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Definition&conceptofproperty
Source:http://www.
Author:BhagwatiDanCharan
Publishedon:January15,2011
Definitionandconceptofproperty
BhagwatiDanCharan'sProfile
anddetails
Propertyhasaverywidermeaninginitsrealsense.Itnot
onlyincludesmoneyandothertangiblethingsofvalue,but
BhagwatiDan
alsoincludesanyintangiblerightconsideredasasourceor
Charan,studentIX
elementofincomeorwealth.Therightandinterestwhicha
manhasinlandsandchattelstotheexclusionofothers.Itis
therighttoenjoyandtodisposeofcertainthingsinthe
SEMESTER,ILNU,Ahmedabad.
mostabsolutemannerashepleases,providedhemakesno
useofthemprohibitedbylaw.
Thesea,theair,andthelike,cannotbeappropriatedeveryonemayenjoythem,butnoonehas
anyexclusiverightinthem.Whenthingsarefullyourown,orwhenallothersareexcludedfrom
meddlingwiththem,orfrominterferingaboutthem,itisplainthatnopersonbesidesthe
proprietor,whohasthisexclusiveright,canhaveanyclaimeithertousethem,ortohinderhim
fromdisposingofthemashepleasessothatproperty,consideredasanexclusiverighttothings,
containsnotonlyarighttousethosethings,butarighttodisposeofthem,eitherbyexchanging
themforotherthings,orbygivingthemawaytoanyotherperson,withoutanyconsideration,or
eventhrowingthemaway.
BasicallyPropertyisdividedintorealproperty,andpersonalproperty.Propertyisalsodivided,
intoabsoluteandqualified,whenitconsistsofgoodsandchattels.
Absolutepropertyisthatwhichisourown,withoutanyqualificationwhateveraswhenamanis
theownerofawatch,abook,orotherinanimatething:orofahorse,asheep,orotheranimal,
whichneverhaditsnaturallibertyinawildstate.
Qualifiedpropertyconsistsintherightwhichmenhaveoverwildanimalswhichtheyhave
reducedtotheirownpossession,andwhicharekeptsubjecttotheirpowerasadeer,abuffalo,
andthelike,whicharehisownwhilehehaspossessionofthem,butassoonashispossessionis
lost,hispropertyisgone,unlesstheanimals,goanimorevertendi.
Propertyisagaindividedintocorporealandincorporeal.Theformercomprehendssuchproperty
asisperceptibletothesenses,aslands,houses,goods,merchandiseandthelikethelatter
consistsinlegalrights,aschoosesinaction,easements,andthelike.
Itispropertoobservethatinsomecases,themomentthattheownerloseshispossession,healso
loseshispropertyorrightinthething:animalsferaenaturae,asmentionedabove,belongtothe
owneronlywhileheretainsthepossessionofthem.But,ingeneral,'thelossofpossessiondoes
notimpairtherightofproperty,fortheownermayrecoveritwithinacertaintimeallowedbylaw.
MeaningandDefinitionofProperty
Meaningofproperty
Ingeneralsense,propertyisanyphysicalorvirtualentitythatisownedbyanindividualorjointly
byagroupofindividuals.Anownerofthepropertyhastheright.Humanlifeisnotpossible
withoutproperty.Ithaseconomic,sociopolitical,sometimesreligiousandlegalimplications.Itis
thelegaldomain,whichinstitutestheideaofownership.Thebasicpostulateoftheideaisthe
exclusivecontrolofanindividualoversomething.Herethemostimportantaspectofthe
conceptofownershipandpropertyisthewordthing,onwhichapersonhascontrolforuse.To
consume,sell,rent,mortgage,transferandexchangehisproperty.Propertyisanyphysicalor
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intangibleentitythatisownedbyapersonorjointlybyagroupofpeople.Dependingonthe
natureoftheproperty,anownerofpropertyhastherighttoconsume,sell,rent,mortgage,
transfer,exchangeordestroytheirproperty,and/ortoexcludeothersfromdoingthesethings.[1]
TherearesomeTraditionalprinciplesrelatedtopropertyrightswhichincludesinclude:
1.Controlovertheuseoftheproperty.
2.Righttotakeanybenefitfromtheproperty.
3.Righttotransferorselltheproperty.
4.Righttoexcludeothersfromtheproperty.
