ON

AND

STUDY

'

THE

DIFFICULTIES

MATHEMATICS

BY

MORGAN

DE

AUGUSTUS

EDITION

NEW

CHICAGO
THE

OPEN

PUBLISHING

COURT
FOR

Kegan

Paul,

Trench,

-SALE

Truebner

1898

COMPANY

BY

"

Co.,

LONDON

OF

\^

'

^{

IN

LECTURES

THE

ON

MATHEMATICS.

ELEMENTARY

Lagrange,

biography,

notes,

in

edition

separate

With

English.

or

seph
Joby

French

the

of

portrait

photogravure
marginal

French

By

from

Translated

McCormack.

J.

SERIES.

SAME

Lagrange.

Louis
Thomas

'^H

analyses,
Pp.

Only

etc.

Cloth,

172.

$1.00.

OF

HISTORY
Karl

the
David

THE

Fink,

late

Eugene

in

Professor

by

German

MATHEMATICS.

ELEMENTARY

Wooster

Prof.

Smith.

(In

COURT

OPEN

324

Tiibingen.

dearborn

Woodruff

By

from

Translated
Beman

and

preparation.)

PUBLISHING

ST.,

lti\-^.

CHICAGO.

Dr.

CO.

Prof.

EDITOR'S

ATO
"^

of

edition

characteristic
of

not

distinguished
the

freedom,

natural

and

contents

the

which

work,

them

is

its

freshness

with

the

and

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the

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solecisms,
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for

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from

the

the

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marred

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referred

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while

strongly

by

mentary
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gen-

instructions.

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remaining
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the

profit

to

bears

which,

For

contrasts

published

is

genius.

text-books.

fail

and

full

treatises

common

in

the

logic),

view

tenor

was

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of

cannot

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inaccessible,

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points

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edition

book

naturalness

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loftiness

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mechanical

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inquirer

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conceived
all

of

emphasised,
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displayed

with

Preface.

fruit.

nous
lumi-

original

applied

he

and

lineal

"

century.

and

new

Mathematics,

present

psychological

was

purpose

Author's

among

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and

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peer

present

eminent

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was

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higher

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great

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mathematical

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though

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Morgan,

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needed

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NOTE.

the
date

of

183

1,

errata

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mathematical

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present
books
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out

THE

STUDY

OF

either

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omitted

ON

IV

of

have

print
of

added

modern

more

mainly

are

of

signature
The

Open

of

Principal

treatises

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logic,
For

which

Publishing

David

N.

on

pangeometry.

Morgan,

Court

Brockport,

in

bibliographical

and

mathematics,

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graces

Company
Smith,

Eugene

of

character,

the

the

indebted

the

State

Salle,

and

to

Normal

Y.

111.,

Nov.

i,

1898.

stance,
in-

of

autograph

opposite

J.

for

philosophy

portrait

is

been

refer,

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page

tion
men-

have

and

algebra,

Thomas

La

which

notes

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by

supplemented

or

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works.

modern

to

MATHEMATICS.

McCormack.

the

the

title,

courtesy
School

at

AUTHOR'S

the

compiling

TN

which

geometry,

might

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who

elements,
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checked

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education,

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is

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obliged
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irksome

theorems

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our

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task

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the

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them,

mathematical

such

knowledge

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usually

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rules

coincide

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attention,
less

on

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but

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followers

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account.

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the

of

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treat.

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would

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and

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algebra,

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[1831],

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needless

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it must

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this

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classes

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importance

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of

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by

part

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work

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itself, the

by

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principles

demonstration,

attainments.
their

of

have

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sciences.

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'*"

PREFACE.

of

mas.
dog-

promulgated
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ON

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however,
for

THE

STUDY

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responsible

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contents

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MATHEMATICS.

OF

presented,

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in

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the

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than

ions
opin-

eminent

mathematicians.
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has

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such

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adopted by

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such

fractions

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method

method

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while

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other

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give

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effective
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with

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since

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ers,
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data.

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of

form

of

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the

discussions, though

negative sign,

the

into

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algebra.

such

priori

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of

truth

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altogether,

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work

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CONTENTS.

PAGE

CHAPTER

Editor's

Preface

Author's

I.

iii

Note

Remarks

Introductory

the

on

and

Nature

of

Objects

Mathematics

II.

Arithmetical

On

III.

Elementary

IV.

Arithmetical

V.

VI.

VII.

Decimal

Notation

X.

XI.

the

of

of

Equations

in

XIII.

On

the

Definitions

XIV.

On

Geometrical

On

Axioms

On

Proportion

Application
Angles,

of

55

67

Degree

Sign,

90

etc

Second

103

Degree
and

General,

Study

Principles

Algebra

First

the

the

XVII.

of

Negative

On

XVI.

and

the

Roots

XV.

42

Rules

On

XII.

30

Notation

Algebraical

On

20

Fractions

Equations

IX.

Arithmetic

Fractions

Elementary

VIII.

of

Rules

ii

129

Logarithms

158

Algebra
of

175

Geometry

191

Reasoning

203

231

240

of

Algebra

Proportion

to

of

the

Figures,

of

Measurement

and

Lines,

Surfaces.

266
.

CHAPTER

INTRODUCTORY

REMARKS

out

the

is

student

the

to

of

advantage
advisable

most

which

he

he

fully

treat

describe

into

the

routine

from

neither

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to

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entering

on

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such

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as

appears

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he

sciences

of

and

languages
to

it

mind

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have

to

the

(2)

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as

ties
difficul-

by

ners,
beginwithout

nature

of

study

that

discovering

soon

to

operations.

the

commences

person

nature

of

it

before

involve

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not

extent

make.

which

length

at

him

misunderstood

be

to

which

science

should

points

apt

are

study
the

direct

to

he

various

to

without

are

the

and

No

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of

which

and

going

and

which

has

the

of

point

who

follow,

part

one

another,

applications

of

of

course

should

he

pursue

commences

sort

the

To

is--(l)

Mathematics,

of

that

should

Treatise

tutor,

AND

NATURE

MATHEMATICS.

this

of

OBJECT

^pHE

THE

ON

OF

OBJECTS

-^

I.

is

of

different

very

has

been

accustomed.

is

usually

directed

algebra

history,
any

mathematics

affinity

and

etc.

with

fore
be-

geometry,
Of

these,

mathemat-

ON

THE

ics ; yet, in order

these
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old

2 ; the

by

11.
is

proof

factors

to

product

also

and

common

2x2x^X5,

and

17

its

example,

the

Thus,

beginner.

prime

number,

original

product

except

reduced

are

It

their

an

third

is divisible
the

greatest

and

of

number

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true

number,

by

6 ; and

being
the

divided

144

proposition,
the

by

themselves.

numbers

to

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by

prime,

are

other

be

Thus,

divisible

by

by
divided

be
can

two.

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exact

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by

by

an

dent
evi-

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divided

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also

parted

It is

divided

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divided

be

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be

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it

factors.

number

number

twelves,

MATHEMATICS.

common

others,

two

OF

all their

by multiplying

product

STUDY

common

shown

method

in
we

ELEMENTARY

have

mentioned

of

being

factors,

happens

and

divisor

divided

show

-f 9.

also

divides

and

27

also

the

that

common

are

of

is, the

that
and
of

for

as

two

7neasure

finding

numbers

follows,
into

and

and

for

their

initials

g.

c.

27
and

171

and

27

of

and

We

Therefore,

those, and

take

common

no

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be
of

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Now

words

9.

therefore,

and

171

ures
meas-

measure

360

to

9 ; the

greatest

by

easy

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are

must,

m.

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greatest

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27

no

divisor.

abbreviate

it

measure

27

example,

duct.
pro6

is,

divides

common

the

the

to

171

and

the

and

That

171

pair

is also

remainder

process

each

may

quotient

of

to

greatest

dividend

the

171

common

measure

common

same,

of

its

quotient

equation

to

and

27

9 have

common

measures

which

others,

of

not

are

principle

dividend

common

and

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by multiplying

measure

27

in

remainder

which

is, every

bers
num-

another.

the

gives

this

common

the

product.

number

show

which

the

to

9, that

the
27

the

by another,

made

from

every

is

also

can

Now,

that

is

171

9, and

adding

divided

by

when

prime

contrary.

by multiplying

Thus

their

simple

the

adding

into

for

obtained,

and

and

and
is

together,
171

apply

method

practice,

again

remainder

27

that

27

numbers

abandoned

remainder

recovered

ARITHMETIC.

to

usually

number

one

quotient

6,

is

in

When

be

resolving

frequently

is laborious

OF

troublesome

large,

are

RULES

visor
di-

ure
meas-

the

mon
com-

measure

420, which

g^reatest

common

is

28

THE

ON

STUDY

MATHEMATICS.

OF

360)420(1
360

"~60)360(6
360
0

From

the

theorem

above

enunciated

it

appears

that

c.

g.

60

because
have

can

the

seen

greatest

measure

two

of

42

7.

is

numbers
the

than

1, there

two

appear

from

the

common

the

second

is

have

when

of

these

measure

The

be

may

the

finding

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of

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the

Thus,

last

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the

of both

common

less

Take

10

2, since

the

product

and

the

their

than

ure
meas-

second

2 X

4 X

duct.
prowill

have

8, which

first is 2 X

is 2 X

of

greater

multiple is their

is evident

to

(2), that

common

no

both

product

measure

have

is

it is necessary

(1), that

common

example.

2x4.

6, and

of

they

least

for

multiple

common

first

Thus

multiple

multiple

common

1, the

an

are,

number

no

divided

7, because

subject

(3), that

The

numbers.

be

called

360

itself.

of two
can

and

360, and

rule

only things

numbers

when

and

is 60

common

of 6 and

this

of 60

m.

360

multiples

The

on

except

the

is
are

c.

than

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multiple

product;

60

measure

12, 18, and

observe

and

greater

number

6 and

of 60

both

remainder

covimon

is g.

divides

common

without

by

m.

reason

Every

360

and

of 420

m.

c,

g.

and

5, but

ELEMENTARY

by

principle

56.

common

He

2x5,

since

10.

or

therefore,

common

it

in

an

himself

will

not,

divide

multiple

of

and

ible
divis-

this

the

duct
prothird

The

elementary
of

for

is

find

To

measure.

proved

convince

may

examples.

be

by
must,

greatest

29

multiple,

and

we

ARITHMETIC.

OF

common

8,

or

cannot

student

find

or

4,

the

by

of

also

multiple

common

the

is

RULES

it

by

instance,

less

but

way,

any
be

than

number

able

to

'^

CHAPTER

IV.

FRACTIONS.

ARITHMETICAL

the

WHEN

to

the

supposed

whereas,

the

the

etc.

is

there

principle

to

improper,
distinction

no

once

is

to

or

mixed

rule

the

as

would

tions
distinc-

the

fractions,
in

whatever

fractions

We

attend

pure

at

in

measure.

not

the

difficulties

practice,

or

the

arithmetic

of

nothing

common

student

and

proceed

part

is

in

finding

extraordinary
there

greatest

proper

as

that

in

the

recommend
of

is

either

finding

for

present

fact

difficult,

This

to

for

that

should

he

fractions.

of

subject

usually

so

with

measure,

common

himself

perfected

has

together

rules,

four

greatest

student

rules,

the

which

When

we

the

case

to

divide

57

feet

is

into

into

be

to

is

parts
is

quotient
57

divide

is

56

these

of

one

as

process

that

mean

and

the

8,

7.

equal
8

fractions.

these

number,

one

as

all

to

common

are

equal

56,

is

written

thus

divided
called

But

parts
parts,

divided

be

to

equal

is

for

but

equally
example,
the

other,
an-

this

parts,
In

quotient.

the

it

-^g^-. By

into

by

this

possible
we

eighth

can

part

ARITHiMETICAL

of

57

57

does

of

not

foot

will

feet

J,

of

the

of these

difference

is

which

is

if

5 is

5.

To

prove

represent
repeat

the

In

each

that

is

one

same

column
inch.

called

which

8 parts,
this

of

an

line

let each
inch

Jth

There

write
Both
; the

of

part

the

from

means

stands

will

be

of

them,

the

repeat

This

|.

lines
five

be

may

for

obtained
or

drawn

find
low
be-

times, and

times.

eight

is

is 7

separated

and

take
of

feet

fraction

length
and

the

number.

8 parts,

same

give

fractions

is
whole

the

7i.

that

second,

into

The

1 into

are

ber.
num-

we

written

take, for example,

us

parts.

divide

usually

any
in

divided

be

to

fraction, which

7i,

than

56

of

eighth

this

take

will

sum

number

ways

Let

of these
we

is

whole

two

are

considered.

one

is

that, in the

is less

part which
There

that

of 1 foot

quantities ^"-,and

quotient
the

the

whole,

broken

or

part

and

1, and

whose

these,

-|-i, which

and

56

eights

quotient ^,

fraction,

into

of

the

eighth
7

57

each

of

-5^is

in the

called

divide

of

number

exact

feet, since

of

number

exact

an

contained

be

part

and

only

an

we

eighth part

contain

is therefore

If

feet

be

will

quotient

eighth

not

3I

FRACTIONS.

of

an

are,

inch

then,

repeated
5

inches

times;
in

all,

32

ON

since

there

^-

^X

line

line

is

may

and

take

one

of

and

take

of

inch

an

5 ; that

|=:ix

divide
or

them.

The

inches,

times,

symbol

8 parts,

into

is made

lead

they

parts,
stand

to

the

to

or

find

to

into

inch

one

but

|,

or

are

is, in order

yf?'^inches

divide

them,

triere

repeated

operations, since

these

both

of

since

But

eighth

either

7^7'^of

MATHEMATICS.

columns.

ith

Therefore,
we

OF

the

is

also

1 inches,

for

STUDY

five

are

lines, each
each

THE

same

result.
The

if both

its numerator

the

by

that

when
the

12

taking
into

same

we

divide

12

of

and

parts

taking

demonstration.
of

5, since

in 20.

its

2
7

_4_

"

any

_8_

"

1^1

14

the

On
of

value.

fraction
alteration
in
in

inch

needs

taking

contains,

12

and

parts,

hardly
is

20

get

we

there

3 out
is

in its

Thus,

form, without

|=^|

|^
=

of

tion
altera-

any

|-=^5_.^ etc.

etc
^^^'

28'

it is shown

principle

same

be

may

divided

of its value.

reducing

reducing

This
of

out

20

as

fraction, therefore, admits

Every

alterations

innumerable
in

12

parts,

by dividing

of them.

20

is

part

Again,

into

get

3 which

every

inch

is not

each

into

5 parts.

we

Taking
for

contained

which

them,

fraction

i|^,or

inches

by dividing

multiplied

are

the

as

into

3 inches

length

same

of

value

is the

divide

we

the

is, that

fraction

denominator

is, f

when

same

of

property

and

number,

same

altered
the

important

most

by

fraction

will

There

fractions

to
to

any

that

now

terms

without

number
be

no

culty
diffi-

tor,
denomina-

common

its lowest

the

terms

neither

ARITHMETICAL

in

adding

the

rules

subtracting

nor

to

come

now

in

difficulties
which

have

we

the

attain, the
few

what

make

by

one

called

are

discover

out

methods

of

the

limited

view

we

notions,

feel

we

we

as

when

induced
to

make
we

destroy
call
to

two

have

the

process

find

that

them

extend
rules

this

process

of

which

linked

names.

former

our

of

our

applied
a

We
our

rule

particular

part

one

of

one

that

language
are

terms,

Also, suppose

one.

after

together,

different

only

give

resembling

so

meaning

In

we

when,
to

recur

by

it teaches
is

but

of

and

point

operations

the

symmetry

into

while

beauty.

the

the

discovered
which

and

processes
so

acquired

which,

partial ;

rules

arrive

we

have

names

we

and

facts

knowledge,

our

the

minds

afterwards

we

we

first take

reflection,

different

to

which

of

and

discover

it would

were

then

and

and

ginner
be-

the

our

that

only,

its extent

we

confined

soon

and

another,

if

which

study
we

fabric

performing,

are

additional

the

of

resemblances

increasing

necessarily

are

and

analogies

together

which

facts

of the

bind

they

thus

take

once

comparatively

collecting

by

notions

general

comparisons

and

is

at

any

afterwards

may

present

and

one,

he

culiar
pe-

give

constitution

the
It

at

and

which

would

this.

permit

not

could

we

more

than

principle

numbers,

notions

But

presents

If

of

mathematics

principles,
at

view

impediments.

will

of

point

extended

the

which

yet arrived.

general

most

all of which

of arithmetic.

book

rule

33

fractions, for

in every

given

are

We

FRACTIONS.

and
name,
more

so

that

given
we

gen-

THE

STUDY

applies

to

ON

34

eral, which
first, and
of

inventing
of the

meaning
process

in

Of

this

part.
with

the

which

which

etc.
^^1-,

12

of
to

first

it, but

of

is

only

applied

^,

whole

3 and

|.

The

rule

is another

instance.

It is called

fractional

numbers.

Now,

of

the

word

multiplication
absurdity.

We

fraction

one

multiply

times

and

meant

by multiplying

been

found

adding

which,

by

as

^^

or

7 is

tion
frac-

of

former

ideas

customary
first

our

which

the

first notions

fractional

applied
have

to

both

spoken

multiplication of
to

we

shall

by

another

our

find

ing
mean-

that

appears

by taking

fraction?

applying

in

of

return

together.
a

fraction

only

we

the

number

these

in

is

we

multiplication,
of

ber
num-

others

of which

if

no

our

number

name

is

oCir

one,

the

numbers,

called

notion

not

which

to

parts, of
we

It is then

extended

Those

1, 2, 3,

Thus

all

number,

the

also

still the

but

includes

word

part.

call

we

numbers,
2 and

the

new

besides.

others

by

represent

notion

which

and

number,

Our

etc.
X^^-,^-f-,

one

as

please.

we

as

into

there

considered

as

ways

is

is, then,

be

Now

etc.

began

which

and

it is

We

such

these

number,

the

lar
particu-

of which

one

divided

|, J, J,

the

merge

instance.

an

native
alter-

extending

simple numbers,

not

may

give

can

as

to

as

the

the

only

of

or

general

some

different

many

so

afterwards

fractions, such

have

name,

one

upon

took

we

We

new

under

contained

cases

more

we

We

etc.

former

reasoning

20,

all

MATHEMATICS.

besides.

others

to

OF

What,

an

it several

then,

Still, a rule

mathematics,

the

it is

is
has
ne-

ARITHMETICAL

to

cessary

would
numbers.

have
this

Of
Take
in

fractions,

for

use

shall

we

sides

35

all
had

they

give

now

and

AB

ple.
exam-

is called
find

in inches.

EC

whole

been

simple

and

ABCD,

as

plication
multi-

where

cases

figure (which

such

geometry),

in

used

been

oblong

an

of the

FRACTIONS.

angle
rect-

the

nitudes
mag-

Draw

the

line

in

equal

^7^

G, each

of whose

and

contain

BC

length
sides

is

inch, and

one

inch.

one

number

exact

an

contains

ABCD

to

exact

an

If

of

the

lines

the

inches,

number

square
AB

the

of

angle
rect-

squares.

each

equal

is found

by

the

the

G, and

the

by multiplying
number

number

another
sides

to

of

the

inches

of squares

number

is 3 X

rectangle A'B'C'D',
is

that

an

number

exact

A'B'

is

of

number

in BC.

'i, or

an

inch, and

B'

A'

D'

inches

of
In
12.

of which

of inches

contained

of squares

the

present

Now,

B' C

case

suppose

neither

; suppose,

that

in AB

for
is

of

the

ple,
exam-

of

an

36

ON

inch.

We

how

has

for

the

its

the

of

and

fraction

always

the

form

the

would
these

find

that

rule.

is

second
the

will

the
manner

for

Form
and

which
ij-2_o,

From

these

and

written

is

denominators

12, the

considerations

which

into

from

is

produced

stated, the

of

product

product

of

very

4, whose

^f-,and

as

the

product

these, which

of 3 and

two

tions,
frac-

this

4.

it is customary
from

tween
be-

accordingly

by

fraction

by

above.

as

together

be

sary,
neces-

tor,
denomina-

formed

numbers

may

are

be

be

above

first

The

numerators

fraction

the

example,

12.
as

multiplied

together;

the

shall

are

rations
ope-

connexion

we

duct
pro-

numerator

some

and

numbers

be

may

Take,

product
the

whole

the

it will

fraction,

duct
pro-

numbers

by

suspect

operations,

two

when

they

into

the

is whenever

the

denominator

to

us

the

multiplied

multiply

to

result

lead

that

given,

tween
be-

These

whole

be

are

case,

the

when
to

are

and

numerator,

This

which,

numbers

same

is

its denominator

together,

tains
con-

and

numbers,

denominators.

tors
denomina-

connexion

numerator

and

and

A'B'C'D'

appears

whose

numbers

of

is, that

of whole

come

in

occurs

those

and

that

fraction

of their

find

can

we

numerators

product

then

that

by forming

the

the

Here

fractional

the

of

corresponding

will

in

of

numerators,

of the

question

is

product

G.

of two

when

by reasoning,

multiplication

formation

MATHEMATICS.

denominator;

of

1^

given,

OF

A'B'C'D'

its numerator,

for

of

STUDY

show,

may

much

which

THE

to

others

those

two

call

in the
frac-

FRACTIONS.

