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Science
TheoriesontheOriginoftheUniverse
TheStandardModel
Everythingintheuniverseisfoundtobemadefromafewbasicbuildingblockscalledfundamental
particles,governedbyfourfundamentalforces.

FundamentalParticles-Elementaryparticlesareclassifiedintotwotypes:QUARKSand
LEPTONS.

FourFundamentalForcesStrongforcebindsthenucleus
Electromagneticforcebindsatoms
Weakforceinradioactivedecay
Gravitationalforcebindsthesolarsystem

BigBangTheory

TheBigBangTheoryistheleadingexplanationabouthowtheuniversebegan.Atitssimplest,ittalks
abouttheuniverseasweknowitstartingwithasmallsingularity,theninflatingoverthenext13.8billionyears
tothecosmosthatweknowtoday.

ExpandingUniverse
TheuniversewasbornwiththeBigBangasanunimaginablyhot,densepoint.Whentheuniversewasjust
10-34ofasecondorsooldthatis,ahundredthofabillionthofatrillionthofatrillionthofasecondinage
itexperiencedanincredibleburstofexpansionknownasinflation,inwhichspaceitselfexpandedfasterthan
thespeedoflight.Duringthisperiod,theuniversedoubledinsizeatleast90times,goingfromsubatomic-sized
togolf-ball-sizedalmostinstantaneously.
NebularHypothesis
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TheNebularHypothesissuggeststhatbodiesinoursolarsystemevolvedfromanenormousrotating

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cloudcalledthesolarnebula.Mostlyhydrogenandhelium,withsomeheavierelements.
MultiverseTheory
1.InfiniteUniverses
2.BubbleUniverses
3.ParallelUniverses
4.DaughterUniverses
5.MathematicalUniverses
OtherTheories
1.SteadyStateTheory
2.Oscillatingtheory
3.EternalInflation(LevelIIMultiverse)
4.FlatHologramTheory
5.DigitalSimulation
LayersoftheEarth
Crust

Outermostlayer
Representsonlyabout1%ofEarthsplanetarymass
Thicknessrangesfrom1to80km
Coldcomparedtothemantle
OceanfloorsandContinents
ContinentalCrust
Layerofgranitic,sedimentaryandmetamorphicrocks
Formcontinentsandshallowseabedclosetotheshores
OceanicCrust
Makesuptheseafloor
Thinner,denser,andsimplerinstructurethantheContinentalCrust
Mantle

LiesbetweentheCrust
2,900kmthick
84%ofEarthsvolume
Madeupofmostlysilicates
1000Celsiusnearitsboundarywiththecrust,to3700Celsiusnearitsboundarywiththecore
HeatandPressureincreasewithdepth
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UpperMantle
410km

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Mostlysolid,butitsmalleableregionscontributetotectonicactivity
LithosphereandAsthenosphere
LowerMantle
Denser,weakerlayer
Liesbetween100kmto410kmbeneathEarthssurface
Temperatureandpressureissohighthatrockssoftenandpartiallymelt,becomingsemi-molten
Core

Veryhot,verydensecenteroftheEarth
Liesbeneaththecool,brittlecrustandmostly-solidmantle
2,900kmbeneaththeEarthssurface
Radiusof3,458km
Madeofmetalnickelandiron
Madeof2layers:OuterCorebordersthemantleandInnerCore
Bullendiscontinuityboundaryseparatingtheseregions
OuterCore
2,200kmthick
Mostlycomposedofironandnickel
Liquidmetalofoutercorehasverylowviscosity
Siteofviolentconvection
InnerCore
Hot,denseballmostlymadeofiron
Radiusof1,220km
Temperatureisabout5,200Celsius
Pressureisnearly3.6millionatm
EarthSubsystems
Lithosphere

Solid,outerpartoftheEarth
Includesthebrittleupperportionofthemantleandcrust
Boundedbytheatmosphereandasthenosphere
CoolestofEarthslayers
Hastheabilitytoconductheat,associatedwithconvection
OceanicLithosphere
Associatedwithoceaniccrust
SlightlydenserthanContinentalLithosphere
ContinentalLithosphere

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ContinentalLithosphere

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Associatedwithcontinentalcrust
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Stretchestomorethan200kmbelowEarthssurface