Definitionofproperty
Therearedifferentdefinitionsaregivenindifferentactasperthereusesandneeds.Butinthe
mostimportantactwhichexclusivelytalksaboutthepropertyandrightsrelatedtoproperty
transferofpropertyact1882hasnodefinitedefinitionofthetermproperty.Butitisdefinedin
someotheractaspertheiruseandneed.Thosedefinitionsareasfollows:
Section2(c)oftheBenamiTransactions(Prohibition)Act,1988definespropertyas:
Propertymeanspropertyofanykind,whethermovableorimmovable,tangibleorintangible,
andincludesanyrightorinterestinsuchproperty.
Section2(11)oftheSaleofGoodAct,1930definespropertyas:
Propertymeansthegeneralpropertyingoods,andnotmerelyaspecialproperty.
Theoriesbehindconceptofproperty:
Therearemanytheorieswhichhavebeenevolvedforthepurposeofunderstandingtheconceptof
propertyproperly.
Thosetheoriesareasfollows:
1.HistoricalTheoryofProperty:
2.LabourTheory(Spencer):
3.PsychologicalTheory(Bentham):
4.FunctionalTheory(Jenks,Laski):
5.PhilosophicalTheories
(i)PropertyasameanstoEthnicalEnds
(ii)PropertyasanEndinitself
HistoricalTheoryofProperty
AccordingtotheHistoricaltheory,theconceptofprivatepropertyhadgrownoutofcollective
grouporjointproperty.InthewordsofHenryMaine,Privatepropertywaschieflyformedbythe
gradualdisentanglementoftheseparaterightsofindividualfromtheblendedrightsofthe
community.
Earlierpropertydidnotbelongtoindividuals,noteventoisolatedfamilies,butthelarger
societiescomposedonpatriarchalmode.Laterwiththedisintegrationoffamilyindividualrights
cameintobeing.
RoscoePoundalsopointedoutthattheearliestformofpropertywasgroupproperty.Itwaslater
onthatfamilieswerepartitionedandindividualpropertycameintobeing.
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LabourTheory(Spencer)
Thetheoryisalsoknownaspositivetheory.Thistheoryinsistsonthefactthatlabourofthe
individualisafoundationofproperty.Thistheorysaysthat,athingisthepropertyofaperson,
whoproducesitorbringsitintoexistence.ThemainsupporterofthistheoryisSpencer,who
developeditontheprincipleofequalfreedom.Hesaysthatpropertyistheresultofindividual
labour.Therefore,nopersonhasamoralrighttopropertywhichhehasnotacquiredbyhis
personaleffort.
PsychologicalTheory(Bentham)
Accordingtothistheory,propertycameintoexistenceonaccountofacquisitiveinstinctofman.
Everyindividualdesirestoownthingsandthatbringsintobeingproperty.
AccordingtoBentham,Propertyisaltogetheraconceptionofmind.Itisnothingmorethanan
expectationtoderivecertainadvantagesfromtheobjectaccordingtoonescapacity.
RoscoePoundalsosupportsBenthamandobservedthatthesolebasisofconceptionofpropertyis
theacquisitiveinstinctofindividualwhichmotivateshimtoasserthisclaimoverobjectsinhis
possessionandcontrol.
FunctionalTheory(Jenks,Laski)
Thetheoryissometimesalsoknownassociologicaltheoryofproperty.Itimpliesthatthe
conceptofpropertyshouldnotonlybeconfinedtoprivaterightsbutitshouldbeconsideredasa
socialinstitutionsecuringmaximuminterestsofsociety.Propertyissituatedinthesociety,hasto
beusedinthesociety.
AccordingtoJenks,noonecanbeallowedanunrestricteduseofhisproperty,tothedetrimentto
others.Hesaidthattheuseofpropertyshouldconformtotherulesofreasonandwelfareofthe
community.
AccordingtoLaski,Propertyisasocialfactlikeanyother,anditisthecharacterofsocialfactsto
alter.Propertyhasfurtherassumedvariedaspectsandiscapabletofurtherchangewiththe
changingnormsofsociety.
PropertyisthecreationoftheState
Theoriginofpropertyistobetracedbacktotheoriginoflawandthestate.Jenksobservedthat
propertyandlawwereborntogetherandwoulddietogether.Itmeansthatpropertycameinto
existencewhenthestateframedlaws.Propertywasnowherebeforelaw.