ARITHMETICAL

tions, and

the

all

in which

the

extend

to

Whenever

we

which

is

as

of

forming

perfection

well- constructed

would

deprive

cramp

the

Euclid

others,

any
and

his

by

date

of

reasoning.
are

although

his

exist, and

the

Newton,

so

to

which

of the

of the

Descartes,

scientific

science.

world

slight

we

pointing

in
the

Hariot

and

which

mathematics

made

the

as

analogy,

from

when

to

of

resemblances

of

and

or

is checked

which

have

time

in

that

to

branches

the

half, from

in

established

result

one

they

upon

propositions

conceal

to

as

any

than

deficient

discovery

higher

Leibnitz,

attention

The

are

prevent

The

progress
and

century

of

progress

in

demonstration,

rationally

terms

method

depends

infinitely inferior

notation

only

approach

of

as

ing
carry-

imperfect language

an

means

that

to

meaning,

mathematics

the

tomary
cus-

terms.

their

more

in

of

numbers

another.

and

that

not

constructed

terms

which
out

us

It is the

use.

is

It

powers

upon

shall

it is

simple

is the

This

language

else.

anything

is

enlarging

which

are

necessity of

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ideas.

tions
frac-

as

established

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language

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mathematics

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meaning

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enlarge

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the

really whole

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third

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multiplication

word

cases

not

shall

We

multiplication.
of 'the

of

process

37

the

of

genius
turned

imperfect

almost

last

the
anism
mech-

casual

im-

38

ON

been

of the

STUDY

made

provement,
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THE

foundation

the

The

and

10

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mathematician

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or

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algebraical language,

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multiplication
into

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explaining

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MATHEMATICS.

by Hariot

science.*

very

OF

0;

instead

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to

writing

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equation

for
twos

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example,

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ond
sec-

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-^-q,

numbers.

whole

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we

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be

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case

together

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one

endeavor

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which

problem

into

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added

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must

from
to

12

example,

39

FRACTIONS.

ARITHMETICAL

the
this

the
ond
sec-

cess
pro-

division

applicable,

we

in
can

ON

40

show

easily
12
2

is

of

THE

STUDY

from

and

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fractions

give

all fractional

In

with

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leave

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their

original definition.

notation

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into
of

part

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and

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himself

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of

established

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MATHEMATICS.

whole

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such

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parts

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the

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ARITHMETICAL

is

What

foot?

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FRACTIONS.

foot?

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|
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duce
pro-

so

on.

CHAPTER

V.

FRACTIONS.

DECIMAL

TT

is

-"-

disadvantage

of

language

of

is

student

questions
;

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is

beginners
called

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in

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commission,

of

name

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fractions

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corresponding

The

arithmetic

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known

fractions,

Nevertheless,

whatever.

subject
rule

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application

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however,

decimal

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interest,

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tion
multiplica-

rules

brokerage,
No

on.

the

that

subject.

working

only

mind

the

the

compound

"

doctrine

in

following

are

proposed

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in

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difference

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totally

that

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mere

notion

see

practice,

as

that

create

upon

received

rules

principles,

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writing
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the

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called
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number
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set

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of

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advantage

denominator,

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43

FRACTIONS.

DECIMAL

shall
the

be

done

numerator

How

shall

ON

44

xo%^oo

represent

we

without

show

the

representing

in

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to

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together

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2000000
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for

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10000

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taining
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or

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fraction
;

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fraction
2173426

3000

follows

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1000

217.3426
second

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divided

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cypher,

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fraction

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beginning

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point

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thousands.

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or

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MATHEMATICS.

imagine

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STUDY

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duced
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10000

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DECIMAL

and

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numbers.

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for

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tion

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.68342

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.6-f. 08 +

68342

6
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'

00012::=.0001

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-

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addition, subtraction,
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j-J^; 2,

45

FRACTIONS.

the

In

decimal

and

tion
multiplica-

addition

and

points

under

traction,
subone

46

ON

another

is

THE

equivalent

fractions, 1.5

two

reducing

written

be

may

we

denominator

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find

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sum

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fractions

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3.625

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for

the

for

2125

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1500

1.5

3625

3.625

learner

given

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principle

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as

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of

100

of

since
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in

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12

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004
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^

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100

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.

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.

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product

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which

fractions,

156

r^T.

'^

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gether.
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many

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both

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as

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product,

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must

many

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100

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lUO

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cyphers

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many

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is the

the

of the

fractions

fractions.

vulgar

rule

connexion

decimal

of

numbers

has

product

the

see

between

decimal

two

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now

addition

connexion

same

If

and

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reducing

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as

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the

MATHEMATICS.

OF

denominator,

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SlUDY

.156;

in that
as

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Thus:

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falls short

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of

up

Multiply

-^.

by 2,

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fraction

"

of

made

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converted

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is

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example,

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nor

consequence

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10

Thus

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only prime

fraction

no

denominator

and

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the

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case,

for

7.

it

10

its denominator

unless

is the

tor

10,

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5x2,

and

divide

either

by

if

strated
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multiplication

no

make

neither

is

that

"

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number,

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ber
num-

all fractions
It

ures
fig-

by cyphers.

up

principle

prime

divisible

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of

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by

number,

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ought

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of

number

the

know

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deficiency

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that

of what

decimals,

of

wherever

that

general rule,

47

FRACTIONS.

DECIMAL

is
will

fraction

become

then

13X2X2X2

2X2X2X13
or

5X5X5X2X2X2'
which

is

for

"^

.104.

denominator

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can

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10

be
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other

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than

We

and

5,

or

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number,

'

the

then

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demul-

48

ON

tiply both

the

STUDY

THE

MATHEMATICS.

OF

denominator

and

numerator

that

by

number.
fraction

No

which
be

can

But

is
more

or

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most

less

be

exactness

which

worth

avoiding, since

considered
the

would

be

saved
line

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be

be

the

calculations

multiplied,

of

such

and

cause

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to

endeavor

of

an

inch

to

avoid

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of

yards

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ability
prob-

thereby
of

would
the

in

useless

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part

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such

show

they could,

no

be
final

one-thousandth
;

vey,
sur-

involve

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error

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yards

it would

case,

error

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in five hundred
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142857.

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52

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MATHEMATICS.

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DECIMAL

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53

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MATHEMATICS.

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"

X"

CHAPTER

ALGEBRAICAL

NOTATION

WHENEVER
the

is

is

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accomplished
and

to

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hundred

next

to

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seven.

subtraction,
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PRINCIPLES.

AND

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tiplication,
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to

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signs

56

ON

reasonings

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MATHEMATICS.

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STUDY

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16-10

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ALGEBRAICAL

First

No.

NOTATION

-\- Second

AND

First

No.

of all
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numbers,

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57

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a

-\-a -{-e

::^

"

"

used

two

IS

multiplied

^-j-^,

"

represented

etc.

and

thuS;

together,

by

together

b}^ ab
a

a.

it is

c;

in

as

useless, since

represented

represent

"

use:

multiplication

it is

by putting
c

c-\rd=b
for

its

show
"

metic.
in arith-

as

-\-X.

numbers

together

represented

Also

ab.

-{-e

"

multiplied

are

subtraction,

following equations

The
X

for

is used

"

necessary

ay^

thus,

ayc^ ayc
When

ters
let-

a,
two

to

ALGEBRAICAL

the

keep

sign
75.

for
between

thus

point

this

will, however,

decimal

the

be

point

by writing ^U-

thus,

at

would

35

or

7.5.3.

mistaken

for

avoided

the

head

point

multiplied

be

written

be

taken
mis-

be

place

to

to

are

is

7x5x3
sometimes

may

point

which

numbers

usual

is, however,

It

two

7 X

; otherwise

59

PRINCIPLES.

AND

NOTATION

gether;
to-

this

But

decimal

the

ing
writ-

by always

figure, viz.,

of the

234'61.
a

5.

Division

is

written

in

as

arithmetic

thus,

"

signifies that

the

b}^ the
All

6.
;

number

represented

collections

thus,

represented

number

of

numbers

a-\-d, a-{-b

is to

vided
di-

be

^.

by

called

are

aa-\-bb

":,

"

by

d,

"

sions
expres-

braical
alge-

are

expressions.
7.

When
it is

and

a-\-

indicated

inclosing
b

is to

-\-c

is written

expressions

two

in

each
be

an}^

by placing
of

in

them

be

to

are

multiplied

them

side

brackets.

following

ways

by side,
if

Thus,

multiplied by d-\- e -\-f, the

of the

gether,
to-

product

{a-\-b^c){d^e+f),
[a-\-b-^c-][,/+^+/],
{a^b^c]\d-^e^f],
a-^b^c

8.

That

is

9.

That

is less

10.
are

When
the

such

b is written

b is written

than
is

"-{-/,

d^

than

greater

there
same,

product
as

xxxxx,

thus, a'^

thus,

in which

all

which

means

b.

"ib.
the

tors
facthat

6o

THE

ON

five

multiplied

once,

and

which

it occurs,

it

the

carefully studied

be

times

of

x^.

by

written

only

number

is written

xxxxx

should

represented
is

letter

the

is written

thus

is

which

of

together,

above

table

MATHEMATICS.

OF

each

numbers,

equal

are

X,

STUDY

lowing
fol-

The
the

by

dent
stu-

:*:

OJ^

"^

and

::c

is called

-^

is written

"^-^

-^^ or

the

the

is called

"^X-^X-^X-^X-^

or

is called

and

fourth

is

in

the

such

it would

ideas

better

and

acquired
If

does

an

put

following

him

to

facilityin

exponent

tables

of

or

using
its

the

place

create

this

In

tween
be-

account

latter

the

until

operations
course,

fusion
con-

likeness

he

expressions,

two

he
of

has

bra.
alge-

must

collect
re-

ent
differ-

has

4:X it is called

pression,
ex-

cient,
coeffi-

index.

meaning
:

x'^. On

this

meanings.

the

as

omit
in

pursue

x,

likely to

so

4:x and

as

x^,

etc.

is

xxxx

not

difference

of

beginner

4, in these

the
and

in x'^

for

little

he

names

the

to

some

that

The

of

x.

x.

is written

which

expressions

be

of

etc.,

point

no

x.

x*,

fifth power

the

of

power

power

xxxxx

etc.,
There

third

or

written

the

of

power

x^,

cube

"^X-^X-^X-^orjcjcjcxis
and

second

or

square,

is written

-^ -^ -^

is called

and

x^,

will

be

apparent

from

4:X

OC

"

xK

"

OC

"

OC

x^

x-\-x-\-x-\-x,

"

OC

"

PC

y\

iX

lA-

i^

xX^'X.^'"C^orxxxXf

etc.

If

expressions

9,

Sl,

frequently

the

as

x^

12

should

beginner

jc2r=

2x=

4:x

such

(_)I

Jv

y\

etc.,

The

6l

PRINCIPLES.

AND

NOTATION

ALGEBRAICAL

following

himself

for

wri'/e

'^a^b'^r=aaabb-\-aaabbA;-aaabb^aaabb.
5^*

x=--aaaax^aaaax-\-aaaax-\-ciciaax-\-aaaax.

^a^b^^\ab^
d^ ^

b'^

aa

a^

b'^

"

bb

^
a

a^

expressions

will

furnish

him,

and

instead
with

truth
of

one

the

letters, and

another.

Thus,
a^

"

b^

"

or,

which

is the

be

for
true.

then

making

the

try the

algebra

on

satisfy himself

numbers

at

pleasure

results

agree

expression

a'^j^ab^b'^,

^=aa-\stand

book

every

some

to

bbb

"

b -{- b b

same,

aaa

Let

-\-a

should

by putting

bb

"

bb'

"

a-^^

such

he

bb

"

many

their

-\- c

aa

With

of

bbb

"

b b

bb

bb

"

b b

"

c c

aaa

b'^

"

"

b"^

"

'

bb

"

aa

a^

^aabbb^^abbbb.

"

ab

-\-b

b.

and

b stand

for

4, then,

if this

pression
ex-

62

ON

THE

6.6.6

STUDY

OF

MATHEMATICS.

4.4.4

"

which

is

found,

by calculation,

The

since

correct,

each

should

of

questions

such

6.4

of

then

for

when

13, and

until
to

he
he

stands

he

his

exercise
the

as

and

-\-o

stand

for.

write

too

he
He

before

the

to
so

do

tedious

the

which
numbers

that

cannot,

the

of

of

meaning

which

at

which

has

first

sight,

therefore,

etc.,
an

introduced

newly

confusion
use

too

his

until

must

he

of what
each

pression
ex-

forces

parts
without

even

ing
neglect-

of

algebra

usually proceeds
symbols,

imperfect
to

is the
many

letters

he

It is the

of

pression
ex-

course,

and

operations

He

but

of

rewrite

several

the

the

sense

of the

beginner.

perpetual

and

it in words.

subtraction,

been

the

over

renders

he

should

nor

period

write

must

putting

familiar

algebraical

any

numbers
this

slurring
and

here

stop

signs

mind

his

to

value

memory

of which
have

the

at

the

the

to

addition,

meaning

We

this

should

algebraical expressions,

his

necessity

is

stands

algebraical operations

cannot,

him,

itself upon

What

5, II. when

made

means,

the

avoid

until

the

in

"

He

on.

knows

many

particularly

meaning

find

readily

following

b for

so

further

any

when

has

2, and

their

to

himself

6, and

has, by these

proceed
can

for

b for

eye

is

expressions

i2

I.

4.4,

these

ab
2

76.

be

to

student

solution

r.

=6.6

_____

to

the

of

idea, and

him

such

in

consequence.

arguments

to

in-

ALGEBRAICAL

duce

him

not

mind

to

between

the

into

expressions
link

AND

NOTATION

the

link

that

he

previously acquired

little in

but

The

that

be

When

a-^

"

should,

as

that
as

be
the

one

connected
brackets.

In

its

place,

rest,

but

it is

what

it, such

and

this

"

ing
follow-

rest

the

on

is written
as

in

it, and

wherever

there

the

it must

example

first
be

supposition

brackets,

that

with

stood
e'),it is under-

"

sign

collected
re-

it.

is to

its result
the

creases
in-

before

in

{b

question

omitted.

brackets

that

by

"

fourth

usually

after

comes

in the
before

but

a^b:

d.

"

in

written

"

(-t b=^

as

written

be

often

the

of

/^

"

Ar

term

expression

with

"

is written

quantity,

A^

the

expression

the

sion
expres-

value

the

_/-(-ac

"

that

of the

this

and

sign -}- is put

expression

before

sign

some

the

is

the

de

"

-\-c

/-{-

"

speaking,

from

an

"

de

"

changes

term

sign

in the

"

de^aA^b-^e

"

indicate

to

is subtracted

de

"

algebraical

proof,

no

cic

-\-ab

"

result

When

him

help

change:

At

"

properly

that
a

(^c

"

negative

term,

will

and,
which

knowledge

changing

needs

expressions,

the
The

the

of any

without

of the

A^

first

sign,

no

ing
connect-

arithmetic,

in arithmetic

terms

This

ab

-~

At

the
these

is

the

examples

ab

and

fastened,

changed

a-\-

of

of

expression.
are

is the

braical
alge-

acquiring algebra.

order

may

well

reducing

This

science

unless
has

be

of

drudgery

figures.

new

63

PRINCIPLES.

or

which

it is the

be

ered
consid-

total

is to

precedes

enee
differ

of b

64

ON

and

is

which

and

d^6,
made

subtracted

4, this

is 10.

which
make

gives

iT-

(/'

c),

"

"

has

much

"

tracted
sub-

been

l"

c,

"

order, therefore,

added

to

{Jy

b, which

"

c')^a

"

"

d, but

not

In

a.

be

must

Therefore,

b^c.

"

from

=^12,

expression

it is

"r, since

If

a.

the

too

a,

subtracted

be

must

from

In

^ from

quantity

the

MATHEMATICS.

OF

be

to

by subtracting
by

to

STUDY

THE

b-^c.

"

Similarly
a^b

{^c^d"e"f^

"

{^ax^

"

ax'^

in

in

of

{a^

that

wholes

two

which

all the

parts

expression

the

a-^b

thus:

{b^

e)

added

be

must

to

and

a,

of which

e^,

that

stand

for

1, 2, 3, 4, and

second
When

same

as

saying

be

not

But

written
that

expresses
and

must

the

be

5, the

gether
to-

product

multiplied
If a,

first is 46

b,

e,

and

30.
two

letters
4 ^2

write

may

"to a-\- b.

added

product

the

Thus,

composed.

are

first

the

the

e,

sion
expres-

fact, only

{d-\-e')must

second

the

we

multiplied by (d-{-e)
the

omitted

other.

some

pression
ex-

together by adding
they

since

an

be

that

^f),

by (d-\-e) and
d, and

may

is, in

a-\-{b^c^
c{d^

by

added

be

may

before

show

to

serve

f.

"

brackets

c) -^ {^d^

a-Yb^c-^d-\-e^f,

+/)

ex

"

d-^e-^f,

"

is written

multiplied
^

"

dx'^ -f-ex

"

the

they
is

question

instead

-\-c

brackets,
unless

altogether,

positive sign

the

When

"

"

{dx'^

-^ c~)

a^b

or

quantities

more

repeated

the

same

^3^ aj^fj 6a^b'^, they may

have

number
be

reduced

exactly
of

the

times, such
into

one

by

NOTATION

ALGEBRAICAL

merely
letters.

coefficients

the

adding
Thus,

is

3(jc-f7) + 2(jc:+j')
evident,
farther

but

will

they
of which

do

is true,
3^
until

simple

table

Zb^bb,

will, perhaps,

2ba-\-^b
Such

the

mistakes

make,

mostly

are

They
be

cannot

collecting

often
be

made

times

both.
reduced

in
When

this

by adding
to

with

into

both,

their

the

being
that
is the
or

the

subtracting
and
When

coefficients,
and

one,

affixing
there

which
the

by adding

leaving

The

two

both

have

the
the

same

the

is

the

out

same

number
index
may

coefficients
common

no

not
can-

can

the

same

by

or

terms

expressions

the

ponents
ex-

beginner

that

repeated

case,

eration.
consid-

quantities

their

is, having

versally
uni-

almost

moment's

do

unless

one,

sign,

indices.

of

himself

to

ing
follow-

reduce

as

The

beginners

subtraction.

and

letter

bab.

into

terms

repeat

letters, each
of

well

as

several

of addition

too
never

letters

more

^a^b^

is not

they

pression
ex-

to

which

reduced,

of

signs

attempt

The

1.
made

be

is not

for want

ample,
ex-

4/^2^ neither

or

for.

not

which

pressions
ex-

For

for

service

of

be

\d^

"

reduce

cannot

(3rt2^3_^3rt3^2is
6rt^

to

b stands

what

know

we

attempt

reduction.

are

this

carry

b stands

when

except

things
to

^^ jg 4^

Ibc,

liable

of

3/^

that

"^2,or

admit

not

say

to

same

is

\bc

"

These

very

and

they ought,

which

^bc

5^,

are

the

retaining

5(jc+7).

beginners

than

and

is

2^+3^

65

PRINCIPLES.

AND

in
be
cording
ac-

letters

coefficient, as

66

ON

in the

THE

STUDY

OF

the

expression a^b,

being

taken

only

MATHEMATICS.

\yy aP-b

quantity represented
is

once,

called

coefficient.

the

Thus,
Zab

-\-A:ab ^

The

xy^ -\-3 xy^

student

by
Thus

a^ b

first

representing

be

in

made

their

be

must

stand

must

same

not

the

second

mentioned

have

we

and

If it

the

in the

12, these
number

ing
calculat-

following

to

and

same

as

-f ^

whether

see

for

4,

and

"

,^

each

this
have

we

they

the

always

equal,

Sjr

same,
not

and

"

but
the

same.

and

But

they
a

and

shall

we

the

are

so,

If

b.

find

that

therefore

always

not

are

we

first

always

are

for

b,

the

3i.

whether

and

not

are

expressions

are

"

that

being

that
tried

of

they

the

is

find

substituted

are

that

this

shall

we

second,

8 instead

they

the

accidentally by supposing

from

are

mark
re-

that

asserted

were

ure
pleas-

at

lab

expressions

Thus

the

The

abbbb.

expressions,

commence

until

as

represented.

the

the

and

conclude

other

the
which

to.

numbers

must

for

least

other

two

quantity

erty
lib-

at

another,

to

la

conclude

when

place

we

as

at

the

if
for

same,

we

in

is

proceed

to

no,

is the

and

attended

wish

b to

is not

-\- b

or

the

but, in conclusion,

expression

case

letter

one

he

rt2_^"^2

we

from

cases

of letters
values

that

xy"^.

clear, by placing numbers

more

instead

quantities totally distinct,

are

the

=^^ab

recollect

aaaab

all

1 ab

"

xy^ -\-xy'^

changes

ab^

and

difference
will

he

doing

so

index

an

ab-

"

"

also

must

change

to

^ab

the

we

same.

2jc-f-8, if.;c stand

if it stands

for

any

CHAPTER

VII.

student

THE
before

should

proceeds

he

be

and

principles

the

and

each,

difference

by

reasoning

add

to

this

either

may

laid

written

b.

