BASIC BIOLOGY (BIO 1) LECTURE NOTES

Man and His Environment:

Principles of Ecology and Human Impacts on the Biosphere
A. INTRODUCTION
The relationship between man and the environment has been established in the early
periods of time. Since then, human beings live and interact with nature constantly. Such
influence of nature is in the form of the air he breathes, the water he drinks, the food he eats and
the flow of energy and information.
The study of the interaction between organisms and their environment is called Ecology.
There is a continuous interaction between all organisms, including humans, and their
environment, which is the source of all the basic materials needed to sustain life. The
environment can be divided into two major components: The abiotic component includes nonliving physical and chemical factors, such as temperature, pH, humidity and nutrients; and the
biotic component which consists of all other living things that interacts with the organism, or is a
part of its environment.
B. PRINCIPLES OF ECOLOGY
Levels of Organization
It is more convenient to study the relationship between an individual and its
environment by considering the different ecological levels of organization. Organisms belong to
particular species, which can briefly be defined as a group of naturally interbreeding individuals,
but who dont successfully interbreed with members of other such groups. They are associated in
populations, defined as all the members of a single species that live together in a specified
geographic region. Going up the scale, a group of populations of all species living in a single
region is identified as a community. The community and all the non-living elements that interact
with it is an ecosystem. The largest scale of life is the biosphere, which can be thought of as the
interactive collection of all the Earths ecosystems.

Fig. 1. The ecological levels of organization (Source: www.livebinders.com).

Population Interactions
The sum of a species use of the biotic and abiotic resources in its environment is called
an ecological niche. In order to further grasp the concept, it is helpful to consider the analogy by
the ecologist Eugene Odum: If an organisms habitat is its address, the niche is the habitat plus
the organisms occupation. Eventhough niches tend to be specific to given organisms, some
closely related species have niches that overlap to some degree in a community which results to
population interactions:
Antagonism
Competition two species compete for a resource
Predation predator-prey; the consumer is the predator while the food species is the prey
Parasitism a variety of predation in which the predator feeds on a prey but does not kill it
immediately, or may not really kill it at all.
Symbiosis
Mutualism both organisms gain from the relationship
Commensalism one benefits while the other is neither harmed nor helped

Succession
Communities may change drastically after a major disturbance such as flood and fire. A variety
of species may colonize the area and may later be replaced by other species. This community
change is called succession.

Ecosystem function and components

The ecosystem is the fundamental unit of Ecology. All communities need a source of
energy, supply of water, nutrients and gases. The process by which living things gain energy, for
instance from the sun, is through transformation into heat. However, water and nutrients are
being cycled, from the Earth to the organism and then back into the Earth. Considering this,
ecological systems or functional units that link biotic and abiotic factors to form a whole can be
perceived.
Components according to Trophic Level (source of nourishment):
Autotrophic: production of organic matter from simple compounds, exemplified through
photosynthesis
2.Heterotrophic: transformation of primary products to secondary products through the
chemical synthesis and decomposition of organic matter.
Components according to Structure/ Role
Producers composed primarily of plants and other photosynthetic organisms.
Consumers are usually animals feeding on animals and plants.
Decomposers are organisms feeding on dead organic matter
Non-living components

Food chain and Food web an ecological network usually started with plants capturing solar
energy. As plants grow, they accumulate nutrients and are eaten by grazing herbivores, and the
energy is transferred through a chain of organisms by consumption.
Productivity the amount of energy formed or rate of production or organic matter produced
that is expressed in: number or mass per unit area per unit period of time.
Biomass the amount of organic material derived from living, or recently living organisms and
can be used as a source of energy/ fuel.
The rate at which producers build biomass is called primary productivity, which sets the
spending limit for energy budget of the entire ecosystem because consumers acquire their
organic fuels from producers. Energy flows as organic matter in trophic levels. This dynamics
also apply to the human population. As herbivores, we are considered as primary consumers,
while as omnivores, we can be in the higher trophic levels.
Ecosystem Types
Biomes are large geographical regions with a specific range of temperatures and precipitation,
and the organisms are adapted to those conditions.
Aquatic Biomes
Aquatic biomes, consisting of inland or freshwater and marine ecosystems, occupy the
largest part of the biosphere. The most productive region in these biomes are the shallow-water
area.
Lakes and Ponds
Standing bodies of water range from small ponds to large lakes. Overabundance of
nutrients (eutrophication) from sewage and runoff from fertilized agricultural fields can lead to
overabundance of algae, also known as algal bloom. When this happens, decomposing bacteria
flourish, depleting oxygen and causing fishes and other oxygen-dependent organisms to
suffocate.
Rivers and Streams
Rivers and streams are bodies of water flowing in one direction. Many rivers and streams
have been affected by pollution from human activities as these are often used as depositories of
waste, thinking that these would be diluted as water is carried downstream. Channelization and
construction of dams are also examples of human interventions affecting these ecosystems.
Wetlands
The area where freshwater stream or river meets the ocean, which is bordered by
extensive coastal wetlands called mudflats and saltmarshes. Nutrients and salinity, or
concentration of salt, are the factors affecting these ecosystems. Much of these nutrients that
enrich estuarine waters are carried from rivers, making estuaries one of the most biologically
productive ecosystems on Earth, along with tropical rainforests and coral reefs. A wide diversity
of aquatic organisms use estuaries as breeding grounds and organisms such as birds use them as