15MajorTectonicPlates:
NorthAmerican
Caribbean
SouthAmerican
Scotia
Antarctic
Eurasian
Arabian
African
Indian
Philippine
Australia
Pacific
JuandeFuca
Cocos
Nazca
TectonicActivitymost-wellknownassociationtotheEarthsLithosphere.
Describestheinteractionofthehugeslabsofthelithospherecalledtectonicplates.
Movementoftectonicplatesispossiblebythermalenergyfromthemantle.
ResponsibleforsomeofEarthsdramaticgeologicalevents.
Hydrosphere

Totalamountofwater
Includeswateronthesurface,underground,andair
Canbeliquid,vapor,orice
Watermovesthroughthehydrosphereinacyclecalledwatercycle
Cryosphere
Frozenpartofthehydrosphere
Glaciers,icecaps,andicebergs
PlayanimportantroleinEarthsclimate
SnowandicereflectSunsheat,regulatingtemperature
Oneofthefirstplacesscientistsareabletoidentifyglobalchangesinclimate.
Atmosphere

Layerofgases
Nitrogen and Oxygen making 99% of the gases in dry air, with Ar, CO2, He, Ne, and other gases
makingupminuteportions
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makingupminuteportions

WatervaporanddustsarealsopartofEarthsatmosphere
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10metersdeep,coveringtheentireplanet
Actasagiganticfilter,blockingUVradiationwhilelettingintheSunswarmrays.
StructureoftheAtmosphere:
troposphere
stratosphere
mesosphere
thermosphere
exosphere
Beyondtheexosphereisouterspace
Boundariesbetweenatmosphericlayersarenotwellwell-definedandvaryfromlatitudeandseason
Biosphere

Wherelifeexists
Extendsfromdeepestrootsoftrees,todarkenvironmentofoceantrenches,tolushforestsandhigh
mountaintops

Measuresabout20kmfromtoptobottom
Alllifeexistsbetweenabout500metersbelowoceanssurfacetoabout6kmabovesealevel
ProkaryotesEarthsearlierlifeforms
Survivedwithoutoxygen
Ancientprokaryotesincludebacteriaandarchaea
Able to use sunlight to make simple sugar, oxygen out of water and carbon dioxide using
photosynthesis

Atmospheredevelopedoxygenandothergasestosustainlifeforms
Additionofoxygentobiosphereproducedmorecomplexlife-formstoevolve:
Differentplantsandphotosyntheticspecies
Animals
Bacteria and other organisms, evolved to break down or decompose dead animals and
plants

Remainofdeadanimalsandplantsreleasenutrientstothesoilandocean
Thesenutrientsarereabsorbedbygrowingplants.
Thisexchangemakesbiosphereaself-supportingandself-regulatingsystem.

Geology
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ThesciencethatpursuesanunderstandingofPlanetEarth.

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Rocks
Anysolidmassofmineral,ormineral-likematterthatoccursnaturallyaspartofourplanet.
1.Igneous
-Igneousrockisformedthroughthecoolingandsolidificationofmagmaorlava.Igneousrockmay
formwithorwithoutcrystallization,eitherbelowthesurfaceasintrusive(plutonic)rocksoronthesurfaceas
extrusive(volcanic)rocks.Thismagmacanbederivedfrompartialmeltsofexistingrocksineitheraplanet's
mantleorcrust.Typically,themeltingiscausedbyoneormoreofthreeprocesses:anincreaseintemperature,
adecreaseinpressure,orachangeincomposition.
2.Sedimentary
-Sedimentaryrocksaretypesofrockthatareformedbythedepositionandsubsequentcementation
ofthatmaterialattheEarth'ssurfaceandwithinbodiesofwater.

Sedimentationisthecollectivenameforprocessesthatcausemineraland/ororganicparticles(detritus)to
settleinplace.
Theparticlesthatformasedimentaryrockbyaccumulatingarecalledsediment.Before
beingdeposited,thesedimentwasformedbyweatheringanderosionfromthesourcearea,andthen
transportedtotheplaceofdepositionbywater,wind,ice,massmovementorglaciers,whicharecalledagents
ofdenudation.Sedimentationmayalsooccurasmineralsprecipitatefromwatersolutionorshellsofaquatic
creaturessettleoutofsuspension.