The

the

common

tion
addi-

ple
sim-

some

find

the

sum

it

Suppose

follows.

as

to

take

to

down

for

rules

then

proceed

"

be

hitherto

should

with

acquainted

algebraical

He

of

required

well

very

the

examples
and

ALGEBRA.

notation

to

subtraction.

and

OF

RULES

ELEMENTARY

direction

is

do

to

"

in

thus

way

b
"

d
"

Add

or

If

first,
c

add

we

but

this

to

by

is

added

be

on

this

"

on

still

but

is

find

not

this

too

account,

a-^

account,

or

must

must

to

by

which

-j-

b
"

was

decreased

be

creased
de-

be

a-\^c

not

therefore

increased

be

become

it is

become

much

too

therefore

must

because

d').

"

have

we

c,

must

or

it

d\

b^^i^c

"

is

quantity

great,

"

{^a

which

this

Find

or

a,

it

by

to

because

"

but

thus

properly

more

d
"

"

or

68

b-\-c

"

rule

chosen

be
lose
The

process

and

from

The

not

of subtraction
few

his

have
this

of

examples

the

should

an

ample
ex-

make

to

as

of

we

sort

till then

moment

one

is to

be

ac.

too

many

taken

is

This
times

the

dent
stu-

demonstration.

already performed,
method

same

rule

the

may

the

numbers

example,
the

1(4

it will

be

6 X

1^

as

same

wV?-^

j4

equations

may

as

"

similar

a{b -\-c

d^

"

(^2^2^2")^2^

or

when

process

may

given.

Thus,

reversed
on

that

the

following

ab

-\-ac

ad.

"

"

arxz.

aabb-^2bbl"b

a'^b'^-{-2b\

multiplication
be

Also

is

{aa^2bb)bb
=

Also

reasoning

ar)xz=pxz-\-pqxz

"

6x5

For

2x^_|XtV

as

same

or

54.

"

the

this whether

9)

"

84

as

which

fractional.

or

6(14

or

is the

proved

be

in

; and

whole

^,

taken

ad.

"

that

or

is that

result

correct

are

6 X

"

Upon

{p-\-pq

be

found

IXt^

T'5)' or

"

and

c,

a,

the

therefore

must

we

thus

times

been

has

arithmetic,

from
to

performed
it first

ac

d^-=ac

"

is shown

process

is

Take

and

ad,

or

verified

be

"

From

d.

a{c
may

great, because

too

a,

by

times.

"

by

d times

subtract

This

of

multiplication

find

or

and

of this

deduced.

be

reasonings

complicated

so

for

sight

MATHEMATICS.

few

deduced

be

may

From

d.

"

OF

STUDY

THt

ON

and

observing

has
the
the

been
factors

performed,

the

it may

be

of

expression

ab

see

we

ac-\-aa,

"

that

in its formation

by

or

will

be

now

by

a,

-{-a.

"

that

difficultyin perceiving

no

ac^ad^bc-^bd=a{c-\-d)^b{c^d)

ab'^ -\-lab

"

aia
It

is

whole

remains
are

the

4x6x3,

etc.,
of

the

product
produced
or

Thus

changed.

and

|X|

multiplication

be

may

multiplied

represented

in the

admits

Thus

of.

rules

if it be

^a^b'^c, which

by
the

12

product

is written
^aaabb

thus
b b

which

manner

to

multiply

is % aaabbb

^2 ^3 ^3^^ which

the

and

is 12 aabbbcccdj

\2aabbb

c c c

d.

tial
par-

15x4x6,

complicated

two

required

or

which

factors

the

together,

simple

most

the

and

made,

that

Also,

etc.

of

they

3x6x4

is 12x5x6,

these

From

6x^1X3

instead

substituted

duct
pro-

in which

order

be

may

the

together,

f X|,

whether

if numbers,

the

when

d).

"

that

it,thus, 3x^x5X6

90x4.

terms

dc A^ 3^

"

multiplied

are

same

is

multiplied

part

arithmetic

fractional,

or

b'^-^^^ci^ab

"

in

proved

/^)(^ + d),

{a +
a^

tiplied
mul-

been

by multiplying

made

been

-\-a by

"

has

term

every

is, it has

that

There

ac-\^ a^i

"

ab

or

69

ALGEBRA.

OF

RULES

ELEMENTARY

single
product

the

case

70

ON

which

THE

SlUDY

muhipHcation

MATHEMATICS.

OF

be

may

in the

performed

ing
follow-

order

Qy^l2
which
of

is

this

will

such

treatises

be

to

expression
provided

may

for

a.

is

l,'i

tion
multiplicain

the

be

of

is, it is

that

wherever

letter

the

letters,
ever
wher-

substitution
formula

the

from

always

algebraical

any

b)

"

substitutions

following by making

formula

algebraical

every

one

the

(^a^b){a

"

p-\-q, that

to

Thus

the

this

for

make

to

occurs.

in

numbers,

all

of

is taken

deduce

of

the

usually given

that

substituted

be

may

equal

instead

examples

few

A
for

rule
is

which

recollected

letter

If

the

d,

c c c c

I'Z a^ b"^c^ d.

establish

a^

we

b b b b b b b

by

is true

care

that

Algebra.

which

formula

quantities

on

is

It

represented

sort

of

if

true

when

it is true

true,

be

/+^
the

in

occurs

put
ula.
form-

Therefore,

Similarly, {b -f w)^
{x J^yf

"

{x"y)'^

have

Instead

of

let

"

us

{x -^-y

{x -\-y -\-x"y)
and

q)a^=ap
put

^P~q)^r"s)=.{r

the

"

s,

"

"

"

x"y)

on.

so

established

already
(/

(^2b+ m)m,

__

-ixy,

We

/^^

"

formula,

aq.

and

s)p"{r

this

"

formula

s')q,

comes
be-

ELEMENTARY

OF

RULES

ALGEBRA.

But

(r

s)p=.pr

"

and

ps,

"

(r

s)q^=zqr

"

qs.

"

Therefore

ip

s^=pr"ps"{^qr

q){7'

"

"

=:^pr

By

(/
few

called

of

rule

the

of

the

sign,

here

mode

the

of

to

by

and

language,

"

and

we

gives -f
The

himself

with

the

negative

sign

which

sign.

of

the

common,

and

that,

luminous

might

well

as

writers

multiplied

but

that

directions

well

algebra

take

that

as

viz., the

been

on

that

say,

gives add,

away

has

as

signs.

recollect

quantities,

not

the

incorrect

an

"

must

way
to

methods

work

in which

of Algebra.
which

prevails
then

this

state

in

he

The

said
in

our

plied
multi-

away

multiplied by

"

has

throughout
use

for

the

student

should

rule

is the

following

author

quoted
it, but

explaining

this

of

in

the

fully
the

have

terms

different

is very

He

of

term

using

on.

are

"

most

Principles

agreeing

said

so

viz., that

it if the
have

is

what

.*

only

"Frend,

which

subtract,

take

by

establish

avoid

must

and

of the

one

student

^-f-

"

multiplied by

they

that

prove

multiplication;

if

"

^^

"

sign -f- before

and

may

will

sort

in

signs

the

"

signs +
add

we

way

-f multiplied by -f gives +;

by -f gives
the

this

of

expression,

that

saying

same

multiplicand
has

same

qf'-\- qs.

"

^)(^'+ """)=/ ^'+/-^

"

multiplier

But

the

examples

the

term

in

reasoning

ps

"

qs)

"

treatise

rejection
concurs

difficulties

of

tom
accus-

is
the

in

what

of

the

*'In

far

from

isolated
is there

negative

ON

72

multiplying
the

of

term

before
different
If

one

by

each

of

sign

such

him,

the

he

that

a,

soon

come.

than

the

signs

-(are

product."

with

in

equation

an

stand

signs

selves,
them-

by

the

of which

of

have

ever

is

should

the

to

reject
quantity
that

tolerated

such

than

ing;*
noth-

outlived

have

existence

the

thousand

ten

them

must

less

quantity

and

tions
equa-

astonishing

It is

judicial astrology

either

of

given

notion

the

such

all, he

Above

of

of

explanation

nothing.

in which

example

consideration
the

idea

the

^^,

"

reject

should

all, that
in

belief

witches,

read

as

above
the

the

intellect

absurdity

an

their

ever
wher-

sign put

; when

two

"

has

it is less

human

the

same

still sometimes

definition

the
"

defer

shall

w^e

the

meet

present,

and

until
which

by

each

as

for

it occurs,

other, and

negative

-]-al^ X
let

the

before

"

and

positive

the

should

student

of

term

preceded

are

the

put

the

which

algebraical expressions, multiply

product

the

MATHEMATICS.

two

terms

two

OF

STUDY

THE

times

of
more

possible.

as

"

as

long

to

stand

*For

which

^"

for

full

viithodes

not

the
as

other, and

greater

critical
dans

les

and

apply

sometimes

we

it is recollected

as

considered

Dt's

do

remarks

These

than

historical

sciences

edition, Paris, Gauthier-Villars,

de

to

such

instead

write

that

the

for

the

expression

an

one

is

of

merely

present

3,

"

used
be

must

3.

discussion

of this

raisonnevient
,

i?,^6)."Editor.

2ine

point,

see

partie, chap.

Duhamel.
XIX.

(third

ELEMENTARY

In

writing

ax^

bx

"

-|-^-j- ax'^.

which

it would
in

one

had

x;

arranged

of

the

trouble

is saved

m.ultiplying

and

this

by

arranged

afterwards

the

this

in

of

powers
in

powers

It is usual
in

occur

the

same

letter, and

practice

arrangement.

Time

operation,

doing

term

bxA;- ax"^,

letter.

will

as

unarranged

two

the

"

be

convenient

most

ascending

same

in descending

in

which

the

all

written

thus,

principal

expressions

powers

dictate

from

the

to

"

first; the

arranged

written

it is said

of

last

be

to

it been

been

all

said

is

or

generally chosen,

When

.r.

seen

Thus

b x,

"

is written

jc

and

of

power

-\-ax'^

have

we

adopted.

be

of

next;

is called

in

73

ALGEBRA.

first is

the

power

comes

case

which

must

three

no

of

arrange

and

these

have

question

written

highest

either

of X,
to

as

expression

powers

x;

be

contains
the

way

may

Of

but

highest

arrangements
may

the

because

OF

algebraical expressions,

various

that

RULES

dent
evi-

be

expressions
with

same

the

gether,
to-

same

expressions properly arranged.

In

multiplying

while

collecting

it, it will always

all the

products

which

are

terms,
often
the
This

such

two

or

in

be

that

the

as

will
and

first

principal

in

other

part, and

stand

intermediate

the

more

evident

which

products

contain

and

in

with

combination

by

the

can

the
be

same

reduced

of

last

of the

no

of

admit

powers

principal letter,
will

one

contain

found

while

together,

expressions

into

terms

evident

be

unaltered

product

arranged

two

letter
in

the

other

any
there

are

of

power
into

following examples

one.

74

OF

STUDY

THE

ON

MATHEMATICS.

O
cr

"-t

CD

td

"-t

Si

or

'

t"

"^

"

to

CO

OS

to

ts

4-

en

+
00

+
-~1

+
+

to

It is

plain

highest

been

power

in
the

the

the
x

in

the

arranged
one

by

lowest

rule
a

highest
in

power

have

that

of

power

multiplying
highest

from

the
power

of

product

or

of

x,

in
or

one

when

descending

first power

be

must

in

power

other,
in

multiplication,

formed

factor
the

two

should

other.
it

so

the

by

by

the

factors
the

powers,
the

that

^rst
Also,

happen,

ELEMENTARY

the

in which

term

the

and

lowest, there
neither

consequently
with

This

products.
in

application
Division

will

If

of each

the

the

come.

reverse

of

the

to

this
is

parts, what

equal

is to

cation.
multipli-

answer

The

parts?

remains

alesce
co-

convenient

fraction, the

can

now

find

we

such

ate
intermedi-

of most

we

those

of

all that

and

be

into

of

definition

"

divided

be

by

terms

in the

case

ing
be-

other

no

these

which

to

in all respects

magnitude

fraction

remark

dividing

is, from

is the

division,

is

In

question

as

other,

any

be

by

These

factor.
can

of

is made

of x,

power

in each

last terms

highest

power,

no

75

ALGEBRA.

OF

is

there

the

multiplying

the

RULES

quotient
the

as

same

that

whether

see

fraction

be

can

without

expression
the
fraction

^^^

between

to

whole
that

algebraical

and

is

equal

not;

26

is the
if

reduction

of the
But

possible.

distinction

be

must

that

we

drawn

fractions.

fractions

For

is,there

it does

not

is

which

follow

a-^

which

always

this

from

fraction

12,

; the

and

represents

is

always

contrar}^ may

be

shown.

"

for

6, then

is
a

is

quantity

fractions, but
not

in arithmetic

as

that

,.

for

aP-^ab

just

arithmetical

without

"

number

stand

or

algebraical fraction,

an

But

to
a

metical

"

expression

no

by

algebraical

simple

by

number,

observe

the

of 200

example,
is

fractions

division

here

must

represented

represent

an

it

which

by

no

arithmetical

does
means

"

not

arithLet

Again,

3.

contain

cal
algebraithat

follows
fraction.

an

To

show

it may

that

76
it may,

let

Other

in

the

following

which

and

of

far

as

of two

whole

.whole

number.

One

number
of

quotient

of

is

or

is said

whole

is

greatest

of two

be

to

whole

is

of

whole

the

two
are

equally

true

difference,

or

duct
pro-

simple expressions

two

simple expression.

expression is

One

of

measure

said

the

to be

when

another

of

quotient

The

is the

numbers
number

the

all

will

which

is

two

which

is the

duct
pro-

the

simple

When

one

others,

number
it

the

another,

measured

by

measures

the

of

measure

highest

exponents

the
any

When

is

and

letter

simple
in the

expression
denominator

is

visor. which
di-

of

meant

any

one

it

difference, and

by

of

which

measures

one

the
any

the

measures

duct.
pro-

sion
expres-

remainder

expression
dividend

divisor.

which

fraction.

all

ures
meas-

sum,

is measured

and

By

of

product

others,

by another,

which

the

cients,
coeffi-

two

In the division

number

remainder

dividend

and

expression

one

their

product.

number

is the

has

both.

their

one

is the

prime simple expressions

measures

division

ure
meas-

which

common

measures

difference, and

common

expressions

two

and

both.

measure

of

numbers

prime

greatest

measure

"si7}iple ex-

which

sum,

of

ure
meas-

both, and

measures

by

by

numbers,

The

the

common

v^hole

greatest

In

in the

expression,

The

sum,

algebra,

connect

one,

number.

two

doubt

number''^

demonstrations

duct
pro-

when

two

and

replaced

is

another

if any

regards simple expressions

as

numbers,

the

^^

f.

or

Nevertheless,

arithmetic

whole

to

point

student.

of

those

difference,

sum,

measure

the

algebraical

render

a^ -\-ad=zl^

this

up

this, that

in

confined

algebra
The

mind

the

in arithmetic
in

clear

proposition

in
pressio7i^'"^

MATHEMATICS.

2, then

propositions

arithmetical

subjects

will

differ

only

OF

and

examples

yet exist
the

STUDY

THE

ON

does

not

contain

the

pal
princi-

ELEMENTARY

is

fraction

multiplying

the

the

denominator

is

will

of

simple expression

This

first the
than

into

the

is 6x7.

of

which

it is 1 aabb

in this

all

have

lead
e.

of

to

Again,

the

e,

we

etc.

ee,

eee,

by e'^,and

by2r,

of
call

3e, 4"r, and

e.

The

Qaabc

by

worked

we

now

usually
come.

by e'^,c^, e^,

third, fourth,

this

rule

it the

would

first power

e-\-e,
have

be

y^l aabb,

rule

etc.,

represented

of

shall

the

second,

extension

have

coefficients

to

eeee,

the

them

e,

examples

which

to

one,

The

e.

represent

e-\- e-\- e -^
4, etc.,

called

have

powers
us

but

cases

Qaab

few

e.

student

the

represented

etc., and
etc.,

'i2a^ b^

c.

expression

multiplied

be

must

\1a^b^

of which

be

then:

must

lead

will

way,
in

given

produce

to

will

is

what

quantity

this

separate
one

tains
con-

\^\1aaaabbb

length,

others,

two

it

at

then

can

Qaabe;

or

in order

written

and

quantity

produce

to

to

by another,

is, what

order

be, in

^d^

We

product

^a^be,

of

by

that

resented
rep-

\al^^^

example,

For

vided
pro-

proceed

now

neither

term.

^d'-bc?

expression

last
42

hy

We

where

case

one

divided

and

one

thus

denominator;

in the

those

quantity

or

de-

sion.
expres-

fractions,

algebraical quantity,

no

same

included

are

arithmetical

contain

and

the

by

divid-

or

its numerator

both

expression.

multiplied

We

ing

simple

take

a'^b^

and

by

is not

expression

by multiplying

division

be

altered

letters

more

42

its

by
called

we

simple expression

which

there

fractional

by

nominator

term

quantities

the

both

77

ALGEBRA.

OF

quantity.

same

In

is

altered

not

dividing

or

and

numerator

RULES

-]-e -\-e,

called

extension

2, 3,
of

this

78

ON

attend
to

lead

would

rule

the

to

observe

gradual

the

quantity

itself

anew

each

of

which,
is

figure, which

terms

of

course,

each

I.

add

To

affix

and
4:C -]-3c=z7

c.

series, add
of

exponent
of the

the

of

Thus,

r.

"r*X^^

of

apply

will

be

and

the

terms

make
To

from

difference

the

the

of
this

efficients,
co-

Thus

c.

divide

ond
sec-

the

sum

before

comes

divisor
this

make

letter

III.

which

one

following

term

tract
it,sub-

the

exponent

the

exponent

terms

of

"

except

will

by

in

term

the

two

^^-

but

occur,

series, add

and

in

":'

rules

These
series

exponents,

exponent

dividend,

multiply

the

rules

coefficient

the

sum

To

series

of the

the

to

cording
ac-

neither
are

first

the

distinct

first

the

to

rules

II.

Thus

r.

second

of

terms

two

is

exponent

or

such

series,

the

deduce

yet, it has

as

forces

exponent,

or

then

apply

Among

exponent.

nor

first,there

We

cannot

series, because,

part of

coefficient

coefficient

the

which,

called

our

complicated

more

in

c^, c^, c^, etc.,

c,

the

except

situation.

its

to

which

as

We

proceed

we

original quantity

2c, 3c, 4:C, etc., and

Cy

in

the

us

language.

our

the

signs

attention

our

upon

of

we

leads

instance

itself ;

by

new

of c, and

combinations

This

progress

by

shortening

course,

\c^.

l"r,or, rather, if

thus,

remark,

last

the

with

begin

write

to

us

MATHEMATICS.

OF

STUDY

THE

if

evident

are

the
we

intelligible for
first, to
agree

nevertheless,

which,

that

by applying

Ic^

all

shall

either

represent
of

them

to

the

they
c,

as

find

ELEMENTARY

4{:-\-c, c'^'Xc,or
stand
be

although
that

coefficient

amendment

and

is all

this

c^ for
be

c^,

"

c^ stands
been

1,

which

exponent
of

incorrect

If

of

be

not

for,

results

as

as

c'^ always

which

algebra,

we

than

make

branch

fully

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83

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87

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first side.

of

by ^-f

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are

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identical

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of

division.

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side

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equation

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out

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writing

senting
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equation

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tence
sen-

fraction

or

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are

side

equation,

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this

operation

second

as

number

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you

algebraical

considered

other

any

first side
the

be

second

result

fact, the

etc.,

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whatever.

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2|,

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made

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truth

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on

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down

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same

is

EQUATIONS

number.

This

THE

OF

will

be

DEGREE.

FIRST

clearly

more

QI

in

seen

tical
iden-

the

equations
"la

a^a=^2.a,
The

whole

article
one

can

be

of

given

of

part
other

we

take,

have

an

equation

value

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one

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all

such

to

in

the

them

case

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solution

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equation,

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of

exist

particular

elements

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only

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whatever,

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letters

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equation

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in
very

contained
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ular
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some

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hereafter,

latter

species

order

existence
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is

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cannot

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makes

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equations, they

identical

from

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cies
spe-

new

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In

importance.

most

any

shown

this

algebra,

equations of condition, because

letters

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will

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in

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quantities.

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is T,

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equation

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vided
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its

number

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equation

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longer

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to

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enter

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equation

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It is evident

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guish
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called

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finding

92

ON

what

number

the

equation

the

of the
use

and

We

of

algebra.
of

value

by

all others

is necessary

for

conditions
In

of

rule

is

written

to

down
As

way.

the

result

Let
Then

be

If, instead

to

given.

be

found,

as

an

he

must

standing

as

according

of

in words

and

this

the

to

this, the

to

diminished

the
200

"

number

by

some

which,

by

which

be

convenient

most

of

given

that

must

reduction
is

no

erty
prop-

which

property

in the

equations

200

is

problem

The

is that

for

of

distinction

algebraical equations

equation

into

be

56

usually

alphabet,

time

in

letter

any

expressed

stand
.r

This

quantity
is

first.
;

in

solution

the

the

unknown,

problems

number
will

the

the

problem.

examples

What

in

equation

beginner

of

showing,

of the

or

problems
I.

the

arithmetic

letters

known

can

the

self-evident

last

consider

number

number

of

after

ing
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subject

condition,

by
the

of

for

of the

of

is

of

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to

come

solution

by

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to

condition,

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reducing

general

we

some

only

quantity

of

that

with

out

rules

return

equations

by

setting

common

shall

one

drop

to

the

in order

such

Every

is determined

represented

learn

of

In

for

equation, proceeds

how

problems.