AccordingtoRousseau,Itwastoconvertpossessionintopropertyandusurpationintoaright
thatlawandstatewerefounded.
Thefirstwhoenclosedapieceoflandandsaidthisisminehewasthefounderofrealsociety.
Heinsistedonthefactthatpropertyisnothingbutasystematicexpressionofdegreesandforms
ofcontrol,useandenjoymentofthingsbypersonsthatarerecognizedandprotectedbylaw.Thus
thepropertywasthecreationofthestate.
PhilosophicalTheories
PropertyasameanstoEthnicalEnds
IntheopinionofAristotle,HegelandGreen,Propertyhasneverbeentreatedasanend,but
alwaysasameanstosomeotherend.AccordingtoAristotle,itmaybeameanstotheendof
goodlifeofthecitizens,furtherintheopinionofHegelandGreen,itmaybeameanstothe
fulfillmentofthewillwithoutwhichindividualsarenotfullhuman.AccordingtoRousseau,
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Jefferson,Friedman,itmaybeameansasaprerequisiteofindividualfreedomseenasahuman
essence.
SimilarlytheoutstandingcriticsofpropertylikeWinstanley,Marxhavedenounceditas
destructiveofhumanessence,anegativemeansinrelationanontologicalend.
Inalltheabovecases,propertyistakenasameansnotasanend.
PropertyasanEndinitself
ThesupportersofliberalUtilitarianmodel,fromLocketoBentham,recognizepropertyasanend.
Itismaximizationofutilities.AccordingtoBentham,thecommandofutilitiesismeasuredbythe
materialwealth.Themaximizationofmaterialwealthisindistinguishablefromtheethicalend
propertyisvirtuallyanendinitself.InthewordsofLocke,theunlimitedaccumulationisa
naturalrightoftheindividualthatisanendinitself.AristotleandAquinashaveconsidered,
propertyasameans,concludedforalimitedpropertyright.HegelandGreen,treatsproperty,as
ameans,concludedforanunlimitedright.Thesupportersofutilitariantraditiontreat,
accumulationofproperty,asanend,alwaysmeantarightofunlimitedaccumulation.
LatertheconceptchangedandtheutilitarianBenthamheldthattheultimateendtowhichall
socialarrangementsshouldbedirectedwasthemaximizationoftheaggregateutility(Pleasure
minuspain)ofthemembersofthesociety.Whilelistingoutthekindsofpleasures,includingnon
materialone,heheldthatwealth,thepossessionofmaterialgoodswassoessentialtothe
attainmentofallotherpleasuresthatitcouldbetakenasthemeasureofpleasureorutilityas
such.
Kindsofproperty
BroadlyPropertyisdividedintothreekindsthoseareasfollow:
MovableandImmovableproperty
Movableproperty
Thedefinitionofmovablepropertyisgivendifferentlyinmanyacts.Someofthedefinitionsare
asfollows:
Section3(36)oftheGeneralClausesActdefinesmovablepropertyas:
'Movablepropertyshallmeanpropertyofeverydescription,exceptimmovableproperty."
Section2(9)oftheRegistrationAct,1908definespropertyas:
'Moveableproperty'includesstandingtimber,growingcropsandgrass,fruituponandjuicein
trees,andpropertyofeveryotherdescription,exceptimmovableproperty."
Section22ofIPCdefinespropertyas:
Thewordsmoveablepropertyisintendedtoincludecorporealpropertyofeverydescription,
exceptlandandthingsattachedtotheearthorpermanentlyfastenedtoanything,whichis
attachedtotheearth.
Thingsattachedtothelandmaybecomemoveablepropertybyseverancefromtheearth.for
exampleCartloadedofearth,orstonesquarriedandcarriedawayfromthelandbecomemovable
property.
Immovableproperty
TheTerm"ImmovableProperty"occursinvariousCentralActs.HowevernoneofthoseActs
conclusivelydefinethisterm.Themostimportantactwhichdealswithimmovablepropertyisthe
TransferofPropertyAct(T.P.Act).EvenintheT.P.Actthistermisdefinedinexclusive
terminology.
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i.AccordingtoSection3ofthatAct,"ImmovableProperty"doesnotincludestandingtimber,
growingcropsorgrass.Thus,thetermisdefinedintheActbyexcludingcertainthings.
