthquake
loads,snow loads etc. are also considered.
The quantity of the loads depend upon type of structure,.number of floors and materialof
construction. As the number of floors increases,the dead loads and imposed loads also

increase.Choice of material for construction such as reinforced concrete or the steel construction
also has impacts on foundation. Reinforced concrete buildings exert more loads on the
foundations.
Based on the safe safe bearing capacity of structure and qunantity of loads on foundation,type of
the foundations and its base area is calculated.
2-Soil:
Soil investigation should be carried out to know the nature of the soil depth of water table and
the depth of different layers of soil and to know the bearing capacity of soil at different levels for
the large kind of structures. When the load is transferred from the structure to the soil through
foundations, the soil tends to consolidate and settlement of foundation occurs.
The settlement of foundation causes cracks in the building walls, beam and slabs and the
building can even fail in the case of large settlement. .
3-Type Of Structure In Neighborhood:
The slection of foundation for building construction can also be done based on type of
foundation selected for the building in the neighboring buildings for the same type.Based on the
success or failure of foundation for such buildings,decisions can be taken for the selection of
foundation.
4-Types Of Foundations:
Types of foundations such as isolated foundations,combined footings,pile foundations and raft or
mat foundations etc.based on the type of soil and loads from the buildings can be selected based
on stability and the requirement.

Highway Layout:
A highway layout is a complete drawing of a highway or road system.To create a highway
layout,we first draw a plan view and then a profile of a proposed highway from the information
given in survey notes. The plan view shows existing features such as roads, buildings, and
trees.The profile is a section view through the plan at a specific location.
General considerations for planning, design and construction
The Project Highway shall be planned as a partially access controlled highway where access to
the highway shall be provided only at pre-determined locations. In doing so, the Concessionaire
shall take measures to overcome the physical and operational constraints and plan, design and
construct the Project Highway using appropriate methods, management techniques and
technologies. General consideration shall, without being limited to, be as follows:
(a) The constraints
The physical constraints in the existing highway are in the form of limitation of right of way, unregulated access, inadequate service roads and underpasses, numerous at-grade junctions, lack of
physical separation between local and through traffic etc. The operation constraints arise out of
the necessity or possibility of closing a portion of the road for construction and/ or diverting the
traffic to temporary diversions, thereby reducing the capacity and safety of the existing highway.
The solutions evolved by the Concessionaire shall be such that these operational constraints are
overcome through appropriate planning, design and construction method, techniques and
technologies and by adopting suitable traffic management measures.
(b) Safety of design
All designs shall be safe to ensure that the Project Highway or any part thereof (for example
embankment, pavement, retaining structures, bridges, culverts, etc) does not collapse (global
stability) nor its serviceability/performance (for example settlement, roughness, undulations,
deflections, etc) deteriorates below acceptable level as prescribed in Schedule-K of the
Concession Agreement.
(c) Durability
The Project Highway shall not only be safe but also durable. This would mean that the
deteriorating effects of climate and environment (for example wetting and drying, freezing and
thawing, if applicable, temperature differences, aggressive environment leading to corrosion, etc)
in addition to the traffic shall be duly considered in design and construction to make the Project
Highway durable.
(d) Mitigating disruptive effects of construction

The planning, design and construction of the highway shall be such that the construction of
Project Highway does not have adverse impact on the environment and does not disrupt the lives
and business activities of the people living close to the Project Highway.
Design Speed / Operating Speed
The design speed of a road is the maximum speed that a vehicle can safely travel on that road
under perfect conditions. It is based on the road classification, the conditions of the road itself,
and the conditions of the surrounding land
Lane Widths
Lane widths should be suitable for the road classification and expected traffic volumes and are
generally between 2.7 4.0m in width.
Safe Visibility & Sight Distances
Along with the factors associated with the speed of a vehicle,safety considerations require that
the layout fulfils certain conditions of visibility.At higher speed motorists need to be able to
anticipate potential problems sufficiently far in advance and in order to achieve this,it is
necessary to establish a certain sight distance in the layout which permits motorists trevelling at
design speeds to be adequately advised of a certain abstacle and and be able to brake before
reaching it:stopping sight distance.
Stopping sight distance is greater on faster roads and shorter on slower roads since logically a
vehicle needs less time to slow down when it is travelling less quickly.This parameter has an
important effect on the geometry of road layout and frequently requires much more extensive
earthworks on faster roads than slower ones.
The term Sight Distance refers to the clear unobstructed distance measured from a driver to an
obstacle or between two drivers in their respective lanes of travel. Sight Distance is a calculable
concept that is related to the geometry of the road.
These Sight Distances are listed below:
Stopping Sight Distance of cars and trucks; Sight distances on horizontal curves; Sight
distances on horizontal curves with roadside obstructions; Overtaking sight distances;
Manoeuvre sight distances; Intermediate sight distance; Headlight sight distance; and
Horizontal curve perception sight distance. Approach Sight Distance; Safe Intersection Sight
Distance; Minimum Sight Distance
The calculation of Sight Distances is carried out using the formulas
Standard Road configuration