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stand

must

true.

equations

instances,

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be

MATHEMATICS.

reasoning, which,

steps, making

few

OF

letter

may

truth

solution

STUDY

the

of

process

THE

lowing
fol-

the

if 56

be

twice

is to

added,

that

ber?
num-

be

found.

2.y.

56, 200, and

2, any

other

given

num-

EQUATIONS

bers.

h, and

a,

the

c,

which

equation

second

of whom
The

the

is sent

second
he

travel

must

this

to

and

miles.

The

the

distance,

second

and

the
when

hours,

fore
be-

which

hours
first.

travelled

have

has
miles.

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gone

been

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when

2jc-[-8

or

takes
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the

exactly

will

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second

the

travelled

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x-]-'^

gone

hours,

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time

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the

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therefore,

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second

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the

long will it be

first has

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hour,

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same

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ner,
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the

miles

number

takes

event

hours,

him

the

from

three
has

93

ex.

"

out

after

the

be

set

first

overtakes

Let

determines

goes

first two.

in

of

use

-|-a^=b

couriers

Two

DEGREE.

FIRST

made

are

II.

THE

OF

is sent

2jc-f8.

after

hours

first goes

the

numbers,
/',and

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miles

before

elapse

the

first,

the

l)x=^ax-^ac.
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men.

^,^2607, of

cost

paid

much

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did

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as

and

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as

pay?

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that.^
then

C
D

paid

paid

2x

pounds,
.

paid

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paid

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X

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or

jc

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ship

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STUDY

THE

ON

94

together paid

All

fore
-\-2x -{-^x -\-bx, orlljt-, there-

11^

There

would

long

2607.

two

cocks,

from

in 12

hours,

and

are

is filled

MATHEMATICS.

OF

if both

tern
cis-

in 15.

second

the

filling it

in

be

they

first of which

the

How

opened

were

together?
X

be

it

was

Let
before
the

cistern

two

hours

the

filled.
in 12

y 3-

filled

whole

in

When

cistern, the
a

it, in

of

Jj

f^ of the cistern.
the

fills

Similarly,

hours

represent

must

it fills

elapse
cock

first

the

hour

fills

cock

exactly

fractions

these

since
one

in

and

second

have

two

in

would

which

hours

Then,

hours,

etc.,
3-2^,
the

hours,

of

number

the

of

sum

and,

1,

or

therefore,

12"^
times

and

hours,

A
9s.

Let
the

the

be

of

number

at

cistern

fill the

can

are

becomes

yards

of cloth

for

7s.

yard

it and
did
of

he

buy

yards

shillings they

yards
of

sort

number

the
of

number

number

of

some

of each

much

how

bought
for

yard

two

equation

the

person

the

in which

If the

is""

9^., and

shillings they

cost.

(8

"

cost.

2s., giving

^3

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for

rest

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at

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72
the

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these,

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-J-72

a"

7jc4-72
These
of

reducing

letter

means

of this

in two

different

the

by

of

problems

ingenuity,

The

but

time

to

it.

finds

himself
with

which

should
in

books

made

degree

discovers

the

equations

as

of

step
derive

may

There

is

than

the

and

yet,

in

the

of

even

which

respects
which

the

may

be

which

mean

we

make

he
far

as

sciences
any

siderable
con-

doing this,
study

of

he

matics
mathe-

extensively.

beginners

problems

utility,if

pends
de-

progress

them

discourages

its

drums
conun-

ics,
mathemat-

subsequent

apply

difficultyof reducing

elements

himself, but, without

nothing

as

future

for

afford, and

the

of

study

perhaps,

which

he

usually filled,that,

may

benefits

of

because

equations

problems

never,

of

deal

great

facilitywith

the

in the

exercise

useful

He

all the

can

the

upon

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comprehending

is concerned.

the

into

applications

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suppose,

to

it up.

give

reduction

usually given

are

for

connected

be

give

one

such

no

power

no

reduce

is not

therefore, he

need

to

unable

is

found

be

must

the

in

occurs

process

all, let

Above

are

as

student

no

quantity, by

must

However,

suming
As-

equation.

an

quantity
these

the

show

to

unknown

the

and

equality.

mathematics.

to

same

algebra rarely

on

and

for

the

forms,

of such

equations
treatises

stand

to

sufficient

be

problem

letter

of

sign

is

which

price,

9jr=:62.

"

will

examples

method

whole

the

shillings, and, therefore,

62

or

is

9x,

"

95

DEGREE.

FIRST

THE

OF

EQUATIONS

to

there

dispensed

be

more

equations,
anything
with, it is

96
this.

We

exercise

THE

do

not

for

to

but

STUDY

wish

gained,
for

derived

himself
We

Of
first

those

are

these

the

solution

are

various

there

degree, commonly

which

contain

which

that

have

we

problems.

Of

The

equal quantities

two

results

a-"b,
=

"

will

be

a-\In

"

quantity

equation
This

is

to

"

b^d

shown

subtract
or

"

book
from
its

thus

"

both
c=^d

equations
solution

the

of

solved

are

is,

ished,
dimin-

or

and

quantity,

the

ac-=^bc,

and

it is stated

that

c,

side

one

sign
of
Let

be

of

the

changed.

the

principle

a-\-b

"

d,

then

-\-c^=d-{-

/^ from

known
un-

algebraical language,

application

an

of the

increased

any

removed

quantities,
"

b,

be

may

both

"

but

Equations

all the

they

be

c^=b

"

dition.
con-

simple equations,

in

other, provided

nothing

a^b

Again

be

classes.

which

elementary

may

as

of

equations

are

In

-\-c,

be

step

one

first power

by

same.

c^=b

the

to

just stated,
add

the

every

any

divided

or

of

the

may

will

make

come

principle by

tial
essen-

problem.

class

hitherto

multiplied,

if

this

the

studies

called

only

read

can

him,

never

of any

quantity.
to

should

selves
them-

present

before

an

ing
attempt-

that, if he

one

solution
to

utilityas

from

mathematical

he

now

all

which

is set

from

in the

return

of the

that

though

even

hinder

to

every

all

its

depreciate

difficulties

remind

understand

MATHEMATICS.

to
or

the
to

benefit

OF

mind,

the

conquer
;

and

ON

or

a-{- b^=d-\-

quantities,
"

b.

Without

c.

then

a-\-b

always

"

re-

OF

EQUATIONS

that

its effect

is

equation

an

until

is

he

the

of it.

prolix,
the

In

b to

other

has

continue

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the

rule, which

received

sides,"

and

of

operation

rule

using

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full

at

ment
abridg-

an

not

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and

the

saying "bring

of

equation,"
instead

to

tract
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say

saying "bring

of

equation,"

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the

mastered

phraseology,

instead
of the

of

better, and

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side

side

other

the

he

the

both

b from
to

until

of

at

this

use

should,

just cited,

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not
manner

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fact

sign

the

using

abandon

to

example

term

of

should

side

one

their

with

He

instead

length,

from

familiar

examples,

many

observation,

from

changing

beginner

perfectly

principle.

good

the

But

derived

quantities

remove

another,

to

time.

same

to

97

DEGREE.

FIRST

it is

principle,

the

peating

THE

to

add

"

say

to

sides."

both

Suppose
them

multiply
'"'
X

4 X

14,

bers.

or

all

by

the

product

of

we

num-

and
,

also

is

392

3 X

whole

be

^i^

by 4,

If

-f^.

denominators

the
will

products

is measured

and

J, i,

392

meas-

392

3 X

by 4,

fractions

be

'-

ured

the

392, all the

will

Ihey
since

and

have

we

is

and

whole

and

number,

so

on.

But
as

any

The

well.

the
least

most

least

to

multiple

three

fractions

whole

numbers.

be

of 4, 7, and

use

for

this

of 4, 7, and

14

multiplied by 28,
The

also

same

and

Thus
b

-,

-r

ae

"

-r-rr^

dj

14

will

multiple

common

convenient

common

fractions.

multiple

common

the

results
to

become

be
The

28, and

is

serve

therefore

purpose.

applies
will

will

if the
will

be

algebraic
simple

98

ON

if

expressions,
b'^d'^ ef.
and

de,

they
the

bdf^

is

b^ (P

OF

MATHEMATICS.

multiplied by

are

simple

most

which

bdef^

/^ X

bdf,

^^X

of by

multiple

common

should

be

used

or

in

erence
pref-

ef.

being premised,

which
For

STUDY

But

to

This

THE

contains

example,

take

we

can

fractions
the

to

any

which

one

tion
equa-

does

not.

equation

2x

reduce

now

2x

"

"3~^"5"~T0
_

If

multiply

we

other,
the

the

least

into

results

these

will

quantity,

which

will
that

both

choose,

We

equal.

denominators

multiply

we

quantities by

equal

be

simple quantities,
of the

If

both

"

all the

convert

is, the

least

then,

fractions
tiple
mul-

common

3, 5, 10, and

6, which

quantities by 30,

equal

any

is 30.

the

tion
equa-

becomes
30x

~3~
30^

that

^r-

before
the

long

^,

is

"

-^

12 x,

-^" or

etc.

have

we

10jc +

12^

21

or

10^

12^

21"

or

10jc +

12jc

21

very

that
a

the

commonly
sign

of

"

the

is

to

be

denominator

(3

(15
"

2jc),

(2)

10^),

(3)

"

"

(4)

15-f lOjc.

mistake

this

subtracted

remains,

process,

the

whole

from
there

and

it is written

when

subtraction,

fraction, implies that

fraction
as

10

or

Beginners
forget

60
.

,^

-^j

^^

60x
X

2^)

"

~~10

30
IS

-^r"

6
so

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i3ut

30(3

60jc_210
^

result

the
is

rest.
no

need

of
As
to

but
be

this

the

done,

the

of the

first term

in

place

to

which

the

the

will

afford

to

enable

sufficient, perhaps,

student,
error

not

to

of subtraction

operation
in

be

fractions

and

them,

is done

as

following operations

The

this

performed,

been

has

before

whole

would
all

of

the

to

the

to

mistake

numerators

until

unless

away,

not

this

negative sign
brackets

those

remove

the

brackets

have

avoid

to

ets,
brack-

belongs

and

only,

way

taken

subtraction

numerator

The

expression.

is

of

sign

QQ

between

numerator

denominator

when

DEGREE.

FIRST

the

by putting

this

signify

THE

OF

EQUATIONS

equation
exercise
him

(4).

to

the

avoid

to

Ar

"

af-\-b

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a^

A^

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b

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Taking

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up

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a-\r

10

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21

10^

these

equal quantities by 12, which

"

"

6:

to

This

make

satisfythe
we

shall

the

is the

value

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given equation true,

equation.
find

only

that

If

instead

gives-"

as

or,

of

can

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divide
6

\2x

x^^.

duced
de-

sides, which

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have

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15,

gives

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(4) which
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equation

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from

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proceed

now

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by

"

have

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^^

^'Tq'
so

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lOO

ON

THE

STUDY

2xi^

10

this

OF

MATHEMATICS.

2x1-

"

1,
^^

find

we

be

to

'

l_i__2
^"5 "~10

6'

since

true,

11

22

11

22

+
6

In

these

as

have

we

all the
be

may

equation
letters

for

of

that

in

of

form

dx

known
un-

These

by letters, and,
alphabet

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same

one

known.

the

purpose.

is

there

are

letters

of numbers

place
X

others

the

exactly

degree

represented

first

said, the
used

first

the

and

quantities

commonly
an

of

equations
quantity

known

"^^l()-"==--60'^^^30^60-

^^30'

will

take

now

the

as

are

last, putting

^x

"

'

ace

The

solution

both
of the

of

this

quantities by aceh,

denominators,

acehx

is

equation
the

it then

abcehx

follows

as

simple multiple

most

becomes

aceh{f

acdeh

cehx-\-abehx=zac

or,

cehx-\-abehx

{cehA^abeh
both

sides

dh

ac

ac

"

"

egx

dh

ac

ef-\- a

"

aceg^x^acdh

"

by ceh-^abeh
acdJi

"

aceg,

"

egx.

it becomes

sides, and

ac

"

(/" ^^.r)

ace

"

both

from

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may

In

first take

those

from

-j-rt

and

x^=a,

from

the

the

second

x=-

a.

"

following equation

{x'^-\-a x) (a^ -\-a

and

equation,

x^

This

last.

are

which

1=0,

"

same

in

of

"

.T

gives

(^x -{-a) {a^ -)-x^)

develop

4jc

"

above,

following equations:
X

the

is the

value

given

and

Now,

that

therefore

of the

x'^

quantities

more

0.

equations,

0.

"

second

equation

(i

"

0, and

of these

"

equations

the

This

{x^a^{x
of two

12

with

forms

be

always

may

-\-c=:^

bx

"

two

"

-^

-]-bx

x'^

the

to

"

ax^

For

they

terms,

following

ax^

MATHEMATICS.

OF

its

all

transpose

-\-2

x^)

terms

on

it becomes
2 a'^x'^ -{-a"^ -^ 2 a^

"

or

(^x^

ay

or

(jc^

^2^^^2

"

"

equation

2ax{x^

"

is

"

true

ax

when

"

"

2 ax^

"

a^)=^0
a'^)
=

jc^

"

0.
a'^

0,

or

when

EQUATIONS

which

x^^d^,

original equation

If in the
of

the

X,

have

here

than

one

value

of

find

more

when

we

0,

x^

or

is

double

take

for

this

such

being equal

to

equation,

to

the

and

X,

makes

value

of y

is called

of

root

the

it follows

take

*In

the

sign

which

place.

investigations
is

lax

"

the

of

"

ond
sec-

in which
them

of

the

to

that

we

of

is

(1)

Let

nothing,

to

given

value

the

upon

be

in which

of

one

instead

substituted

when

lution
so-

understand

to

dx-\-c, instead

"

of

second,

of x,
case

equation,

(2)

l^x"c=:=0

"

that
a

the

x'^

suppose

changes.

ax^
and

shall

l"x-\-c*

"

equal

^x-{-c

"

us

depends

when

changes

ax^

let

0, is equal toji',that

quantities which,

those

order

ax'^

value, that

y=zax^
in which

In

x.

more

and

proceed

now

/?x-\-c:=0.

"

of

nature

We

by

either

that

of

equation

zha,

x,=

is meant,

d=

pleasure.

at

ax'^

of
the

sign

used

be

may

where

instance,

an

which

an

two,

of .y, has

value

be

_^

values

equation

Every
one

if

equation

the

a.

instead

solved

found

33

"

0^0,

time,

being

have

x^=

correct

of

solve

can

is

first

capable

2ax^a^.

"

x^^^a^

the

by

both
the

We

x.

if it has

degree,
which

is

4^2

result

are

for

noticed,

2^2

^r

substituted

is

the

-f"^j

:r=

2"^

x,

"

which

-f

of

and

-\-a

of condition

a^

4^

instead

that

We

is

result

substituted
show

when

either

is true

DEGREE.

SECOND

THE

OF

marked

ni^
which

before

"

7)1

follow,
them,

A^
a,

and

b, and
no

(3)

^=^

change

considered

are

of

form

is

as

having

supposed

to

O^

134

Subtract

(^-

Here

might
but

w^)

"

is

b{x

"

we

call

this

the

of

which

it from

the

n-\-m^^

or

we

made

we

"

b^.

"

as

jv

there

0;

which

for

x,

-\-m

x^=77t,

^(ji:-|w)

value

find

we

0, when

to

when

is

111){a

"

supposition

nothing

is, therefore, another

(x

711)

"

of which

result

equal

from

also

MATHEMATICS.

OF

(1), the

evidently

expect

it is

SlUDY

from

(3)

y^a

THE

0 ; if

equation a{n-\-m)

"

(4")

"

In

substitute

(3)

which

ai?i^

which

{n -\-m)

=^

derived

b its value

for

it then

',

gives

mn=z

(4), from

becomes

a7?i{7t-\m)-\- c=^^,

"

from

or

amn=^^,

"

(5)

".

Substitute

(4)

and

in

(1)

the

(5), which

Now

the

second

multiplying

m-\-

"

factor

together

Here

take

in

"

when

in^\.

If

jc

we

(which

l, j

divide
is

derived

from

4 jc^

without

77tn

A;-inn).

arises

expression

and

"

therefore,

(6)

this, let y^^x'^

"

"

5-|-l
%x-{-\

from

n)

"

-^

iii){x

"

of

example

an

this

of

y^=a(^x
To

and

a{ni -^ n)

"

{pc^

of

gives

y^^ax'^
=

values

5jt:-|-l.

"

0, and

hy

remainder)

is

therefore

1, the

"

^x

tient
quo-

1,

"

and

therefore

y=z(^x
This

is also

Therefore

nothing
n^=-\,

1) (4^

"

when

and

4jc

"

1=0,

"

y=:\(^x

1).

"

1) (^

or

"

when

:i),

is

J.

result

EQUATIONS

with

coinciding
the

of

one

ax^

"

ax^

"

-\-c^(i,

we

bx

-{-c into

the

sign

of the

find

can

-\-n, the

and

{x

n,

"

or

difference

only

n')

"

first

the

divide

can

;z)

"

7n)(x

"

equation

the

and

"

m'){x

"

contains

which

term

a,

35

find

can

we

and

other

hy

-\-m

satisfy

the

factors

{x -\-fi)
7fi')

{x ^

which

bx-{- c^=a{x

"

multiply

we

of

bx

DEGREE.

(6). If, therefore,

of

values

ax'^
If

that

SECOND

THE

OF

tween
bein the

is

of

power

x.

If, therefore,
ax^
it follows

is

one

x"^ -\-b
take

now

value

of

-{-c

the

")

"

a77i

ax'^

expression
will

bx

"

quantity equal

this

make

If there

c.

"

;;/, and

Let

from

{x -\-71)
(x -\-771)

which

0, let this be

to

{x
7/1)

"

that
a

We

-\-{:^a{x

bx

"

x^

}' =

bx

"

"

Then

a77i^

which

(.T

7//)(a

(x

{ax -\-(7
;;/)

b77i

"

(jc^
"

"

r,

"

(x

;;/-)
"

-\- 771
ni

;;/)

"

b)

"

"

b')
.

"

.,

Let

be

called

;/,

let

or

771

"

a7t

then

As

an

Again,
{x

"

with

7i) only

(^x

a{x

"

"

"

be
2

from

;;/)(jc-|-^)
shown

3(x

regard

differs

{a X -\-a 7i')
771)

"

it may

example,
3x^

to

"

that

l)(x-]-^).

ax'^-\-bx
{x

"

"

r,

since

;;/)(^x-\-71) in

(x -\-m)
the

sign

136
of

THE

ON

the

evident

bx-^

"

c^:=a{x

ax'^-\-bx
similar

Results

in the

same

in the

fourth

-\-

"

and

third,
makes
the

are

ranged
ar-

n)

"

c
inn^=

"

"

b
n

c
inn=

"

"

3d
.

yz^ax^

bx

"

c^=a(^x

"

7fi){x^n)

"

b
m

"

n=

c
7?i?i==-

"

"

4th

y-=^ax'^-^bx

"

"=^

{x -\-vi) {x

b
m

"

"

must

for

x,

expressions,
of the

inquire

now

which

will

and

in this

second

71)

"

c
7?i n=

"

"

found

and

tained
ob-

.y'^ax'^-^bxA^c^=a{xArin^{x-\-n^

m-\-

We

be

for x,

m){x

(^{p^

2d

may

first

;;/

b
n

be

third.

bx-\r^

"

the

substituted

and

may

case

results

In

when

first and

it is

ri).

"

first

these

way.

second

yT=ax'^

1st.

x,

ni) (x -|-n)

"

of the

others, and

following

in the

as

of

power

(^x-\-7Ji){x

=^

those

quantity, which,

0, and

"

to

all the

for

is

first

the

that
if ax'^

MATHEMATICS.

contains

which

term

OF

STUDY

in what

make

consists

cases

in

the

value

these

solution

can

be

different
of

tions
equa-

degree.

l^et y

ax'^

"

bx-\-c

(1)

OF

EQUATIONS

and

that

observe

sides

both

Multiply

4iay
Add

b^ to

and

the

'\:a^x^

4:ay

it must

4:d^ x'^

in

the

positive,

be

can

other

we

wish

done

I.
b'^

"

the

When
is

of

(2),

alter

not

the

^^

the

shows

to

that

say

it

to

be

considered.

^2

is

greater

positive, let

^^

of any

form

quantity

equal

than

is

the

to

c^

"

be

must

positive, it

square

(3)

there

4:ac,

that

4"^rr^"^"2,which

"

{d

Whenever,

positive.

pression
ex-

mon
Com-

and

these

of

one

equation

In

plained
sufficientlyex-

dy^

"

any

positive

of its square.

(^

also

be

of

is

quantity

form

that

(3)
square

of the

and, since

the

already

change

are

of

an

three

is, when
expresses

condition.

4:ayz={2a

determine

we

from

the

We
that

values

those

b^

"

of x,

"

k'^

which

(4)
make_"'=:0,

equation,
(2ax

find

that

been

must

Then
and

side

b'^

"

that

b}^ supposing

cases

^":

will

whether

algebraical quantity.
distinct

third, which

change

not

the

therefore,

second

b)'^^4.ac

"

that

thing

same

of the

has

multiplication
are

(2)

-{-^^lac

"

This

saying

does

gives

4:abx-\-b'^-\--iac

"

positive

negative.

or

'iabx

"

recollected

be

is

quantity

which

gives

{2.ax
Now

"

terms

the

^^^x-\-b^.