feeding areas. However, these areas are also prime locations for commercial and residential
developments and are unfortunately the receivers of pollutants dumped upstream.
Oceans
Oceans cover about 75% of the Earths surface and have always had an enormous impact
in the biosphere. Their evaporation provides most of the planets rainfall and photosynthesis by
marine algae supplies a substantial portion of the biospheres oxygen. The tropical oceans boast
of very productive marine communities in the form of coral reefs which lie in shallow waters at
the edge of tropical continents or islands. So rich is this habitat that it is a home to 25% of the
oceans species but only covers 2% of the ocean floor. However, about 27% of the worlds coral
reef is estimated to have now been lost as functioning ecosystems due to destructive practices
and environmental disturbance.

Fig. 2. Distribution of Major Aquatic Biomes (Source: Campbell et al., 2008)

Terrestrial Biomes
Desert
-areas that generally have an average of less than 25 centimeters (10 inches) of
precipitation per year and are mostly hot and dry during the day and cold at night.
Grassland
-widely distributed over temperate parts of the world; are windy with hot summers and
cold-to mild winters. Most of the moist grasslands of the world have been converted to
agriculture, since the rich, deep soil that developed as a result of the activities of centuries of soil
building is useful for growing cultivated grasses like corn (maize) and wheat. The drier
grasslands have been converted to the raising of domesticated grazers like cattle, sheep, and
goats.

Savannah
-found in tropical parts of Africa, South America, and Australia have extensive
grasslands spotted with occasional trees. As with grasslands, the predominant mammals are the
grazers.
Mediterranean Shrublands (Chaparral)
-dominated by woody shrubs that are dormant during summer as an adaptation to
withstand the hot, dry period. Shrubs are adapted to withstand occasional fires.
Tropical Dry Forest
-rainfall is highly seasonal with extensive dry periods up to eight months, many of the
plants have special adaptations for enduring drought.
Tropical Rainforest
Tropical rainforests are located near the equator in Central and South America, Africa,
Southeast Asia, and some islands in the Caribbean Sea and Pacific Ocean. The temperature is
normally warm and relatively constant. There is no frost, and it rains nearly every day. These
have a greater diversity of species than any other biome with more species found in the tropical
rainforests of the world than in the rest of the world combined. A small area of a few square
kilometers is likely to have hundreds of species of trees. Thus, it is considered as the richest
among the terrestrial ecosystems. Unfortunately, these rich ecosystems are also one of the most
rapidly depleted in the world threatening the loss of many species.
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Forests in temperate areas of the world that have a wintersummer change of seasons
typically have trees that lose their leaves during the winter and replace them the following
spring.
Taiga, Northern ConiferousForest, or Boreal Forest
The climate is one of short, cool summers and long winters with abundant snowfall.
These trees are specifically adapted to winter conditions with needle-shaped leaves adapted to
prevent water loss.
Tundra
North of the taiga is the tundra, a biome that lacks trees and has a permanently frozen
subsurface soil. This frozen soil layer is known as permafrost.
Scattered patches of tundra-like communities also are found on mountaintops throughout
the world. These are known as alpine tundra.

Fig. 3. Distribution of Major Terrestrial Biomes (Source: Campbell et al., 2008)

C. HUMAN IMPACTS ON THE BIOSPHERE

Humans, like all species, depend on natural resources for survival. Yet in many ways, we do not
behave like other species. We have both the capacity to destroy or preserve our natural resources.
Man can harvest natural resources to exhaustion, and produce waste beyond levels that the Earth
can process. On the other hand, we also have the ability towards conserving and protecting our
environment.
Decline of biodiversity and negative impacts on human health due to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

habitat loss, introduction of exotic species

overpopulation leading to overexploitation of resources
global climate change greenhouse effect (Kyoto Protocol), El Nio and LaNia
ozone layer depletion (Montreal Protocol)
Pollution air, water, land, noise; Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

Conservation
-

Ethical/ regulated use, protection and management of valuable resources, such as trees,
minerals, wildlife and water. It focuses on maintaining the natural world in order to
protect the resources.

Sustainable Development
Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs

References:

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Generation Textbook. CK12 Foundation.
Campbell, N.A., J.B. Reece, L.A. Urry, M.L.Cain, S.A. Wasserman, P.V. Minorsky and R.B.
Jackson. 2008 . Biology. 8th edition. San Francisco, CA: Pearson Benjamin Cummings.
Enger, E.D., College, D., and Smith, B.F., 2006. Environmental Science 10 th Ed.Western
Washington University ISBN: 007252829x
Krogh, D. 2005. Biology A Guide to the Natural World. 3 rd edition. New Jersey: Pearson
Education, Inc. 710-748.