Road Reserve / Public Right of Way

The term ROAD is the legal name given to the strip of publicly owned land between abutting
property boundaries, specifically gazetted and vested for the purpose of becoming a road. It
generally includes the carriageway, as well as footpaths and verges / berms. Sometimes,
however, a lane or shared path can be owned and maintained by the local road controlling
authority but is not used by motor vehicles. In this instance, the route is generally considered to
be a public right of way, with similar rules and controls as a standard road reserve.
Road Reserve Cross Section
The road reserve is made up of a number of different elements that form the overall cross
section. These elements include the following items: Berms (may include service trenches),
footways and carriageways (split in to various lane configurations and might include a
flush/solid median). The road reserve width is the combined width of all the different elements
and can often include additional unused width for future capacity upgrades. |
Factors affecting Road layout:
Road Layout And Geomorphology:
The considerations relating to the earthquakes and th presence of the roads in the landscape are
applicable here in terms of reducing their effects on morphology and thus on collateral
processess.Apart from reducing the extent of the morphological effects,it is recommended that
areas of greater sensivity in terms of erosion,instability,aquifers or heritage are avoided as much
as possible.
Layouts With Low Volumes Of Earthworks:
Roads which require lower volumes of earthworks are more easily integrated into the
landscape.This landscape principle is in line with the other project criteria such as environmental
integration and reduction of costs.However,this objective is not always easy to fulfil because it
depends on the relationship between the landform and the functionality requirements which are
demanded from the projected roads.It is therefore necessary to maintain an open and flexible
attitude such as trying to minimise the volumes of the earthworks as much as possible in the
most realistic and feasible objective.
Road Layouts And Quality Of Life:
The layout should avoid the occupation of,or proximity to,residential and urban areas or those
suitable to be urbanized, and paticularly collective facilities such as schools,healthcare or
religious centers and recreational ares which are espasially sensitive to noise.
The layout can also contribute to the reduction of noise disturbance by raising or lowering the
roadbed or adopting dispositions which reduce the level of expositions to noise of potential

receptors.
Road Layout And Cultural Heritage:
The layout must avoid the occupation of cultural heritage elements both on an individual basis
and in general, thereby avoiding their quality, meaning, conservation and enjoyment. Included in
this category are a heterogeneous group of elements (unusual buildings or settlements,
archeological sites, areas of communal use etc.).
To this aim it is necessary to study the definition of layout that incorporates a thorough analysis
of cultural heritage resources in the territory in which the works are to take place ,covering all
known and potential archaeological resources.

Bridge Layout:
Procedure:
The first step in bridge layout is to locate previously established control
points on each end of the bridge site. The control points were established
during the preliminary survey to represent the baseline of construction or the
survey line. This line is typically designated as Line A on the plans. Control
points for the centerline of the structure and/or roadway are also located if
they are different from the survey line. All points are checked for alignment
and referenced with offset stakes. The station of one of the control points is
determined for use in locating the abutments and piers.
The next step is to locate each unit of the substructure at points along the
survey line. Reference stakes for these points are set to the left and right of
the centerline by turning the skew angle. To insure accuracy, the survey crew
double and triple checks the skew angle. The accuracy of the skew angle
may be checked by measuring the distance between reference points on the
left and right sides. If the distances between the points are equal on both
sides, the skew angle is correct.
Enough reference points are set to insure easy replacement of the centerline
control. The reference points are protected and identified by guard stakes.
Once the reference points are set, the crew double-checks the elevations of
the bench marks. Again, temporary benchmarks are required to be
established when a benchmark on an existing structure is to be replaced.
If the bridge deck is to match an existing roadway, the edges and centerline
of the roadway are required to be profiled and checked against the elevation
of the new structure. The last step in the bridge layout is staking the footings
and taking cross-sections of the footing areas. The cross-sections are used to
determine how much material the Contractor is required to remove during
structure excavation.

Selection Of Bridge Type, Configuration And Layout:

The selection of type and configuration of a bridge crossing should consider the characteristics of
the waterway and the vessel traffic, so that the bridge would not be an unnecessary hazard to
navigation. The layout of the bridge should maximize the horizontal and vertical clearance for
navigation and the bridge piers should be placed away from the reach of vessels. Finding the
optimum bridge configuration and layout for different bridge types and degrees of protection, is

an iterative process which weighs the costs involved in risk reduction, including political and
social aspects.
Rules for layout:
The following vessel collision guidelines should be kept in mind for this case:
1-Bridge should be located away from the turns in channel. The distance to the bridge should
such that vessels can line up before passing the bridge, usually at least eight times the length of
the vessel.
2-Bridge should design to cross the navigation channels at right angles and should be
symmetrical with respect to the channel.
3-An adequate distance should be exist between bridge locations and areas with congested
navigation, port facilities or other navigation problems.
4-Location where waterway is shallow or narrow so that bridge piers could be located out of
vessel reach are preferable.