"Buildings"constituteimmovablepropertyandmachinery,ifembeddedinthebuildingforthe
beneficialusethereof,mustbedeemedtobeapartofthebuildingandthelandonwhichthe
buildingissituated.
ii.AsperSection3(26)oftheGeneralClausesAct1897,"immovableproperty""shallinclude
land,benefitstoariseoutoflandandthingsattachedtotheearth,orpermanentlyfastenedto
anythingattachedtotheearth".Thisdefinitionofimmovablepropertyisalsonotexhaustive
iii.Section2(6)ofTheRegistrationAct,1908defines"ImmovableProperty"asunder:
"ImmovablePropertyincludesland,building,hereditaryallowances,rightstoways,lights,
ferries,fisheriesoranyotherbenefittoariseoutofland,andthingsattachedtotheearthor
permanentlyfastenedtoanythingwhichisattachedtotheearthbutnotstandingtimber,growing
cropsnorgrass".
Thedefinitionoftheterm"ImmovableProperty"undertheRegistrationAct1908,whichextends
tothewholeofIndia,excepttheStateofJammuandKashmir,iscomprehensive.Theabove
definitionimpliesthatbuildingisincludedinthedefinitionofimmovableproperty.
Thefollowinghavebeenheldasimmovableproperty.
Arighttocollectrent,lifeinterestintheincomeoftheimmovableproperty,rightofway,aferry,
fishery,aleaseofland.
iv.Theterm"ImmovableProperty"isdefinedinotherActsforthepurposeofthoseActs.Asper
Section269UA(d)oftheIncomeTaxAct,1961,ImmovablePropertyisdefinedasunder:
a.Anylandoranybuildingorpartofabuilding,andincludes,whereanylandoranybuildingor
partofabuildingistobetransferredtogetherwithanymachinery,plant,furniture,fittingsor
otherthings,suchmachinery,plant,furniture,fittingsandotherthingsalso.
Anyrightsinorwithrespecttoanylandoranybuildingorpartofbuilding(whetherornot
includinganymachinery,plant,furniture,fittingsorotherthingstherein)whichhasbeen
constructedorwhichistobeconstructed,accruingorarisingfromanytransaction(whetherby
wayofbecomingamemberof,oracquiringsharesin,acooperativesociety,orotherassociation
ofpersonsorbywayofanyagreementoranyarrangementofwhatevernature,notbeinga
transactionbywayofsale,exchangeorleaseofsuchland,buildingorpartofabuilding.
TangibleandIntangibleproperty:
Tangibleproperty
Tangiblepropertyreferstoanytypeofpropertythatcangenerallybemoved(i.e.,itisnot
attachedtorealpropertyorland),touchedorfelt.Thesegenerallyincludeitemssuchasfurniture,
clothing,jewellery,art,writings,orhouseholdgoods.
Intangibleproperty:
Intangiblepropertyreferstopersonalpropertythatcannotactuallybemoved,touchedorfelt,but
insteadrepresentssomethingofvaluesuchasnegotiableinstruments,securities,service
(economics),andintangibleassetsincludingchoseinaction
Intellectualproperty
Intellectualpropertyisatermreferringtoanumberofdistincttypesofcreationsofthemindfor
whichpropertyrightsarerecognizedandthecorrespondingfieldsoflaw.
Propertydoesnotjustcompriseoftangiblethingslikehouses,cars,furniture,currency,
investmentsetcandsuchassetsarenottheonlykindthatcanbeprotectedbylaw.Therearemany
otherformsofintangiblepropertyknownasintellectualpropertythathavebeenrecognizedunder
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thelawandgrantedprotectionagainstinfringement
Underintellectualpropertylaw,ownersaregrantedcertainexclusiverightstoavarietyof
intangibleassets,suchasmusical,literary,andartisticworksdiscoveriesandinventionsand
words,phrases,symbols,anddesigns.Patents,trademarksandcopyrights,designsarethefour
maincategoriesofintellectualproperty.
Patents
Patentsareusedtoprotectnewproduct,process,apparatus,andusesprovidingtheinventionis
notobviousinlightofwhathasbeendonebefore,isnotinthepublicdomain,andhasnotbeen
disclosedanywhereintheworldatthetimeoftheapplication.Theinventionmusthavea
practicalpurpose.PatentsareregistrablenationallythepatentgrantedbyEuropeanPatentOffice
isabundleofnationalpatents.NoEUwidesinglepatentsystemexiststodate,althoughthe
CommunityPatentisinthefinalstagesofenactment.Registrationprovidesapatenteetherightto
preventanyonemaking,using,selling,orimportingtheinventionfor20years.Patentsare
enforcedbycourtproceedings.Inaddition,theRegulationonSupplementaryProtection
Certificates(SPCs),grantspatentextensionsofupto5yearstopharmaceuticalandplant
products,providingasmuchas25yearsofpatentlifefororiginatormedicines.