^)2_-.4^2^2

"

(1) by -ia,

first two

this

and

ax

of

it from

subtract

whole,

(2

137

DEGREE.

SECOND

THE

have

already

"

by

solved

"

k'^
such

^.

an

equation,

and

we

138

THE

ON

STUDY

where

either

ax^

or

sign

OF

ax

"^=zb/^,

"

lfx-\-c is equal

"

instead

of

put

is

taken.

be

may

MATHEMATICS.

second

values

b"Vb'^

"

its value

b'^

^ac.

"

k^

because

^ac

"

La

formed

being

=w,

La

La

the

They

positive

both

are

being equal

instead

by putting,

h'^

to

is

4^^

"

of

tities,
quanthan

less

b^, and

therefore

k is

less

b, and

than

therefore

-\-k

"

"

"

and

when

-^

La

that

shows

either

nothing

to

"

"

This

both

are

"

"=-

These

positive.

the

are

quantities

La

which

have

we

called

and

in the

former

tions,
investiga-

and, therefore,
ax'^

"

-\-c=^a{x

Vb'^

b^

=^n"
Actual
is

to

the

case

Vb^

"

the

4:ac

"

2-a
will

factors

show

this

that

equation.

When

equal

j i"

multiplication of

II.

n)

"

^ac

"

2-a

identical

an

'm){x

"

b^, instead
when

it, or
values

b^

of

of

and

and

4:ac^0

"

than

being greater
k

equal,

are

4"3tr,is
this

In

0.

each

being
2a

and

/
y
In

ax^

this

case

since

square,
V

alx

bx

"

"

9-^

-\-c
y

is

a(^x

said, in

its square

)"

"

root

m)(^x

71)
=

"

algebra,
can

Arithmetically

be

alx

to

^
^

be

extracted,

speaking,

V
1

"

this

perfect
and

would

is

be

not

perfect

could

root

square

any

to

any

letter, which,

that

which

quantity

letter
often

when

under

b'^

4:ac

"

when

0, ax^

with

spect
re-

does

This

not

is

result

recollected

be
is

bx-^c

"

it is

algebra

reduced,

it must

and

whose

square

sign V^

the

occurs,

in

but

perfect

I39

number

was

extracted,

call

contain

that

be

to

usual

one

unless

square

DEGREE.

SECOND

THE

OF

EQUATIONS

perfect

square.
When

III.
is

^2 is less
and

negative

and

equation

^ac

(3)

this

a/2 with

v^ -\-w'^

have

the

case,

to

squares
this

there

is

ax'^

it

follows

know

be

that

which

when

values
and

of

leads

when

2-a
=

equal
since

such

to

all

said,

are

that

in the
a

to

ditions
con-

result.

whenever

b'^ is greater

b^

0, for

it indicates

contradictory

which

be,

a(^x

w) (^x

"

n),

"

a{x -\-?n'){x-\-ti),

than

^acj

ax'^-\-bx-\-c^^

(2)

k^,

e-'^is

that

The

or

ax'^ -\-bx-{-

"l^+

b'^

"

make

that

(1)

A^ac

"

4^"r

cannot

impossible,

that

"

indicates

absurd

found

let

ever

can

sign.

problem

Having

same

something
of

b'^

when

or

by-\-k'^.

"

of

sign,

contrary

(2ax

value

no

equation

the

in

case

positive,

b"^

"

^ac,

becomes

4:ay
In

than

4:ac,

ji"+

2a

we

and

j^ is

STUDY

perfect

OF

square

divided

into

than

4ia^ x'^

bx

"

(1)

"

Let

b'^^^ac

4:ay
Therefore
b=

"

is

bf

"

k'^.

b"^

4:abx^

"

(2ax

"

bf"k'^.

(3)

{2

ax

b-\-k

is, m

bY

"

because

for

the

of the

means

^2

which

~YJ~
is

or

b'^^4:ac

"

we

2^

~"

less

may

than
"

present,

is

the

b'^-\-4:ac,b

consideration

decompose

g"^(^pj^qs^^which

"

"

"

k) {2ax

"

of

(3) into

gives
b-^k)

is

less

quantity.

negative

formula

general

{2ax

b
_

g2-"(^p

"

4ay

from

when

Vb^-^4ac

b^

"

b^

negative quantity,
by

k'^,or

2a

b^ -\-4:ac, therefore

Leaving,

b
^~

(2)

2a

Now,

b'^

{b'^^^ac)

"

when

"

Then

{2ax

4ar

"

zhk,

That

than

cannot

before,

4iay

ax

-\-c

factors.

yz=:zax^

4iac, ax'^ -\-b

let

Now,

As

MATHEMATICS.

b^ is less

when

(3)
be

THE

ON

140

the

factors

X-

/^X

"

"

following

the

satisfy himself,

j i"

(^

student

should

the

following

ax^

-\-b

Recollect

-\-c

that

both

by

erence
ref-

by

actual

i)

"

] [^

1/221"9

l/221-f9\/

r.

the

together

arrived,

have

of

"

collect

we

truth

22=r:5|.(jc 2)2

r,

If
we

-{-l=^[x

22;c +

"

the

and

just established,

2(^-3)

5|;c2

of

\^

Qx

2^-

examples,

some

should

ones

multiplication

3jc2

before,

ji"

are

student

to

2a

proved

been

2^

the

I4I

The
which

"

has

what

from

-\- dx

"

jr +

"2a

Therefore,

DEGREE.

SECOND

"'^

ax^

THE

OF

EQUATIONS

to

take

which

species
to

care

different

6"x ^^=

of

^^67

at

tabulation

himself,

accustom

1^24 ^''6x1

results

we

which
the
have

ax^

"

x-Y

r=i

H"
"f

"

H'^^
ax^

bx

"

jl"

^a

ax'^ -\-bx

\/b^^4.^c

jr

"

"

^i

four

of c]

same

into

x'^ -\-b

values

of

contained

these
X

of

of

(C)

account

the

into

well

as

made

-\-c

can

be

x.

For

example,

either

we

and

m=

the

call
n,

we

:r

also

find

2^

we

first side

the

the

that

the

seen

we

of

sign

(A)

necessity

negative quantities which

positive

the

as

in

of
to

(1),

-\-c

the

ones

four

forms

nothing

by

if

of
two

when

^U

"

values

which

signs

from

is made

if

one,

(A) by changing

or

of

equal

-\-bx

in

example,

each

account,

j ^^)

2-a

For

have

ax^

If

_^
^^

"

"

change

We

equation,

an

take

side

way.

taking

satisfy

be

the

that

from

second

the

in the

we

for

rules

is made

(C)

of

v^

already established.

have
of

may

cases

b'^^^ac

2.

those

apply

b\

2^

These

^^^

"

"

yijij^4^ac^b\
a

^a

VW^^aTc-^bXl

"

MATHEMATICS.

OF

STUDY

THE

ON

142

of

derived

the

from

equations

that

n=

2^

(A)

EQUATIONS

In

the

OF

THE

marked

cases

DEGREE.

SECOND

(B), (C),

and

I43

(D),

the

results

are

m=

n=

"=

"=

-.

and

in

all

which

is

the

four

the

same

(C)

2^

cases

used, is the

(B)

^^

form
the

as

of

x'^ -\-b

-\-c

form

corresponding

of

a(^x
and

the
both

I say,

if

if ^^

that

be

is then

no

(B') both,

In

(C)

since

one

positive,

In

any

is

quantity

either

is

and

(D')
and

the

we

other

the

other

must

the

V b^-

real

negative,

4tac

"

or

ative.
neg-

positive.

values

for
of

one

-\^c

and

ui

these
the

and

",

values

negative

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ON

152

let

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ON

154

THE

STUDY

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Therefore,

ki

ax'^-\rl"x-\-c=::-j"

4a

if 4ac

which,

is 0.

called

real

imaginary
of

the

or

both

in any

an

all the

is real

of

them

equal
"

to

to

c-^{b

d^ let b

1=

equal

"

;
a

"

that

real one,

be

d^V

is,
which

as

then
an

"

real.
and

a-\- bV

"

on

is

is

c-{-e\/
"

imaginary

one

ary
imaginThe

nothing.

to

Now,

is absurd.

the

imaginary

which

that

1=^0.

"

sults
re-

had

transferred

equal

that

its solution

and

its left side

when

d-=e\

"

and

both

sions
expres-

followed

are

tion
equa-

same

of these

in which

terms

thence

true,

the

occurs

together, such

equation just given

a

arises

4ac

"

either

generally

have

possible

l?^

every

roots,

application

would

occur

each

becomes

is

sions
expres-

are

that

two

sult
re-

applied, produce

be

They

say

It

the
as

side, the part which

must

has

been

1, when

"

degree

equation

expressions

-[-dV

we

from

proposed problem

real

rules

roots.

and

imaginary.

process

of k"^,the

when

roots

imaginary expression

an

When

the

as

roots,

second

will follow

of the

place

results

same

wherever

instead

negative, will, if the ordinary

the

La

then, that the imaginary

the

take

{-":, in

4a

substituted

It appears,

which
is

/^^ be

"

p
"

-r-

transposed
if ^ is
1

not

0, and

expression

Therefore,

is
d

OF

EQUATIONS

This

goes

If

real.

that

the

they
1

"

to

imaginary expression
-

have

"

some

inconsistency
concerned,

is

is

"

as

of

difference

will elucidate

at

by

once

is

son?

and

of

This

2.

problem
when

was

to

or

the
which

negative sign

arises

of the

"

and

twice

two

from

the

as

years
too

since

his

son

twice

father

be

years

from

will be

father

the

56 -\-x,

therefore, 56-f.T

and

is the

is 56

father

is,

and
fifty-six,

equation
56

old

29

son

the

as

In

ago.

great

58

Ix,

"

belonging

one

his

"

the

change

we

to

this

the
case

limitation

or

the
old

years

son?

surd
is ab-

result

The

2.

it becomes

equation
father

ing
mean-

then, is the

What,

happen

if in the

throughout

this
age

indicates
real

as

of

following problems

will

29-}-^;

son

nevertheless,

sign

the

58-l-2^,

2(29-f .T)

when

Let

then

the

of

that

old

far

As

pression
ex-

either

that

problem

a.

"

father

the

present time

as

negative

the

equally imaginary,

are

The

years

as

of

signification?

twenty-nine
old

both

this.

and

"

absurdity.

or

inconceivable

as

solution

the

occurring

;c

express

respectively

done

resemblance,

this

them

as

are

ity
absurdto

are

be

equation

The

a=c.

and

c,

wish

we

d, it may

and

to

necessary

and

b,

a,

no

If, then,

others

is

there

so

two

that

supposition
not

are

reduced

thereby

possible quantities

two

equal

the

on

l/

in

is

originalequation

the

and

I55

DEGREE.

SECOND

THE

swer
an-

the

in the

156

THE

ON

how

is twice

father

have

years

many

Again,

be

will

If

wrong

of

from

In

be

may

either

case,

instance

the

the
tive
nega-

is not

result

the

the

product

tion
ques-

case

imaginary.
it is

in

Take

required

is i^.

sult
re-

problem

the

to

it
or

negative

answer

is

the

by

out

however,

which

parts, whose

two

equation

of

past

choose

we

the

solved, in which

above

into

result

event

reducing

rational

equation,

an

case

This, however,

given.
the

problem,

this

in this

given

the

pointed

in

In

been
form

to

mistake

interpreted,and

be

divide

had

suppose

will be

the

elapse before

suppositions

result.

equation.

an

to

two

error

of the

will arise

the

the

this

one,

form

either

demanded

son

order

In

have

will

or

problem

way.

necessary

future.

his

as

the

suppose

should

elapsed

old

as

last-mentioned

may

MATHEMATICS.

OF

ot the problem, which

terms

to

STUDY

The

to
sulting
re-

is
x^

"

ax

-\-l"

?2

or

the

of

roots

^,
x=| i^"^"
4

which

are

imaginary

when

l? is greater

a^
than

If

"

change

we

the

sign

of

in

the

equation

it becomes

x^-\-ax-\-d

or

and

the

the

first

are

so.

x=--^"yj'j-i,

of the

roots

There

second

are

imaginary,

is,then, this distinct

if those

of

difference

EQUATIONS

the

to

answer

of

sign

in

forming

that

problem

is

admit

of

problem

the

either

may

we

negative

the

between

too

negative,

equation

which

discover

limited,

imaginary

an

or

that

the

When

is

not

the

the

result,

that

the

method

question

extended

be

may

answer.

this

in

error

the

case.

57

When

changing

by

produced

show

and

result.

imaginary

the

is

satisfactory
is

and

problem

equation

DEGREE.

SECOND

THE

OF

of

of

so

answer

as

the

to

to

CHAPTER

ON

ROOTS

'T^HE

IN

GENERAL,

of

meaning

-*-

proceed
of

the

will

NAME

of

Square
of

Cube
Fourth

OF

The
been

of

of

Power

with

of

and

powers
the

Powers

a^

a^

series

is

lowing
fol-

student

the
:

x:=uaaaa

in

terms

The

x=aaaa

expressed

Roots

*The

the

ion
connex-

a.

of

memory

We

x=aaa

different

equation,

of

powers

the

meaning

the

attending

the

following
a^

are

a^

connected

of

roots

together

hitherto

have

way

a^'^'\

a""
.

which

defined.

been

already

root,

x-=aa

Power

Fifth

root, cube

square

X.

has

refresh

the

to

respect

terms

difficulties

of

roots

table
with

the

to

LOGARITHMS.

AND

the

fourth root, etc.,

now

XI.

etc.

va,

by

the

etc.

following

(^i/a)*'
=:a.

usually

omitted,

and

the

square

root

is written

thus

Va.

IN

ROOTS

of

manner

found

we

shall

led

be
the

powers,

is, to find
of

it will be

it

Suppose
2a^

required

b^

has

been

find

in the

b^Y_

raised

the
to

letter

every

by

power
n,

extracting

that

the

the

manner

power

is found.

The

of the

coefficient,and

guided

by
not

the

by

index

give

whole

of

justifythe

of 2a^b^

that

rules

common

is

the

numbers

a^H^\

b'^\
^

'

single term

any

index
and

n,

is ", is

may

Raise

multiply the

the
index

be
efficient
co-

of

is,

{a^bwy
In

peculiarly

will

cube

^l

64

whose

power
the

of

result, '^a^b^, which

general rule by which

to

raising of

most

The

2" 7y
the

rules,

following equation,

Similarly {Z aH^y

and

the

the

as

of

here.

2a^b^.

y^2a^ b^ y^

powers

combinations

of which

treated

to

multiplication give,

expressed

and

importance

to

the

denoting

have

we

extension

roots,

algebra

the

which

at

of

of

both

the

by

and

59

the

between

roots,

common

are

method

which

indebted, and

length

and

powers

extraction

to

two,

to

connexion

no

Nevertheless,

roots.

the

been

expressing

LOGARITHMS.

AND

properties which

no

and

hitherto

has

There

GENERAL

a"^b"U"\

of

root

in
is

rule

divide

any

simple

which

the

Extract
the

as

the

we

are

corresponding

the

index

Where

root.

term,

these

required
of

each

letter

divisions

quotients, the

root

do

expres-

l6o

ON

sion

whose

the

is

root

extraction

16^12^8^4^
given is

2 ^3 ^2

the

as

2 ^^ /^2^ X

^}-jg fourth
(2 ^^^2 ^-^4^

or

the

to

Any

f/liB

third

the

V^

fl3

the

same

v"^

into

two

admits

be

i/B' i/^.

The

of any

root

any

factors,
of whose

root

For

example,

observe

that

16

expression

found

which
hitherto
^

stand

be

can

for

are

is

the

f^

f^,

f^^

#^^

tracted
ex-

the

to

generally, that

root

factor

the

^,

of representing

way

is the

dividing

by

rule

the

we

it
it

highest which

the

/^c, the

cube

second

known,

f^B

simple

2, ^^ is "^ X

when

fA

extracted

expressed by

used, but

be

its factors.

finding ylQa'^d'^i:

is 8 ^^ /^^ X

The

most

be

in

is 8 X

by extracting

2ab'^f^2abc.

formably
con-

is,

expression

can

given.

the

c,

may
of

proved

of which

one

AB,

raise

1^^

it may

way

]/ABC=

2a^b^

AB.

or

In

is

each

of

For,

f^A' f/A'

fA^

or

2 ^3 ^ V,

as

of which

result

f/'B

fA

such

root

f/B.

fA

power,

here

of which

product,

by extracting the
Thus,

of

root

rule.

of

root

new

expression

2 ^^ /^2^ X

root

of

some

fourth

'pj^g

following

admit

not

of

the

extract

v'^16"i2^8^4^

"j^(j

same

does

introduction

the

example,

Qj.

the

extracted

be

to

MATHEMATICS.

OF

without

For

symbol.

STUDY

THE

just
must

i^" is h^ X

b, and

of

which,

cube

root

of

each

has

means

numbers

f/labc maybe

cube

no

of

factor, is

the

which

root

symbols
a,

found

b, and
either

ROOTS

or,

when

find

that

exactly,

We
as

Thus

is the

AND

^^ X

(^*)^, which

as

of

root

product

of

indices

the

of the

2/T

For

since

root

of

This

is

is the

v'^a v^
same

when

it is indifferent

thing

same

root

these

found

factors, that

same

is the

a,

the

square

of which

\/ a.

is

generally

is done
For

and

since

the

f^'^

f^aX

f^a^

Thus
^aX

a-

cube

f^a

extracted,

root

first.

by taking
is

root

is raised

power

{^a )

ci

cube

the

the

/~r

i/li,and

which

as

be

may

Ys

(i

v^,

as

71

Again,

ci

^^"

Thus

roots.

two

rt;*"^'^.

or

index

whose

root

two

^'*j or

In

is the

root

a^,

is a'^ X

(^a")"'a'"''.

manner,

of the

^^ is

^^ X

^'

ing,
affix-

by

indices

of the

generally (a"'Y

Therefore,

is found

power

product

(^a^) or
same

possible, by approximation.

of

power

l6l

LOGARITHMS.

is not

that

index, the

an

powers.

This

GENERAL

IN

d,
root

of

the

is

the

cube

each

of

{f^a)^,and

generally

In

the

by
that

To

prove

expression
any

v^^%

number,

and

without

"V^^

that

both

altering

is

this, recollect

may

Va"'K

the

be

tiplied
mul-

sion,
expres-

62

ON

But

THE

i/a"\

rz=

raising

result

to

the

OF

{a"'Y,and by

a*^^ is

"i/a"^^
to

STUDY

v\a"'y

definition

This

its former

root, in the

is

equivalent

afterwards

reducing

value, by extracting the

same

way

as

corre-

if

fH

sponding

fore
There-

ar\

multiplication

v^a*^,and

of

power

MATHEMATICS.

"

til

signifies that

"

np
has

been
to

The
the

multiplied by/,

and

its former

by dividing

value

following equations

student

familiarise

to

principles hitherto

Via

the

^+"'/rZ~\

l.\M"m

V{a^J?y-"'

Aab

has

it

by/.

be

with

been

stored
re-

established

the

by

notation

and

laid down.

by-'^ X ^V{a

"

result

should

him

v^a

n"m/

-.y

V{a

"

by+'''

"

a-\-

v^

b)''=a

"

"

b J

{/^

Lb

"

V7d

\/a"-^b'

is
quantity v'^a"'

The

1/^12
be

divided

be

can

^6^ f/^20

__

divided

symbol,
in
We

vided

by

by

viz., a

may

give it
such

^4^ and

letter

fractional

simple

without

without

it be

__

n,

any

general,

remainder,
has

has

meaning

that when

expression

remainder,

in

which

form,

\d

'^

^c

V7Vd

whenever

which

we

is fractional

"

?n

can

This

a'^'^^a*'.

hitherto

example

exponent

an

not

for

when

ing
appearbeen

used.

please,
in form

pro-

only,
-'

and

not

in

reality, that

is, when

;;/

is divisible

by

ROOTS

GENERAL

IN

LOGARITHMS.

AND

63

n,

the

and

is /,

quotient

shall

""

stand

for

a^,

or

ni

\/~^, in

for

stand

convenient

It will be

(/)*"

aaa

is fulfilled, since

which
when

a"

=/,

"

condition

the

case

let ^"

to

or

alluded

a"^

always

This

a^'

to

of

extension
be

rule, the

which

familiarise

will

of this

cases

notation

new

'^ a

stands

for

v"^

for

if ^

ai stands

for

i/a'' or

J"1

^^

translated

j^

until

{\/a)

"~i/^^+"

for

J^

stands

w^hich

at

for

Stands

(/-}- ^)^

1/

into

this

notation

in

it has

been

use,

va

in this

arrived

V-^";

repeated/

for

language,

new

common

({/?"

have

we

{ABCy
is

different

(#^^)^

or

for

stands

X")

"This

table,

:".

\a"
results

stands

(/-h^)

continued

\/ a}- q"x

for

for

a"^'

soon

stands

as

the

with

ah stands
a*

following

the

student

the

ah stands

The

in

exemplified

is

apparent,

will

of which

advantages

are

as

ter,
chap-

follows

(1)

=X

A^B^C^
anB

ineans

Thus

times.

a+a+a+

(/) =/"a,

aXaXaX

(/;

"^.