Horizental And Vertical Clearence:

The horizental clearence of the navigational span can have a significant impact on the risk of
vessel collision with the main piers.Analysis of past vessels collisions accidents has shown that
the bridge with a main span less than two tto three times the design vessel length or less than two
times the channel width are particularly vulnerable to vessel collisions.
The vertical clearence provided in the navigational span is usually based on the highest vessel
that uses the waterway in a ballasted conditon and during the preiods of high water level.The
vertcal clearence requirenments need to consider site specific data on actual and projected
vessels,and must be coordinated with the Coast Guard in the country.
Approach Spans:
The initial planning of the bridge layout should also consider the vulnerability of the approach
spans to vessel collisions. Historical vessel collisions have shown that the bridge approach spans
were damaged in over 60% of the total number of accidents. Therefore the number of approach
piers exposed to water collisions should be maximized.
Protection Systems:
Bridge protection alternatives should be considered during the initial phase, since the cost of the
bridge protection system is significant portion to the total cost of bridge. Bridge protection
system includes fender systems, protective islands, or other structure design to redirect,

withstand or absorb the impact force and energy.

Waterway Characterstics:
The characterstics of the waterway in the vicinity of the bridge site such as the width and the
depth of navigational channel,the current speed and direction,the channel alignment and cross
section and the hydraulic conditions have a great influence on the risk of vessel collision and
must be taken into account.
1-Channel Layout And Geometry:
The channel layout and the geometry can effect the navigation conditions,the largest vessel size
that can use the waterway, and the loading conditions and speed of vessels.
The presence of bends and intersections with other waterways near the bridge increase the
probablity of vessel losing control and become aberrant.The vessel transit path in the waterway
in relation to the navigational channel and bridge piers can effect the risk of aberrant vessels
hitting the substructure.
2-Current Speed And Direction:
Water currents at the location of the bridge can have a significant effect on the navigation and on
the probability of vessel aberrency.The design water currents commomly used represent annual
average values rather than the occasional extreme values that occur only a few times per year and
during which vessel traffic restrictions may also apply.
Bridge Design And Analysis:
Vessel collisions are extreme events with a very low probabilitybof occurance, therefore the limit
state considered is usually structural survival.Depending on the importance of the bridge various
degrees of damage are alowed provided that the structure maintains its integrity, hazards to
traffic are minimized and repairs can be made in relatively short period of time.When a design is
based on more requent but less severe collisions, structural damage and traffic interuptions are
not allowed.
The contribution of the superstructure to the transfer of loads to adjacent sub structure units
depends upon the capacity of the connection of superstructure to the sub structure and the
relative stiffness of the sub structure at the location of impact.Analysis guidelines for
determining the distribution of collision loads to the adjacent piers are also calculated.The
flexibility of piers is obtained from pier models using virtual forces.The superstructure model is
loaded with a transverse virtual forces acting at the place where the pier under consideration is
located.The spring iin the model at that pier is ommited to obtain a flexibility coefficient of the
superstructure at the location of the top of the pier under consideration.Thus, the horizental
displacement on the top of the pier due to the impact force on the pier is equal to the true

displacement of the super structure due to the transmitted part of impact load.The magnitude of
the force transmitted to the superstructure is obtained by equating the total true displacement of
the top of the pier from the pier model to the displacement of the superstructure.However, in
order to consider the partial transfer of the lateral forces to the superstructure, positive steel or
concrete connections of superstructure to sub structure, such as shear keys must be provided.

Measures of protection:
The cost associated with a bridge in its protection from various effectes has many factors to be
considered.The alternatives listed below are usually evaluated in order to develop a cost effective
solution for new bridge project.
1-Design bridge piers and foundations to withstand the directly the collision forces.
2-Design a pier fender system to reduce the impact loads to a level below the capacity of the
piers and foundations.
3-Increase span length and locate piers in shallow water out of reach of large vessels in order to
reduce the impact loads.

1. References:
2. www.civileblog.com
3. www.gharexpert.com
4. Engineering drawing and design by david A. Medsen
5. Planningcommission.gov
6. www.globalsecurity.org
7. Bridge engineering , bridge layout, book,,
8. paisajeyterritorio.es.com roads layout
9. www.buildmagzine.com
10. www.at.gov.nz