3.Metamorphic
-Metamorphicrocksarisefromthetransformationofexistingrocktypes,inaprocess
calledmetamorphism,whichmeans"changeinform".Theoriginalrock(protolith)issubjectedtoheat
(temperaturesgreaterthan150to200C)andpressure(1500bars),[2]causingprofoundphysicaland/or
chemicalchange.Theprotolithmaybeasedimentaryrock,anigneousrockoranotheroldermetamorphic
rock.
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IGNEOUSROCKS

Igneousrockformswhenmagmacoolsandmakescrystals.Magmaisahotliquidmadeofmelted
minerals.Whenmagmapoursontotheearthssurfaceitiscalledlava.Themineralscanformcrystals
whentheycool
SEDIMENTARYROCKS

Sedimentaryrocksformfromparticlesdepositedbywaterandwind.Somesedimentsthateventually
formintosedimentaryrocks.
SedimentaryRockscanformin4waysby:
Erosion
Deposition
Compaction
Cementation
Lithification-Theprocessbywhichsedimentbecomessedimentaryrock

1ststep:erosion
Destructiveforcesareconstantlybreakingupandwearingawayalltherockson
EarthssurfaceTheforcesincludeheatandcold,rain,waves,andgrindingiceErosion
occurswhenrunningwaterorwindloosensandcarryawaythefragmentsofrock.

2ndstep:deposition
Eventually,themovingwaterorwindslowsanddepositsthesediment.Ifwateris
carryingthesediment,rockfragmentsandothermaterialssinktothebottomofalake
orocean.Depositionistheprocessbywhichsedimentsettlesoutofthewaterorwind
carryingit.Aftersedimenthasbeendeposited,theprocessesofcompactionand
cementationchangethesedimentintosedimentaryrock.Inadditiontoparticlesofrock,
sedimentmayincludeshells,bones,leaves,stems,andotherremainsoflivingthings.
Overtime,anyremainsoflivingthingsinthesedimentmayslowlyhardenandchange
intofossilstrappedintherock.cen
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3rdstep:compaction
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Atfirstthesedimentsfittogetherloosely.Butgradually,overmillionsofyears,thick
layersofsedimentbuildup.Theselayersareheavyandpressdownonthelayers
beneaththem.Thencompactionoccurs.Compactionistheprocessthatpresses
sedimentstogether.Yearafteryearmoresedimentfallsontop,creatingnewlayers.The
weightofthelayersfurthercompactsthesediments,squeezingthemtightlytogether.
Thelayersoftenremainvisibleinthesedimentaryrock.

4thstep:cementation
Whilecompactionistakingplace,themineralsintherockslowlydissolveinthewater.
Thedissolvedmineralsseepintothespacesbetweenparticlesofsediment.
Cementationistheprocessinwhichdissolvedmineralscrystallizeandglueparticlesof
sedimenttogether.Itoftentakesmillionsofyearsforcompactionandcementationto
transformloosesedimentsintosolidsedimentaryrock.

SedimentaryTransformation
PointA:waterorwinddepositssediments
PointB:Theheavysedimentspressdownonthelayersbeneath
PointC:Dissolvedmineralsflowbetweentheparticlesandcementthemtogether
METAMORPHICROCKS

Metamorphicrocksarerocksthathave"morphed"intoanotherkindofrock.Theserockswereonce
igneousorsedimentaryrocks.Howdosedimentaryandigneousrockschange?Therocksareunder
tonsandtonsofpressure,whichfostersheatbuildup,andthiscausesthemtochange.Ifyouexamine
metamorphicrocksamplesclosely,you'lldiscoverhowflattenedsomeofthegrainsintherockare.
ROCKCYCLE
agroupofchanges,thischangedoesnotnecessarilyhavetobeachemicalchange
Igneousrockcanchangeintosedimentaryrockorintometamorphicrock.
Sedimentaryrockcanchangeintometamorphicrockorintoigneousrock.
Metamorphicrockcanchangeintoigneousorsedimentaryrock.
Movingtectonicplatesareresponsiblefordestroyingandformingmanytypesofrocks
CLASSIFICATIONOFROCKS

Whenclassifyingarocksamplegeologistsobservetherockscolorandtextureanddetermineits
mineralcomposition.