(2)
that

aaa

is

to

be

164

THE

ON

The

STUDY

advantages

notation,

resulting

expressions
shown

hold

to

such

time

(1) that

are,

MATHtMATICS.

OF

quantities as

is

the

writing algebraical

in

which

good

have

been

operations

performing

a"", hold

of this

adoption

saved

rules

all

(2)
for

good

from

for

also

upon

performing
ni

the

operations

same

the

which

exponents

last assertion

upon

fractional.

are

proceed

we

quantities

such

^"j

as

of this

truth

The

in

establish.

to

"m

Suppose

it

V^'

and

aF,

or

l/a*"+^,or

required
Va'.

From

(2)
it

Suppose

"

multiply together

to

this

is V

required

now

a"'

a''

and

^',

or

multiply

to

and

a"

a^

From

a^.

and

second

the

is the

first of these

(5) the
is the

same

The

a""^.

as

same

as

product

fnq-\-np

of

these
^"^

"

by
^

"

the

last

and

\- ",

is the
were

together
the

"^

or

T^^^^+^.

But

therefore

a"

indices

IS

nq

This

is

case

result

same

whole
two

indices, and
It follows

^^

as

numbers.

make
in the

the
same

was

The
of

powers

sum

=^"

the
the
way

obtained
rule
same

index

that

is

when
:

To

'

the
ply
multi-

quantity, add
of

the

duct.
pro-

ROOTS

IN

GENERAL

165

LOGARITHMS.

AND

"m.

divide

to

one

and

make

a''

^"

divisor

"

^'

from

difference

required

l^" J

z=

so

"

\a" J

or

find

to

on.

\a"

result.

It is evident

"^/

9"i\^

nip

\a" )

a".

'^

1/

or

Similarly

=a"

Therefore

Again

dend,
divi-

and

a"

tract
sub-

the

of the

y,i

\a" )

of

that

index

the

find

to

"x/a""^--^"

quantity by another,

w\

of

the

the

it

Suppose
that

of

pti

"

"^

power

index

the

inq

"?

^"

"

or,

7)1

^n

iL
_

this

Let

a""

be

xq

Then

a^

a"

\a^ )

or
,

fore

"

or

"

Again

a/

and

it

Therefore

\a" )

The
another

rule

suit.

All

to

hold

which

one

the

exactly

will

complete

proved

that

two

index

of the

indices
one

to

powers

which

those

the

this

quantity

of the

still remains

there

^^P

^"

"

of

power

when

good

and
,

product

are

last

a"

mp

a'"^

indices

the

the

rules

But

have

raise

To

make

these

numbers.

We

multiply

and

shown

been

is

power,

together,

ni\t.

mp

a"'^

=^

the

Apply

"

\(^")

that

appears

a"-^.

\a")'^or\/\a" J

find

to

wp

a"

nq

There

z=a''.

a^

or

la" )

and

"

rules,

two

a'',

re

have
whole

are

remarkable

tension,
ex-

subject.

whether

;;/

and

whole

be

a"'
or

fractional

which

have

numbers,
been

"

considered

a"'~'\

in

The

forming

only
this

cases

rule

are

66

ON

those

in

the

produced,

pie, suppose
find

we

hitherto

tion

methods

is the

-^

ing both

its

in

the

solution

former

rational

rational

exam-

apply

we

must

we

and

case,

result, a~^ may

result.

Now

the

is obtained

a^.

result, for which

be
frac-

divid-

by

by

fore
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MATHEMATICS.

subtraction

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167

LOGARITHMS.

solution

whole

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accustomed,
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work

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logarithmic

thoroughly
and

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operations

recourse

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practice

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be

method

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proceeding

the

means

hitherto

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calculations,

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of which

performed

by

examples

of

they

occur,

elementary
which

addition,

he

has

for

work.
been

subtraction,

indices, instead

of

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68

THE

ON

In

order

make

to

Bruhns,

Places

of

4.

following

the

of

Vega's Logarithmic
English

With

of Logarithms

Manual

vide
pro-

editions

Seven-Figure

London,

must

to

ace.
pref-

Seven

(English preface, Leipsic, 1870).

Decimals

Schron,

3.

of

him

to

Berlin).

New

he

logarithms,
Either

various

(Weidmann,

Tables

2.

of

table.

Bremiker's

[1.

MATHEMATICS.

recommended

be

may

OF

use

with

himself
works

STUDY

tion,
edi-

(English

Logarithms

1865).

Callet,

Tables

LogaritJwies.

de

portatives

(Last

impression, Paris, 1890).

5.

Caillet,

V.

des

rithmcs

7.

Chambers's

8.

The

American

*The

original

to

(3) Babbage,

these

are

are

to

the

Lalande's

in the

United

of

Jones,

of

of

text

as

(i) Taylor's

follows

Hassler's

States.""

""/.

for

astronomy.
For

Tables,

(2)

those
the

the
The
who

first

most

and
a

has

may

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o/" Sines, Cosines,

first and

last

operations
third

pocket
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enter

Logarithms.

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second

published

works

Hutton'"

accurate

require

to

paragraph

following

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Hydrographiques,

et

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of

us

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Callet, Logarithvis

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student.

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allow

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0/ Nutnbers;

works,

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sub-

^^.]*

XXIII."

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for

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on

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see

of this treatise

trigonometry

spherical
suited

logarithms,

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(4) Bagay,

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(Edinburgh).

Tables

six-figure Tables

''Tables,"

limits

recommended

of

of

substituted,

been

(London).

bibliographical information

Article

The

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et

of Haskell.

of tables

tannica,

Tables

Mathematical

fuller

For

Logarithmes

Mathematical

Hutton's

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des

(Paris).

nombres

6.

Wells,

Tables

of

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volume

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France,

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IN

GENERAL

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4.6202818

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4.6202922

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41713

algebraical expression,
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ple
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Arithmetic,

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LOGARITHMS.

definition, theory, and

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than

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MATHEMATICS.

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STUDY

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LOGARITHMS.

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THE

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172

instances

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STUDY

For

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171

(jc-]-hy

4-

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111

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and

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41713

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the

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41713

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table

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decimals,

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places

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of 41713.27

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of

tenths

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logarithms

successive

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tables

41713.

of

in the

exception

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when

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0000104

73

the

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logarithm

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.27, and

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near

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larger number,
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LOGARITHMS.

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174

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may

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Copies

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The

i68.
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of"

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scarce,

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of

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to

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219034.717.

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MATHEMATICS.

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STUDY

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English

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Cyclopedia,

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CHAPTER

THE

ON

this

IN

chapter

this

the

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variety

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whatever

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of

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in

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which

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Algebra

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tinual
con-

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to

on

still

and

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gaining

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rules

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parts

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selves.
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geometrical,

Calculus,

to

connexion

attained

great

thing

and

extent

the

application

Differential

the

their

already

of

parts

remaining

preceding

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treatise,
of

and

of

Trigonometry,

Geometry,

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cute
prose-

present

algebraical,

are

applications

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though

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in

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called,

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name

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ad-

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remaining

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field

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in

algebra.

student

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give

manner

present

By
the

in

ALGEBRA.

OF

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studies

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STUDY

we

to

as

XII.

to

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any
standing
under-

exhibited,
This

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book,

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given.

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176

in

impossible,

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process
mind

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THE

ON

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student

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etc.,

with

must

not

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be

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of his hand

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fillingup
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book.

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act

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understand

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full

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vinced
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parts

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symbolical part

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must

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by the

trust

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ditions,
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square

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taken

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in

have

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filled up

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results

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MATHEMATICS.

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mathematical

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of

STUDY

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of doubt

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To

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there

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to

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replete with

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articles

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works

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and

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refreshing

works

the

edition,

comprehensive

sciences.

subject.

drawn

M.

of

1896). The

les Sciences

consulted

contain

of W.

comprehensive

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mechanics

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be

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views

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lars)
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mathematical

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Dauge

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study of mathematics

of Probabilities,

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work

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also

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Philosophy

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But

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Comte's

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divisions

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foundations

still very

publishers.)

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books

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books
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work

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translations

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notes

French

begins

Paris, Colin,

Elementaire,

read

edition, 1888, Paris, Gauthier-Villars).

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examples.

to

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is still used

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(Gauthier-Villars, Paris).

volumes

mathematics,

language, f

every

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elementary

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time.

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student

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will

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MATHEMATICS.

collection

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algebra, developed

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Algebra

together

large algebra

student,
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of the

point of

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Macmillan)

and

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than

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formal

works.
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matter

more

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text-books

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theory

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work

French

?,

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standard

high
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Algebra

der

der

fur

Algebra

advanced
is in progress.

"

Analysis
(Teubner,

(Vieweg,

treatise
Ed.

on

"

G.

dcr

algcbraider

Oct.,

Lehr-

(5) Werner

Teubner).

Leipsic,

1898.

Mathe-

Methodischcs

Braunschweig,
has

in

Elcmente

Elevtenie

Lehrersetiii-

und

(6) Oskar

Stuttgart).

(Frommann,

algebra

of

Monism

"

Biermann's

Schulen

that

other

statement

561,

(Leipsic, 1891, Teubner).

etc.,

algebraischen

Algebra

B.

hohcre

of
for

Samm-

several

Theorie

Baltzer's

Leipsic,

Algebra,

p.

Holzmiiller's

(4) Gustav

starting-point

nnd

IV.

basis

the

on

also, for

Vol.

Monist,

ciples
prin-

elementary

containing

series

cheap

(3 parts,
und

I'orlesungen uber

most

serve

may

Aritlnttetik

his

see

the

science,

the

Schubert

Hermann

of

monistic

all excellent

Selbstunterricht,

Lehrbuch

translation

of

(also in French).

Handbuch

expositions

for

connexion,

Prof.

(Leipsic, 1895). (2) Petersen's

Arithtnetik

is the

g.,

consult

following

zinn

Netto's
Weber's

and

Recently

this

in

language.

which

extremely

an

works

Mathetnatik

besonders

Eugen

(e.

Elcmentarinathematik

SchloTnilch'

braic
alge-

of

text-book;

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entitled

pages

idea

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work

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expositions

English

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SchnWer'

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(2 vols., Leipsic,

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six hundred

upon

of

mentioned

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(Edinburgh,
nearly

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history of algebra.

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Chrystal

the

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forms,

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study

English

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volumes

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of

and
a

works

readers

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lung

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two

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sources

arithmetic,

of

and

publishers).

in various

has,

principally

profound

subject

the

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in

compendium

German

of

of

Professor

published

(same

few

benefit

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to

has

Chrystal

as

is

poses
pur-

logarithms,

and

Panton's

to

purpose

Co.).

Algebra

differs

and

form,

and

studies

ordinary

algebra

Y., 1887).

(Ithaca, N.

publishers),

treatment

the

For

Much

presentation

the

the

upon

trigonometry,

to

Burnside

is
"

Green

exhaustive

very

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equations.

Algebra

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Longmans,
A

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some

algebraical

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Treatise

theory

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useful

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algebraical reasoning.

VIII.
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189

ALGEBRA.

merit, though

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English

OF

vols.).
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(8) Hein).

yet appeared.

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AF.

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we

I-

C, and

through

pass

line

CE

correct,

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the

and

in

there

points,

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with

CE

from

points

in AF

straight

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duced
pro-

point C,

intersection
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lines

Fig-

There

point

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each

connected

viz., the

space,

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possible

it is evident

as

different

etc.,

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AJ^

any

viz., the

in AB,

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lines, AJ^

two

take

CB

CF,

that

point

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C",

195

Consider

another.

one

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and

GEOMETRY.

OF

of

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is

The

word

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plane
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to

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reference

practical

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will

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or

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but

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thing

ascertaining
a

hard
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Neverthe-

understand.

furnish

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definition,

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ig6

such, indeed,

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ascertain

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sea,

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to

length.
most

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geometrical theory) by saying

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of

points lies wholly

relation

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upon

definition

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matical
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surface

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plane

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to

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the

render

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MATHEMATICS.

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STUDY

THE

ON

notion

common

in which

hour.

the
to

in

direction

direction
tell

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By

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cise
pre-

form.

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OB,

round

respect

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OA,
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lines need

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remain

first coincident

with

continually

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The

OA.

furnish
not

opening

line
to

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straight

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fixed

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to

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magnianother
to

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illustration

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to

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pair

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In

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passes
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tv/o
case

continually increase.

DEFINITIONS

THE

this

and

opening

change,
line

AOB,

OB,

fall

of

with

The

being
under

Every
and

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length

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has

; but

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is the

the
the

that

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measured

OA,

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opening

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made

few,

at

number

this

arises

line

by

the

period

of

has

means

name

angle

an

this

from

begin

who

this species

make

to

not

opening

lines, the

of two

CPD

does

To

BOA.

tude
magni-

seldom

len
fal-

geometry.
of

another,

representative
their

as

lie upon

the

OB,

on

those

same

if PD

of which

one

time

then

and

the

ing
open-

not

opening

of

the

as

OA,

of

does

opening

measure

of

the

and

difficultyhere

O, and

on

at

OB

is BO

any

longer

same

certain
as-

if the

part

one

to

as

fall

become

CPD

so

place,
may

which

OB,

observation

thus

point

OB

than

given,

OA.

without

if PD

and

magnitude,
is

its

opening AOB,

OA

is greater

angle

from

to

But

the

than

of

Thus

and

opening

OA.

between

CPD

greater.

upon

falls between

is less

is the

will lie upon

PD

but

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the

according

lies upon

PC

lie

may

if the

then

two,

that

so

of PC,

OA

or

PC

two

since

with

removed

be

CPD

other
the

of the

197

magnitude,

of

species

compared

be

may
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figure

is

opening

GEOxMETRY.

OF

of

studies, have

198

ON

been

accustomed
be

may

another,

THE

OF

the

to

contained

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magnitude

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find

either

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of

this

of

means

ing
opentimes

of

fraction

measures

by

that

number

certain

ma}^

MATHEMATICS.

consideration,
a

be

may

Nevertheless
of

STUDY

in

another.
new

cies
spe-

time, length,

or

number.
One

magnitude

when,

if the

second

is

when
to
same

doubled,

doubled,

trebled,

manner

quantities

need

barometer

the

the
the

height

barometer
stands

which
at

of
of

atmospheric

its 28th

of

part

hours

the

at

weight

twelve

round
that

Suppose

hand

makes

with

be

given.
suppose

just described,

line

OA

many

line

to

equal openings
to

by

number

move

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position

spring

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angle, and

of

height

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if

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to-

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for

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inches,

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part,

o'clock

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yesterday

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case

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In

in

ures
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mercury

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corresponds

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times.

of

o'clock.

as

the

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to

the

Again,

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instances
This

of

; that

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first

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to-day.

angle which

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in which

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yesterday stood

yesterday is increased
the

measure

atmosphere

inches,

29

etc., the

the
the

of the

pressure

trebled, halved,

first does
be

not

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multiple

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as

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multiple

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fraction

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to

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fraction

any

the

is said

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cupied
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balances

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ilar
sim-

moves

uniformly,

angles

in

equal

completely

DEFINITIONS

THE

round,
four

hours.

will

be

OC,

and

that

which

and

the

in

in

eighteen

be

OB.

hours

the

moving

in six

hours

it will

twelve

in

hours

right angles,

Again,

OA

and

with

or

is
and

OB,

in

are

in

be
OC

perpendicular

which

OB

and

OA

line

line

The

OD.

equal angles

at

199

position in twenty-

first

position OB,

makes

to

its

reassume

Then

in

is said

to

as

so

GEOMETRY.

OF

OA

to

the

same

right line,

but

make
the

right angles.
itself
after
line
carry

an

opening

an

of the

sum

opposite

on

angles

opening

and

may

also

equal

revolving through
its

reassumes

this

notion

angle which

or

AOC

line

to

four

four

COB,

said

be

for

equal

is

equal

or

to

right angles,

if the

We

moving

the

to

to

two

with

make

right angles,

original position.

farther

dently
point O, evi-

the

of

sides

since

moving

may
line

even

be

in

the

is, for

that

by

than

right angles ^

position for

its

the

since

elementary

important

It is
make

plain

from

we

reach

(1) that
OA

placed

and

attained

of

of

not

are

they play

algebra

right

to

algebra
"But
^^.

use

through
first

is

used

mentioned.*

above

is made

not

of

it in

some

which

modern

(in

the

the

angles with

or

openings
is

conceive

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second

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and

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OA)

the

of

composed

The

again.

angle AOE;

of

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as

it

thought

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also

openings

two

OA

to

; but

application

have

we

line

motion,

the

geometry

the

in

take

an

the

to

mention

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them

to

angles,

of

theory

in

part

which

greater

third, fourth, etc., time,

of

commencement

in

use

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opening

an

and

second,

the

etc.

moving

the

that

sented
repre-

AOE

suppose

opening,

scribed;
de-

right angles -|- AOE,

fact

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represent

following angles

which

well

equally

apparent

any

is

right angles -|-AOE

formulae

These

hours,

right angles

four

12

it will

elapsed,

twenty-four

every

AOE

angle

the

of the

any

after

have

additional

every
that

so

MATHEMATICS.

hours

position

that

OF

when

OE

position

recover

STUDY

THE

ON

200

the

moved

EOC,

in the

except
Of

the

text-books

two

of

cede
re-

in which
the

described

angles

or

sition
po-

move

in geometry

simply

more

to

it must

position

is called

OE

original

it has
which

line

as

COB,

application
angles just

elementary

try."
geome-

alluded
and

to,

the

THE

DEFINITIONS

one

must

second

referred

plain

lines

does

their

position

less

greater

the

that

the

angle

depend

upon

if either

be

not

still remains

angle

increases

have

the

curve

Let

the

the

AB,

point
made

angle

continually,
as

is

the

the

right angles,
the

usually

one

straight

their

by

while

the

line

the

by

towards

has

reached
curve.

lines

the

at

mo-

disappears altogether

and

in which

of

one

the

curve,

that

increases

AB
lines

ing
contain-

diminishes

out
with-

intercepted part disappears

it would

have

line AG,

lain
which

of

line.

straight

it is evident

of the

and

points

two

line with

moving

the

gle
an-

line

the

contained

so

magnitude

join

much

upon

straight

angle

take

this

of the

if while

example,

the
as

of

two

lengthened,

or

and

by
but

length

For

move

When

length,
tangent

and

made

opening

given

intercepted by

limit.

any

is

one

and

nothing.

any

it

first

same;

decreases

or

definite

when

becomes

the

two

shortened

Fig-

ment

20I

than

or

it is diminished,

containing
may

be

GEOMETRY.

to.

It is

the

OF

had

tirely,
en-

it had

is called

202

ON

In

elementary

different

for

signs,
of

the

in

in

angles
the

which

attain

fourth

must

right

would

since

between

principles,

to

the

or

manner

in

be

any

the

the

and

the

also

to

mon
com-

measure

in

Figure

if measured

OH,

through

openings

second,
than

greater

is

from

direction

same

method

the

to

is,

there

be

and

et

112

OA,

third,

and

two,

one,

and

respectively.

angles

rather

or

would

It

example,

OG,

ent
differ-

pages

science

the

for

OF,

positions

proceed

We

of

in

in

length

3),

application

having

as

Treatise.

this

move

those

angles

three

at

0",

OA,

line

stated

only

by

from

upwards

to

direction

made

angles

considered

branch

latter

one

be

of

part

the

In

on

(Fig.

OH

same.

lying

angles

AOE,

as

the

would

first

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such

as

reasons

equal

two

line,

they

algebra,

seq.,

of

considered

be

MATHEMATICS.

OF

geometry

sides

would

of

STUDY

THE

the

of

method

ought

to

of

science.

reasoning

of

be,

deducing

no

in

reasoning

essential

results

in

etry,
geom-

general,

difference

from

first

CHAPTER

ON

GEOMETRICAL

is evident

TT
^

be

can

evident,

that

depends
assertion

parts.

Thus

consists

of:

right angle

is

be

generally
reduced
is

of

the

the

the
to

''all

the

of

verb

is,

the

or

(3)

the

stands

as

affirmative.

the
All

iowrih.

d.

are

in

the

this
or

The

under

third

every

which

the

case

thing

pula
co-

asserted

phrase,

thus

is called
a

universal

negative:

equal

or

always

1, and

gles,
an-

copula,

can

is called

second

particular

right angles

equal to, and

below

affir77iative
proposition

since

the

(2)

angles.

The

equal,"

are

of, viz., right

predicate,

written

it.

distinct

joined together,

self-

not

three

universally,

other

subject, viz., equal

universal

1.

is

ositions
prop-

preceded

into

spoken

are

or

if it be
have

subject;

two

soever,

simple

right angles

of

spoken

the

one

which

subject

part

affirmative;

divided,
a

(1)

of

which,

divided

be

phrase,

of

form

what

number

those

the

is

to

each

can

in which

manner

last

upon

is here

which

of

reasoning,

at

assertions

Every

REASONING.

all

reduced

or

XIV.

(magnitudes).

lar
particutive;
nega-

ON

204

2.

Some

3.

No

4.

Some

triangles
circle

lines

which

2.

angles

are

equal,

the

angles
The

or

different

and

of

those

being drawn,
to

are

1.

as

or

2.