TradeMarks
Asymbol(logo,words,shapes,acelebrityname,jingles)usedtoprovideaproductorservice
witharecognisableidentitytodistinguishitfromcompetingproducts.Trademarksprotectthe
distinctivecomponentswhichmakeupthemarketingidentityofabrand,including
pharmaceuticals.Theycanberegisterednationallyorinternationally,enablingtheuseofthe
symbol.Trademarkrightsareenforcedbycourtproceedingsinwhichinjunctionsand/or
damagesareavailable.Incounterfeitingcases,authoritiessuchasCustoms,thepolice,or
consumerprotectioncanassist.Anunregisteredtrademarkisfollowedbytheletters.Thisis
enforcedincourtifacompetitorusesthesameorsimilarnametotradeinthesameorasimilar
field.
Copyright
Copyrightisusedtoprotectoriginalcreativeworks,publishededitions,soundrecordings,films
andbroadcasts.Itexistsindependentlyoftherecordingmedium,sobuyingacopydoesnotconfer
therighttocopy.Limitedcopying(photocopying,scanning,downloading)withoutpermissionis
possible,e.g.forresearch.Publicationofexcerptsorquotesneedsacknowledgement.Anidea
cannotbecopyrighted,justtheexpressionofit.Nordoescopyrightexistforatitle,sloganor
phrase,althoughthesemayberegisteredasatrademark.CopyrightappliestotheInternetwith
webpagesprotectedbymanydifferentcopyrights,sothatpermissionshouldbeaskedtocopyor
printapage,orinsertahyperlinktoit.MaterialcannotbepostedonaWebsite(Intranetincluded)
withoutpermissionfromthecopyrightholder.
Copyrightisnotregistrablebecauseitarisesautomaticallyoncreation.Copyrightisprotectedin
theEUfor70yearsaftertheauthorsdeathforcreativeworks,50yearsforbroadcasts,etcand25
yearsforpublishededitions.UseofisnotrequiredinmostofEurope.Copyrightisenforcedby
courtproceedings.
DesignRegistration
Designregistrationsareusedtoprotectproductsdistinguishedbytheirnovelshapeorpattern.
Theyareavailableforoneoffitems.Thedesignitselfmustbenew,althougha1yeargrace
periodisallowedfortestmarketing.Registrationisnotpossiblewherethenewformisdictated
byfunction.ThedesignisregistrableeithernationallyorunderanEUwidesingleright.Itcan
alsobeprotectedbycopyright.
Conclusion
Theexistenceofconceptofpropertyisfromtheancientperiod.Thisconcepthasaverybroad
history.TherearemanyphilosophieslaiddownbymanythinkerslikeBentham,Laski.These
philosophiesareveryhelpfulinunderstandingtheconceptofproperty.Themainfindingwasthat
thetermpropertyisdefinedindifferentwaysineachactastoitsuse.AsinSaleofGoodsact
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1930itisdefineddifferentlythaninBenamiTransactions(Prohibition)Act,1988.Intransferof
propertyactwhichismostimportantactwhichdealswithpropertydoesnothavedefinitionofthe
termproperty.Therearemanykindsofpropertyastoituses.
Intodaysera,notonlythethingswhichcanbeseenortouchedbutalsothethingswhichcannot
betouchedorseencomeinthepurviewofproperty.Suchasideainnovation,compositionetc.
Thesepropertiesareknownasintellectualproperty.
Bibliography:
Tripathi,G.P.TheTransferofPropertyAct,(Allahabad:CentralLawAgency)2008.
Sarathi,P.Vepa,LawofTransferofproperty,(Lucknow:Easternbookcompany)2010.
Shukla,S.N.TransferofPropertyAct,(Allahabad:AllahabadLawHouse)2008.
Saxena,PoonamPradhan,PropertyLaw(Nagpur:LexisNexisButterworthsWadhwa)2006.
Theauthorcanbereachedat:BhagwatiDanCharan@legalserviceindia.com
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