Texture:thesize,shape,andpatternoftherocksgrain.
GrainSize-Often,thegrainsinarockarelargeandeasytosee.Suchrocksaresaidtobe
coarse-grained.Inotherrocks,thegrainsaresosmallthattheycanonlybeseenwitha
microscope.Theserocksaresaidtobefine-grained.

GrainShape-Thegrainsinarockvarywidelyinshape.Somegrainslookliketinyparticlesof
finesand.Otherslooklikesmallseedsorexplodingstars.Insomerocks,suchasgranite,the
grainresultsfromtheshapesofthecrystalsthatformtherock.Inotherrocks,thegrainshape
resultsfromfragmentsofotherrock.Thesefragmentscanbesmoothandrounded,likethe
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resultsfromfragmentsofotherrock.Thesefragmentscanbesmoothandrounded,likethe
fragmentsinconglomerate,ortheycanbejagged,likethefragmentsinbreccia

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GrainPattern-Thegrainsinarockoftenformpatterns.Somegrainslieinflatlayersthatlook
likeastackofpancakes.Othergrainsformwavy,swirlingpatterns.Somerockshavegrains
thatlooklikerowsofmulticoloredbeads.Otherrocks,incontrast,havegrainsthatoccur
randomlythroughouttherock.

Color:theapparentcoloroftherock,ontheinsideandtheoutside.
Mineralcomposition:Themineralsthatmakeupthedifferentpartsofarock.

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WEATHERINGOFROCKS
Physicalbreakdown(disintegration)andchemicalalteration(decomposition)ofrocksatornearEarths
surface.

1.MechanicalWeathering
physicalforcesbreakrocksintosmallerandsmallerpieceswithoutchangingtherocksmineral
composition.

2.FrostWedging
Icemassesgraduallyweakensrock,causingittofracture

3.Sheeting
Whenlargemassesofigneousrock,particularlygranite,areexposedbyerosion,concentric
slabsbegintobreakloose.Theprocessgeneratingtheseonion-likelayersiscalledsheeting.
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slabsbegintobreakloose.Theprocessgeneratingtheseonion-likelayersiscalledsheeting.

4.
ChemicalWeathering
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chemicaltransformationofrockintooneormorenewcompounds.

5.WaterandCarbonicAcid

6.HowGraniteWeathers
7.RatesofWeathering
a.RockCharacterisitics
b.Climate
i.Acidrainacceleratestherateofchemicalweatheringofstonesandmonuments
c.DifferentialWeathering
i.Massesofrockdonotweatheruniformly
d.BiologicalWeathering
i.Thedisintegrationordecayofrocksandmineralscausedbychemicalorphysical
agentsoforganisms.
EROSION
Transportationofmaterialsbyamobileagentsuchaswater,wind,andice

Water(Fluvial)-Watererodesrocksandshapesthelandscapesbyremovingandtransporting
weatheredmaterialsfromtheirsourcetoanotherlocationwheretheyaredepositedandeitherstored
ortransportedtoanotherlocation.
Rainsplasherosionoccurswhentheimpactofaraindroploosensandmobilizesparticles.
Sheeterosion:aprocesswhereparticlesloosenedbuyrain-splasherosionaretransportedby
runoffwaterdowntheslopeofasurface.
Rillerosion:occurswhenwaterconcentratesduringsheeterosionanderodessmallrillsor
gulliesintothesurfacethatchannelflowdownslope

Wind(Aeolian)-Winderodesweatheredrocksbypickingthemupandtemporarilytransportingthem
fromtheirsourcetoanotherlocationwheretheyaredeposited,andeitherstoredorre-mobilizedand
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transportedtoanotherlocation
Deflation:themovementortransportofparticlesthroughtheairoralongtheground
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Abrasion:theprocessthatoccurswhenwind-transportedparticlessculptfeaturesinthe
landscapethroughasandblastinglikeprocess

Ice(PeriglacialandGlacial)
Iceerosionoccursincombinationwithperiglacialandglacialprocesses
Glacialerosionoccurswhenparticlesareincorporatedintotheglacialicethroughaprocess
referredtoasplucking,andtheyaretransporteddownslopewithintheglacier.

MassWasting-Masswastingisarapidformoferosionthatworksprimarilyundertheinfluenceof
gravityincombinationwithothererosionalagents.
RockFalls
Landslides
Debris/MudFlows
Slumps
Creep

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