Some
or

3.
or

the

the

No

includes

the

essary
nec-

lines

the

four

are

and

the

them,
all

of

ments
argu-

species

one

of individual
a

tinctly
dis-

be

may
to

circle

the

be

These

predicate.
of assertions

species

the

assertion, generally

every

number

cases

subject
figures

just alluded

is contained

of

of

of

the

the

the

circle

circle

is

triangle

triangle having

them

Since

of

point

is

of

point

part

isosceles

assertions,

points

triangle

points

circle

of

compounded

let

follows

Every

the

equal.

predicate.

subject,

it is

parallel

an

triangle

by referring

speaking,
in its

which

or

of

base

species

are

and

subject

preceding

change

meet,

the

base

conceived
of

the

first

at

never

at

the

which

the

isosceles

an

at

of

one

which,

form

meet.

never

The

to

of

lines

Parallel

in

appear

in them

make

to

equilateral (figures).

not

are

instances

are

its diameter.

to

reduced

be

cannot

MATHEMATICS.

equilateral (figures).

convex

assertions

following

1.

is

OF

are

triangles

Many
sight,

STUDY

THE

the

in

circle

is

entirely without

are

point

the

of

points

point
the

of

the

angle,
tri-

triangle.

contained

is

circle

circle

is

of

in

the

triangle.

the

the

angle,
triangle.
tri-

triangle,

REASONING.

GEOMETRICAL

4.

Some

triangle, or
On
the

circle

observe

that

we

also

which

is true

first

and

fourth

the

all is true

of

third

do

need

fourth
for

be

the

third

The

and

true

of
into

predicate.

mistake

No

begin geometry,
the

they find,
the

the

identity

given

to

laid

the

the

subject

and

subject

is

the

square

is

and

one

called

contradictory.

by changing

the

subject into

the

than

in

four-sided

by

be

that

that

called
name,

founding
con-

the

those

which

declared

to

to

be

square,
whence

every

and
the

since

name

ties
properothers.

no

figure having
is, let

all

merely

the

have
and

true,

is not

predicate

who

Thus

true.

are

predicate,

right angle;

figure having, etc.,

be

and

propositions

which

magnitudes
in

figure

first

necessarily conversely

are

those

the

its converse,

and

of

assertions
and

increased

number

other

first

common

of which

down

Thus
sides

all

the

more

rather

converses

of the

asserted, but

is

is

by

definitions-

and

each

The

are

is made

proposition

which

to

third

and

some

and

these

while

contraries,

and

second

with

untrue.

subject,

the

together
tendency

others

the

of

true

the

of

two

proposition

is

Again,

that

second

the

inconsistent

second

the

converse

predicate

the

called

are

and

fourth,

all.

Also

reason.

same

must

of

true

from

; while

any

from
which

that

necessarily

not

are

the

be

not

or

some

follow

not

since
fourth, 7iecessa?'ily,

only

of

follows

third, since

the

from

the

triangle.

the

second

the

of

points

not

are

is outside

part of the

these

first,as

circle

of the

points

205

equal

four-sided
let

no

truth

other
of the

2o6

ON

Also

in geometry

are

triangles

equiangular,

all

are

figure

is

point

of ^

case,

and

is

points

li

the

also

form

the

species,
if

''

no

that

universal

points
we

can

of

B,"

infer

proposition

either
Now
not

among

of the
"

every

speak
all

of ^,"

is

From

true.
or

is not

nothing
in A.
is not

subject

as

It is

whether

plain

that

necessarily true,
or

predicate

than
is

is

equiangular

third
true,
ferred
be inThe
sarily
neces-

or

is

more

said before.

equiangular,"

triangles

not

converse

if it says

was

are

within

the

equiangular triangles, but

possible

not

entirely contained
to

that

oi B."

points of

"some

equilateral triangle

of all

point

from

The

it may

of

made

thus

particular negative, is

entirely contained
a

is

point

some

conversely

is

The

inferred

be

negative,

point of

''no

conversely

of

of ^

point

be

right angles."

are

the

species

converse

it may

equal,"

be

conversely

first

species

second

the

are

species, the

fourth

B,

of

''every

may

is

in

point

entirely.

The

if the

conversely true,

equal magnitudes

so7ne

not

this

verse
con-

points of B,

are

of A.

points

first

the

imply that

not

of A

points

right angles

since

Of

every

figures coincide

two

some

are

is

take
all

if

of B

assertion

((

*'

although

of ^,"

that

proved

affirmative, the
Thus

true.

B,'' does

point

is, if the

since

true,

of

point

equilateral

equilateral.

are

species, the particular affirmative,

second

to

necessarily

not

all
it is

which

from

proved

facts

the

Thus

true.

universal

the

species of assertion,

of

many

conversely

equiangular triangles

is

MATHEMATICS.

OF

STUDY

evident.

is

converse

THE

that

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GEOMETRICAL

found

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all

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to

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saying

therefore

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plane

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cient
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in

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assume

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whatever

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than

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therefore

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exclude

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triangles

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general

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demonstration

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then, for

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discovered

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to

we

and

various

There

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assertion, of which

which

angles,

The

of

But

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207

REASONING.

lines

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2o8

ON

STUDY

THE

allel, yet in solid

be

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as

than

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the

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Such

MATHEMATICS.

the

geometry

plane

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OF

and

part,"

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statement

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proposition,
from

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at

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as

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the

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it may
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side

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angles

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species of hypothesis much

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verse
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Instead

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than
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REASONING.

consequence

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209

GEOMETRICAL

the

either

to

tions
proposiarithmet-

21

ON

ical

their

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than

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MATHEMATICS.

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REASONING.

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former

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whatever

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Again,

syllogism,

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ied.
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state, is called

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because

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ometry
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is useful.
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are

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The

major

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two

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two

predicate

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212

ON

Suppose

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form

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And

of

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predicate

if the

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they

called,

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falsehood

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middle

The

Whately's

Logic,

by all mathematical
of which

many

The

colleges.
shape

comforming

more

oy Deductive

Elements

Logic

in

English:

Jevons's

Bradley's

Principles

Logic:

the

Logic;
weg's

or,

Eorvial

methods

Logic;

logic will
Principles
of Logic

Logic, recently

of Logic

and

History

may

translated

and

is

in the

Studies

from

T.

and
in

in

SlU

bolical
Symand

the

German;
"

Ed.]

presentation).

Deductive

author's

same

Fowler's

following

of Argument

of Logical Doctrines.

tions,
edi-

presented

Logic

than

rather

the

read

Logic, Deducti^'e

Read's

Process
;

be

academies

our

Empirical

and

both

in modern

mentioned

represented

Sidgwick's

of Knowledge

in

or

ised.*
general-

should

material
be

truth

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of Science

which

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will

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tions,
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icate
pred-

above

case

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collected

[a.discussion

be

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or

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the

'E"a'\n's Logic;

Logic;

Morphology

Sigwart's
System

modern

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ascertain

edition.

which

Systetn 0/ Logic

Strictly contemporary

the

recently, widely
in

works
to

Keynes's

Mill's

Inductive:

until

were,

following

first,and

correct

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[Whately's Logic

students.

be

are

be

must

76, third

page

to

them,

term

the

of

both,

few

into

take
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other

different

rules, being

one

any

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sixty-fourmoods

very

entering

would

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each

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of

four

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general

common

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without

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I.

each

forms, and

this order

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any

subject

subject

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to

But

and
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the

both, which

are

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second,
be

term

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to

since

with

still further

be

being

term

universal

number

different

possible

every

from

the

compounded

may

in

(called moods);
four

of the

conclusion

varied

where

64

or

may

two.

and

negative,

vice versa,

proposition
one

be

to
to

4x^X4,

MATHEMATICS.

premisses

two

affirmative

particular, and

of

OF

just quoted

from

will

STUDY

the

now

syllogism
way

THE

works

Logic

Bosanquet's
Essentials
and

Ueber-

of

REASONING.

GEOMETRICAL

what

premisses, by
the

of

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third

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pothenuse,

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the

and

sum

lines

of

the

and

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Thus,

equation
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sides

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square

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number

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units

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stand

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the

connexion

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being

stated
syllogistically
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is

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process

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ascertain

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"2_|_^2_.^2

with

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21

equal quantities,

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and

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in the

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and

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and

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premiss.

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ond
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premisses.

if all that
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in

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tained
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since

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third.

in the

Thus

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part

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conclusion

no

proof either

no

things

two

is

following

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square,

negative,

are

have

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circle.

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is not

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or

with

it

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not

or

speaks of

assertions

following is

premisses

fact, as

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triangle.

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consistently

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both

circle,

square

of these

only.

drawn.

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the

each

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Some

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parts

comparison

passing under

is in the

conditions,

shown,

of

term

these

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the

before

middle

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All

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MATHEMATICS.

the

the

two,

nothing,

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part of

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name

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STUDY

different, and

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at

THE

ON

214

both

clusive
incon-

III.

None

of the

circle

None

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square

If both

can

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can

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proves
IV.
can

be

premisses
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thus

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circle.

particular,no
from

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conclusion

instance

that

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circle

Some

of the

square

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is

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in the

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formed,

conclusion,

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asserted

conclusion
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gener-

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of

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ment
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and

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premiss

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conclusion

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of

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as

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other

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only

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VI.

circle

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of the

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we

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negative, the

asserted

disagreement

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must

in

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is

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can

For

is

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and

term,

square

only part of it,

but

be

premisses

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between

agreement

the

whole

the

is in the

negative.

negative,

which

premiss,

square

of the

be

must

in

be,

must

Part

square,

since

minor

the

conclusion

V.

is in the

subject,

circle,

is in the

conclusion

the

be

mentioned
the

if

Thus,

premisses.

in the

than

following,

would

should

215

REASONING.

GEOMETRICAL

square

premiss

particular.

be

For

triangle.

in the

is not

particular,the

conclusion

from

example,

None

of the

circle

is in the

triangle.

Some

of the

circle

is in the

square,

deduce.
Some
If the

of the

student

now

square

is not

applies

these

in the

triangle.

rules, he

will

find

2l6

ON

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This

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ning
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E

eleven

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figures, drawn

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either

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in number,

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to

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necessary,

MATHEMATICS.

moods

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OF

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STUDY

sixty-four

in any
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THE

middle

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A
A
A

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A
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4.

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Some

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both

middle

The

II.

Figure

217

REASONING.

GEOMETRICAL

is

term

the

predicate

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premisses.
1.

is in the

is in the

is in

the

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of the

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None

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4.

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2l8

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b,

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syllogisms

219

syllogisms

distinct

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to

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Fig. 1.;
a,

REASONING.

GEOMETRICAL

basis

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220

THE

ON

STUDY

angles

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MATHEMATICS.

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221

REASONING.

GEOMETRICAL

draw

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of

sides

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222

ON

THE

(already proved)

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MATHEMATICS.

OF

STUDY

and

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REASONING.

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224

ON

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19

17, 18

The

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If two

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225

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GEOMETRICAL

By
its

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226

ON

STUDY

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OF

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227

REASONING.

GEOMETRICAL

is

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is

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228

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In
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of

based,

which

country's

though

premiss, though

now

to

and

perfectly correct,

was

his

citizen

repeat

possess

by

vantage
ad-

first),suppose

and

tyrant

of his

tyrant

the

in that

We

is

slaughter

the

was

destruction

was

real

illustration

(page

that

of every

the

is but

there

the

actors

by saying,

does

result

every

since

work

The

student

whole

the

pursue

raised,

not?

or

the

this

be

to

To

the

we

superiority

possesses,

opened

we

which

which

on

in any

not

asked,

certainty

facts

the

refer

study consist?

possibility of verifying

the

is

it be

may

we

treatise.

mathematical

of

again,

respect

of this

chapter

what

In

in this

studies

229

the

struction
de-

reasonings
which
that

cur
oc-

there

ON

230

premisses

no

are

STUDY

THE

denied,

first

no

principles

to

which

the

be

applied

we

dignify

that

reasoning
and

etc.,

fact

by
us

the

to

porter,

of, and

heard

never

Borough,
get

at

in

nothing
did

the

know

he

convinced

that

right-angled
of the

told, that, well

lives.

with

sides.

of

proposition
who

example,

city to

who

that

he

kind

those

from

previous

enable
to

must

which

by

series

equal

of
to

the
the

of the

water

which,

might

hypothenuse
sum

in

ing
differ-

of

he

has

it is

reasoning,
a

to

he

the

cross

of

act

other.
an-

directed

being

propositions,

square
is

which

geometry

street

directed

are

inquiry, finding

on

an

triangle

those

is the

such

yet
lives

our

may

ill,they have

or

And

of

performed

the

Gentilhomme,

Bourgeois

concludes

it, has

culty.
diffi-

of

logician,

the

from

parcel

for

cess
pro-

the

their

one

the

mathematician,

actions

from

pass

is

ideas

such

of

name

imagine

exactly identical

processes

carry

to

all

commonest

the

being

that

who

the

on

can

many

is for

the

the

this

that

be

if it

observing

on

by

attach

perhaps,

reasoning

been

to

think

may,

like

who,

surprised

be

to

they used

There

Some,

''no

notions

on

applied,

consequences

loth

be

may

which

to

simple

such

be

of

matics,
mathe-

In

certainties,

can

whatever.

any

that

space."

been

degree

same

following,

on

of innate

name

to

reasoning,

reason

we

the

the

to

have

to

never

enclose

can

therefore,

as

which

to

as

straight lines

two

MATHEMATICS.

certain,

so

attached

is

evidence

OF

of

squares

be
a

CHAPTER

XV.

AXIOMS.

ON

application

then, is the

GEOMETRY,
those

to

properties

self-evident,

are

further

step

for

be, is allowed
be

can

of

axioms,

and

of

be

being

these

The

from

proved

to

the

to

been

not

more

given straight
considered

as

other

is, which
is

enclose
than
line.
open

one

The
to

possible

space,

not

(1)

called

and

fulfilling
are

equal
viz.,

erence
reftwo

through
be

drawn

has

never

can

these

it

that

incapable

two,

parallel
first of

are

which

axioms

to

any

strate
demon-

In

have

reduced

be

axioms.
of

if that

smallest

requisite

one

it may

to

it should

that

number

that

cannot

the

it is

(2)

the

Arithmetic,

lines

point

therefore

assumptions

These

self-evident

evident

demonstration,

with

axiom

an

really geometrical,

given

truths

is carried

however

is

puted.
dis-

be

cannot

science

this

question

assumptions.
for

therefore

without

pass

conditions,

straight

of

figure which

and

space

propert}',

no

geometrical

number

should

rigor

to

given.
all

which

and

the

But

of

logic

of strict

objection

it has

ON

232

always passed

all

the

of

information.

to

as

*But

1884,

p.

242,

and

208

p.

the

subject

Origin

and

article

in

"

the

Second

vient. Part

pcedia

Lie

American

n.,

et

65

pp.

Basis

is

in

given

Paul

(Leipsic, 1895).
and

the

New

de

be

Stackel's

Theorie

of Geometry

found

Monist

and

Geometry,"
in his
of Axioms

side, consult

at

and

In

II. p.

length, from
Analysis
and

of

related

and

by purely

consistency

similar
the

p.

of

Ginn
51

the

in

Jodl's Psychology (Stuttgart, 1896}.

"

Ed.

B.

Halsted

those

The

of

in

sor
Profes-

such

the

of

ences
refer-

also

P. Tannery

philosophique,
%

Foundations
sumptions"
(1844),"as-

operations.

(See

Foundation

of

the

Co.,

seq.,

Old

(logical) "predications,"

mental

"
et

auf Gauss

volumes

See

Bo-

times

on

Revue

formal

Boston).

has
On

(Chicago,

discussions

date

bis

'Rw%%"\V

point of view.

Sensations

Vol.

the

recent

Delboeuf

note.

Flaw

"A

Calculus,
(^Chicago),

till

Euklid

A.W,

B.

and

to

and

G.

Ausdehnungslehre

1464, Grassmann,

Directional

of

bibliographical

in this

1898, and

in

literature

seq.,

Dr.

recent

valuable

Grassmann's

the

of

J.

the

in

ginerale

replaced

are

of Philosophy

Mach's

references

October,

merely

Hyde's

Primer

Rexme

published

Lobachevski

von

Piof.

mentioned

not

et

1893-1895), and

where

Morale,

1897).

"axioms"

Court, Vol.

Philosophique,

of the
for

presuppose

essays

of

Encyclo-

Non-Euclidean

261

parallels

Parallellinien

the

literature

(Cambridge,

which

de

et

volumes

The

der

of

theory

controversialists

other

to

the

is

subsequently

Series

Neovionic

Essays,

Hypotheses

the

and

of

p. 215,

Raisonne-

in the

I., pp.

translations

the

of

are

{Revue

of

and

Carus

interest

Of

recent

in

Poincare

in

history

and

in the

Open

and

Metaphysique

will

The

compilation,

Geometries

Poincare
Revue

Vol.

had

de

on

of Hyper-Space

been

Helm-

HI.,

and

Sciences

technical

written

be

Lectures

enormous

has

full

the

Vol.

which

of

ogy
psychol-

ScientificSubjects,

on

les

cussions
dis-

works:

Mind,

Essay

however,

may

(Austin, Texas).

of

part

following

translation

modern

Measurement"

"

of Mathetnatics,

Much,

instance,

Riemann's

Bibliography

Journal

seq.

See

also

of

light

dans

and

For

York,

philosophical

Clifford's

K.

"Axiom"

of Geometry,

55-69.

pp.

last-mentioned

lyai,for

XV.

cf. Halsted's

Geometry,

the

Vol.

IVorks,

subject

articles

Physics^ New

Lectures

Mithodes

Des

considered

popular

Axioms,"

W.

27-71;

pp.

Duhamel,

the

the

at

Clifford's

1881,

drawn

of Modern

the

Popular

author's

be

has

in the

Geometrical

of

through

itself,and

consult

may

any

in

For

seq.

generally,

reader

same

p. 317;
and

2;

Britannica,

Which

of

the

et

that

been

always

the

afford

to

parallel can

Theories

248

p.

Meaning

has

grounded

are

vague

viz.,

one

and

of Axioms

the

Series, London,
I., p. 297,

and

too

self-evident

not

seq.,

pangeometry,

holtz's

this

et

is

than

more

this

on

straight line, since

second,

J. B. Stallo, Concepts

see

of

Vol.

not

assumption

an

and

the

But

It is

which

on

the

to

given straight line,

self-evident.*

straight line

given point

MATHEMATICS.

proposition

relative

reasonings

definition

OF

perfectly

as

made

account

STUDY

THE

the

Paul

the

ject
sub-

psychological

1897), and

works

Dr.

treated

as

the

graphical
biblio-

James's

chology
Psy-

233

AXIOMS.

therefore
We
be

the

called

been

proceed

for

By taking
the

first

propositions
One

I.
from

angles

those

just

be

may

y^ to

oi

axioms

to, the

only

line

given

to

only,

following

AD

this be

Let

CD.

equal,

are

AB.

taken

be

BD

let fall

be

can

one,

and

BC

and

AC

B,

alluded

and

Fig.

the

conceive

we

on

also

as

the

3.T\diBAD.

BAC

Whatever

III.

what

on

of geometry.

strictlyshown.

distances

equal

sides

both

the

perpendicular,

If

II.

disgrace

arithmetical

granted

of

point

any

it

place

to

and

footing.

proper

with

defect

the

BA

angles

be

may
C

and

6.

the

BAD

are

length
each

of

BC

less

and

than

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right

angle.
IV.
CD
the
AD

Through

line

may

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be

two

and

ever

making

which

ADB,
From

so

far
the

it is before

proposition

never

drawn

be

parallel

meeting

CD,

produced), by drawing
angle

DAE

shown
IV.

we

equal
how
should

to

to

to

though
line

any

the

angle

do.
at

first

see

no

"^^^

ON

234

drawn

be

to

since

is,

CD

to

the

angle

assure

and

AB
towards

AE

first be
and

revolve

on

there

will

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for

when

which

having
the

is the

that

they

will

they

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meet

together
is

to

be

parallel
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when

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less

or

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part
and

if

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only
of

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which

of DA

on

angles,

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proposition

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which

and

one

his

axiom,
at

meet

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the

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of

allel
par-

equal,

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ADF

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assumes

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and

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he

parallelwhich

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meet

less
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lines
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than

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consequence
two

has

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drawn.

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further
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assumption

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right angles; which

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angles

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other

angles

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than

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on

reality the

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degree

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angles

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This

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from

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of intersection

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make

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the

point

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cutting

proposition

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drawing

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of

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to

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many

direction

equal

DAE

as

as

line

any

appears

of doubt

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''take

immediately
It

being

through

taking AD,

MATHEMATICS.

OF

there

against

reason

STUDY

angles

maining
re-

AE

side

right
of his
of

235

AXIOMS.

triangle
which

established

is

thousand

is

involved,

it has

In

that

proved

is

one

the

parts

the

two

been

there

always
of

perpendicular

these

without

given

equivalent
indeed,

down

to

would

have

Greek

geometer
to

notion
be

of

made
that

the

axiom

those

admitted

confines
which

have

may

for

in

all

though
come

of

such

all their

example,

it

Euclid,

difficulty.

boundaries.
to

last,

same

of

name

notion

his

entirely
be;

the

the

without

extended

coincide

extent

by

thing
some-

this

geometry,

had

that

Of

never

erations
involving consid-

but

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received

equality
to

of Euclid.

given,

probable

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betw^een

intercepted
of

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been

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perpendicular

previous assumption

sanctioned

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thing,

proof

at

parallel

the

lines

another

has

usually
than

more

For

this

has

proof
not

it is

to

Euclid.

name

the

been

parallel

the

to

been

superior,

one

that

perpendiculars

always equal.

are

from

such

of

hitherto

cases

by

any

of

sort

always

define

to

to

lines

are

has

most

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belong

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effort

made

equidistant
this

allowed

be

can

in

and

proposed

are

point.

every

has

already

one

been

which

those

as

of

assumption

equal,

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difficultyto

of this

difficulty,but

the

some

least

at

example,

to

as

success,

assumption

species

elude

or

made

experience

the

by

some

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avoid

to

without

in

that

years

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mention

any

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two

found

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made

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parallels.
two

less

together

are

The

tudes
equal magnithis

Suppose
spaces

extent,
the

as

can

ever
what-

unbounded

236

THE

ON

contained

spaces
sides
of

other.

the

In

of

sides

of

and

of

one

contained

contained

Now

the

that,

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space

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those

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tion
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by

coincide

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second,

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we

another,

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to

angle

one

sense

same

double

angle being
sides

of

made

be

whose

angles

end, which

without

sides

the

equal

two

equal angles might

by laying

MATHEMATICS.

OF

between

produced

are

the

STUDY

by

by

the
two

suppose

-^

Fig.

lines
and

and

Oa

produced
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spaces

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PQ,

with

be

will

(^(9P

Every
at

line
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in
the

to

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small

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letter

is

to

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produced

placed.

equal

off the

each

another,
ad

the

draw

OQq,

angles OPp,

right angles.

two

parallel

the

another,

one

make

are

this

that

so

take

Oa

another,

one

infinitum, and

etc., ad

etc.,

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Pp, Qq, etc.,

*

QR,

with

angle

any

infinitum.'^ On

ad

Pp, Qq, Rr,

etc., shall
as

making

Ob,

7.

being

such

Then
and

injinituvi,from

Ob,
the

that

in-

tremity
ex-

AXIOMS.

finite

bOPp,

spaces

and

coincide,

to

of

whatever
since

bOa,
tuvi

OF,

FQ,

the

two

right angles,

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bO

equal

is less

than

aO.

Take

the

falls beneath

Oa,

That

manifest

itself the

Now

equal.
we

equal

to

the

second

the

space

Fp,

bOFp,

as

second.

angles

the

is

We

great.

so

is greater

bOt
line

the

while

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space

Oi

the

Fp

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Therefore

together

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than

two

than

of

therefore, that

which

make

be

cannot

did

be

entirely

which

bOFp,

whatever

evidently
fall

gle
an-

all

more

last; for if Ot

then

two

less

at

bOFp,

would

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space

number

conclude,

than

cuts

first is

to

are

and

the

it is

added

etc.,

bOt

Oz

than

given

other

any

no

line

proof, since

spaces

of

each

is greater

bOt, tOv,

the

between

last

continually

spaces

pFO\

wOx,

the

no

exceed

number

less than
and

vOw,

bOz

needs

comparing

certain

the

unless

infinite

on

that

see

cut

the

angle

being

angle

will in time

sum

again,

the

possible

any

tOv,

infini-

Ot, such

falls

tO

this until

that

so

this is

that

angles

line

bOF

and

number

ad

together

than

made

infinite space

any

are

bOF

continue

bOt, and

the

be

is, less

finite

contained

there

pFO

that

tOF

to

bOa.

and

angles tOP

whence

be

be

can

no

fill up

etc., may
Let

etc.,

Also

will

Oa.

that

qQRr,

equal.

spaces

line

the

upon

pPQq,

are

these

237

never

less

than

within

with

right angles will

the
third

if

meet

sufficientlyproduced.
This
a

new

demonstration

species

contained

by

of
the

involves

magnitude,
sides

of

an

the

namely,

consideration
the

whole

angle produced

of
space

without

238

ON

limit.

This

for

No

but

whatever,

with

which

reasoning,
other

definition

reasoning, in

Thus

soon

the
of

have

two

of

kind

this

for

the

it appears

without
the

The

theory

two

the

are

holds

space

contained

alteration

in the

truth

made

real
of

very

difficulties

proportion,

to

of

to

of any

this

the

is

to

sary
neces-

tion
introduc-

some,

(to

these

ited
unlim-

we

be

even

so

defined

right lines,"

two

theorem
is

us

in which

point which

beginner.

geometry

which

discover

the

with

by

But

clear

that

closely connected,

unlimited

be

also

more

regard

very

angle is found.

that

to

of

angle might

term

however,

how

said

be

can

cies
spe-

they

and

nothing

in geometry

; the

that

word

cannot

that

see,

and

plied
ap-

is discovered.

measure

diminution,

equal force,)with

an

so,

they

and

be

can

perfectly new

whose

equal,

not,

or

or

be

All

angle

spaces

''the

so

them.

of

as

whatever

can

is

is

of

one

increase

of

the

whether

much

and

conception

capable

equality

beginners,

to

magnitude,

it is

of

cal
geometri-

and

least,

at

cases

criterion

angle,

no

other

diminished

is, in fact, the

this

ing
compar-

cal
mathemati-

or

magnitude;

term

all

as

kind

space

kind.

of

increased

same

of the

given

as

the

finite

same

subject

be

tude
magni-

to

as

against

of the

the

can

of

things

others

feet,

square

any

reason

than

greater

of

it and

no

become

is

therefore,

between

affords

may

and
spaces,

comparison,

that

thing

finite

of

magnitude

Any

MATHEMATICS.

unbounded,

instituted

be

can

by

is

OF

whatever

example.

this

STUDY

space

number

any

THE

now

begin

with

proceed.

the
The

239

AXIOMS.

points

are

discussion

of

such

not

however

much

into

are

as

coming

first

abounds

which

to

embarrass

they

may

the

principles.
in

difficulties

The

student,

elementary
the

perplex

raised,

hitherto

have

we

metaphysical

theory
of

both

to

which

classes.

quirer
in-

we

CHAPTER

ON

TN
-*-

surfaces,
another

one

Nothing

except

that

the

is

magnitude

equal

in

that

is the
of

the

excess,
as

We

now

the

it

to

has

country

at

fifth

book

Euclid,

In

sides

of

of

England.

is, or

of

of

that

follow

of

the

the

Todhunter's

in

the

as

great.
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in

light.

new

been

have

in

use,

down

in the

complete

con-

laid
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theo-

or

universal

theory

Euclid

is

proportion

almost

Considered

greater

are

from

is considered

by

together

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may

Thus

measure

no

other,
an-

equal

two

are

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one

than

them.

triangle

fact

anything

least,* of

t See

less

or

sum

one

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difficulties, which

some

materially augmented

double

doctrine

the

this

the

be

magnitude

subject

than,

to

non-equality.

or

announced

proposition

does

nor

is

when

third, the

the

come

geometrical
The

to

whether

to

fact

two

or

relation

other

no

equality

to, greater

two

of

essence

of

occasionally
is said

than

in

lines,

two

geometry,

simple

magnitudes

proving

of

mentioned

are

than

but

greater

PROPORTION.

first elements

the

XVI.

(Macmillan,

London)."

"""/.

241

PROPORTION.

quest

over

this

its

guarantee

to

difficulties
so

connexion

primary

arise,

much

in

as

to

open
The

to

third

first

the

or

not

is

strictness
this

But

lines

not

are

infinite

greater

We

the

compasses,

works.

one

in

in

or

proceed

to

chain

the
and

of

sitions
propolittle

as

other

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of ways

other
show

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with

the
two

use

the

elementary

to

that

say

There

nothing.

two

are

one

line

may

be

given line, though

there

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how,

be

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the

down

ne-

some

times

by

other

sufficient

in

to

of

laid

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determines

them

readily ascertained

upon

it is

another,

Whether

two.

Euclid

step

pronouncing

number

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in

than
the

here

connexion

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principles

number

which

well

and

which

one

on

equal,

less

with

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observe

to

equal

utmost

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them,

measure

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lines

two

is contained
are

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together,

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aware

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line, and

third

bound

examine

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apply

to

to

sciences

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tude,
magninotions

come

the

two

ematician
math-

disputation.
is

student

cessar}^

the

are

and

connexion

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of

geometry

cavil

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comprehending

strong

as

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in

joining

demonstration

when

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the

other

any

it is necessary

geometry,

of

geometrical

to

is

moment,

present

whether

But

ity
immortal-

the

speculations

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at

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necessary.

arithmetic
the

be

deserves

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wholly

might
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would

had

nay,

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well

existence,

ciple,
difficultyof prin-

acknowledged

Euclid

of

book

of which
the

and

great

equal

from

the

to

the

common

given

one.

notion

ON

242

of

measuring

OF

STUDY

THE

line, the

MATHEMATICS.

geometrical method

strict

more

is derived.
To

the

measure

of

(the edge

equal parts,

ten

made

which

of

take

to

gives
neglected

part

is

again

that

is divided

into

while

only,

subdivided
division

the

tenths

may

be

carpenter's

rule

less

in the

of

tube

of inches

eighths

or

is

sion
subdivi-

last

anything
Thus

inconsiderable.

as

equal parts

This

figure.

practice until

small

so

into

parts

line

it another

to

is divided

in the

as

in

place

apply

AB,

ruler),which

(as inches), each

into

line

barometer

rB

mark

much

of accurate

in

are

concerned,

for

the

figure
than

inspection shows
than

more

the
of

subdivision

call

practice,

the

which
inch.

the

line

inches
committed

this way

lines

of
in

AB

inches

ordinary

and
is
may

only

cases,

six-tenths,
less
be

than

closer

;
to

for,

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tenths

quantity
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by

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compared

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than

less

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in

inches

stops

inch

an

and

and

process

senses

contains

two

carried

was

tenth

neglected
two

error

In

ruler

ruler

line

inch,

we

is necessary

as

above

excess

an

of the

be

may
the

the

the

three

of

inches, because

which

an

that

in

that

the

as

The

in view.

shows

algebra,

far
far

as

talking

In

or

as

and

will

which

therefore, anywhere

geometry,

object

sixth-tenths

Here,

seven.

difference.

less than

and

two

less

accurate

mean

Fig. 8.

more

employed

measurement,

but

only

be

must

process

of

together

PROPORTION,

with

millionth

the

The
of

eye

in which

the

reasoning

the

scale, the

the

and

great

inch,

The

There
unless

that
who

an

inch.

more

no

the

so,

and

standard
line

Any

lines

under

always

may

what

it is evident

consideration,

notion

that

same

together
they

chosen

exact

they

of the

which
be

trary.
arbi-

ancestors,

of them

three

which

perfectly

Saxon

measure,

whatever
and

is

us

subject.

received

our

placed
of

measure,
are

from

in the
lead

will

being

commonly

barley-corn

are

the

past

lengths by

their

for

derived

is

nearly

of

the

of

tion
diminu-

step

and

the

but
mind

or

next

other

another,

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have

The

the

obvious

the

increase

follows,

the

reason

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common

standard
or

or

with

adopt

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as

foot, and

the

is

inch

our

length,
as

is

in

are

themselves

even

far diminished

so

figure

peculiar difficultyof

lines

compare

are

convince

imagination.

of measurement

process

are,

figures

inch,

an

true,

theorems

to

as

drawn

imperceptible

excessive

from

of

figure

Many

such

be

even

remain

suit

to

are

than

moderately-sized

when,

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be

it may

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to

whole

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at

must

truth

boundary

we

of

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or

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accuracy

small
for

asserted

microscope.

looking

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of
is

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to

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line

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as

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least

theorems

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is obvious

generality

of

hundredths,

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line, however

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reason

the

his

yet

of

parts

first.

at

tenths

to

notions

His

this

but

correctness;

geometer.

confined

not

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the

for

enough

of

degree

common

243

called
as

when

the
two

compari-

ON

244

their

of

sons

which

lengths

is contained

all.

For

the

to

STUDY

THE

fractional
in

denominator,

same

Thus,

two

of

better

compared

foot,

and

are

^ being

77th

part

line

which

another

of

l-i and

called

is

Again,

The

in

it

equally

to

; if

the

is

two

line

the

same

said
be

to

contain

one

by

Any
in

of

times

of

it, and

is

which

that

in each.

times

another

is called

7fiutandis,applies

lines

use

that

the

which

lines

line

in the

to

they

line, the

six.

have

quantities

two

and

C ; the

second

the

we

magnitude,

to

one

Suppose
by

-f^

magnitudes

magnitude

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order
as

sort

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and

;
as

though
tion,
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an

reasoning
be

can

to

applies
the

made

of calculation.

subject
In

all other

remarks

every

observing

lines

more

mutatis

recollected

be

must

in arithmetic.

solids, and

succeeding

our

their

y2_ and

measure

of

reduced

respectively.

is measured

definition,

same

surfaces,

or

them

contain

number
a

in

compare

lines

times

number

line which

multiple of it, as

given

exact

two

exact

an

which

geometry

of

to

by

33

an

in

measure

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to

foot

times

line

are

order

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^^,

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common

and

i^

from

measures

lines

magnitudes.
a

of

number

exact

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obtained

be

only

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exact

even

MATHEMATICS.

OF

first

These
five

C
one

of which

each

lines
and

of

and

six

six.

the

parison
com-

same

line

also.

is measured

times

which

B,

ratio
to

it five

times

the

five

of
be

must

containing

another

proportion

other
B

be

must

of

admit

may

contain

respectively,
of

five to

'If then

and

are

six,
we

or

de-

PROPORTION.

first

the

note

by C,

measure

common

6A=30C,

6C,

or

5^

5^,

or

6A"

7?iA

to

of

proportion

the

in

nB

"

represented

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to

and

by B,

the

have

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or

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they

second

the

^C,

6^

whence

and

by A,*

245

5^

0, the

and

0.

lines,

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ever
what-

or

said

are

have

to

or

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ratio

the

be

to

of

;;z.

there

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the

be

with

kind

same

first in kind

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and

and

common

times,

just

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by

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well

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as

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be

may

lines,

contain

contain

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Q contain

let

from

six

0,

ratio

be

to

five

to

six,

proportional

to

is

there

the

in

said

are

is denoted

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Q, being also

differing

reasoning

same

6/^"5(2
and

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as

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and

let them

times, and

five

have

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and

surfaces, etc.,) and

contain

(thus

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either

another,

one

measure

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magnitudes

other

two

of

as

and

thus

A:B::B:Q,

by

which
*The

at

student

algebraical
of

and

inA

line

made

is

(the

or

small

from

departed

small.

of
sort

some

mean

we

distinctly understand

must

terms

instead

large
units

all

present

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throughout

letters

by taking A,

times.

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line

in the

such

the

are

is the
letters

line

only

which

ones

is contained

throughout

in abstract

admissible.

numbers.

stand

for

AB,
times

concrete

of

meaning
for

the

letters

the

number

2,%mA

+B,

in A,

or

for
"

the
nB,

V--1

A''
,

of

itself,

mA

of
are

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line

the

nu7nbers) stands

expressions

are

meaning

common

wherever

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whole

meaning
A

etc.,

the

chapter,

A, instead

example,

contained

other

that

this

in

this, that

etc.,

the

are

wth

quantities, not

part
for

while

unmeaning,

of A.

their

The

"

capital

representations

246

ON

THE

STUDY

whole

some

two

same

time

OF

numbers

MATHEMATICS.

and

;;/

mP"7iQ
Nothing
formation

this

than

more

of

complete
which

measure,

common

in the

definition, did

would

be

theory

of

necessary

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for

the

proportion,

have

supposed

really exist.

always

at

^.

we

that,

such

however,

and

have,

right to

both

other

number

exact

We

can,
a

which

tain
con-

line
of

an

times.

moreover,

direct

duce
pro-

instance

lines have

two

common

be

may

lengths,
some

sume
as-

lines

two

B, whatever

their

exist

to

We

no

that

if the

in
no

ever,
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measure

E
D

in
Fig

the

following

9.

manner.

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side

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BC

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the

whatever.
of BC
let AB

contain

scribed
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ny^n

possible

AB

D,

\
m

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or

let

have

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since
on

let Z"

AB

square

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be

Let
AB

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ure
meas-

common

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contain

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on

right-angled triangle, the

hypothenuse
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isosceles

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be

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on

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square

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times,
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isosce-

PROPORTION.

les

the

since
be

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^^

number,

since

produces

an

shown
2m'

2w'

the

it be

Then

infi7iiium.

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which

be)
The

absurdity
then

are

proceeding

establish

to

If the

equal

if the
and

greater

Every

odd

of the

form

which

gives
divided

remainder

and

number,

i.

2, it

of

then

be

divided

where/
or

gives

is
2

the

and

these

so

ad

on

bers
num-

(if such
ad

the

By

there

infinitum.
there

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no

necessary

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divided

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be

taken

away

equal

parts,

divided

taken

when

4/2 -j.4/ -|-i,

by

Let

even.

BC.

lines

one

be

them

2/ +

ing
repeat-

further, it will be

any

of two

remainder
of

By

following proposition.

parts,

one

the

and

BA

been
Then

is manifest:

and

itself

has

whole

remainder,

numbers,

to

the

even

by

and

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an

2n"\

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n^

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equation

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;/

satisfy the

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show

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number
m

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and

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=^'27i^.

jn~

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z=i2n^

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number

be

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equation

number

number,*

2"2

same

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even

even)

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observe

odd

odd

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an

is double

AB

on

square

of

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be

to

^'^

numbers),

number,
X

impossibility

whole

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whence

BC,

on

prove
n

the

right-angled triangle,

that

247

into

away,

by

2,

whole

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i,

Multiply

which

2/2 -\-zp^

so

remainder

number.

(2/2 -|-2/) +
quotient

gives

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is
a

an

whole

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on,

i,

the

"

and

2/ +

number,
number,

into
;

re-

is therefore

by itself,
since,
and

the
j

248

line B^

the

Take

how

is evident

and

more

so

that

19

Divide

equal

of the

out

to

be

by its

add

we

C"
,

been

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dividing

in

Z^

the

into

time

be

all the

and

by dividing

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of

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and

repeating

But

is less

than

by
do

this
so

process,
with

A,

the

20

reduce

below

is

which

less

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than

so

and

since

have

this

contains

19,

is made

by

we

them.

of

one

return

may

parts, removing

process

by hypothesis.

C,

obtained, which

so

into

of

Now,

removing

line

parts

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Therefore

rest.

into

C, in forming C\

that

now

to

C"?

parts, whence

parts

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subtraction.

equal

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line

the

same

20

to

exceed

Observe

A.

of
to

time

to

parts

length

19

part, be

19th

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added

add

the

into

each

let D

of

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same

from

shall

than
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more

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and

more

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after

increased

let C

exceed

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same

successively divided,

parts

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of

parts remain

parts.

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simplify the proof

are

equal

these

of

one

increased,

19

into

20

the

to

quantity

number

its remainders

and

of

in time

To

step.

call it C.

addition

if the

than

be.

may

B, and

come

so

is the

20

than

less

become

line B

continual

each

at

that

which

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will it do

increased

time

the

soever

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to

suppose

in

shall

which

that, by

quantity
still

MATHEMATICS.

OF

small

line

STUDY

line

the

of

mainder

be

THE

ON

If
still

D,

continually.
then

we

we

can

more

by

can,

the

same

method.

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end

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depends
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number

on

the
of

obvious

subtractions

truth, that

(Z" being

if, at

the

taken),

PKOPORTION.

have

we

left

D,

"

the

at

249

end

the

of

number

same

'1

{^A being taken), we

method

the

since

in

pursued

is less

subtractions

than

both

equal
We

The

now

lines

have

no

C, therefore

resume

the
and

common

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show
be

found

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as

line

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into

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part
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I

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the

subtraction.

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much

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),

in

remainder

Similarly,

the

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remainder

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/
I

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i

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than

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any

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In

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than

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at

B.

we

of which

{p-^l)E

first

\a

'

as

whence

arrive

than

greater

and

by

times

;;/

as

shall
D.

(/-|- ^)E

ora\i
I

and

from

every

"

the

We

shall

we

pE

terms,

Algebraically,

JH

as

contained

any

of those

each

than

or

be

small

as

on.

is less

2^E, ?"E, etc.,

less, and

so

which

let it be

consecutive

first is

"

E,

and

can

greater

Let

A.

line

either

equal parts,

two

of A

part

and

E,

series

two

be

into

portion
pro-

nevertheless

therefore

equal parts,

two

last find

at

and

of

theory

can

with

pleasure,

Divide

the

We

to

incovunensurable

please,

we

C*

shown

being incommensurable,

is commensurable

please.

there

called

are

less, which
taken

less than

were

difficulties.

its

owes

be-

right-angled triangle.

which

their

to

which

-D,

becomes

"

measure,

But

same.

isosceles

AB,

since

"A,

is the

to

BC

have

is less than

~A

D,

shall

cases

"i
comes

of

Now,

since

is less

of

so

great

an

index

may

be

250

THE

ON

with

surable

less

than

with

have

seen

common

surable,
incommen-

are

found, either greater

by less

shall

we

can

will

C, of the

be

than

given

commensurable

is

B, which

than

The

is

uiA

equation
7nA

B-\-{E'

7iB

"p

be.

find

we

of ",

which

E'

where

(/

^')E,

"

would

be

or

greater

supposition.
gives

nB^=E

"

",*

pE^B

E),

"

the

against

and

it greater,

were

it may

multiple

that

so

given magnitude

soever

of

first

the

let

E, for

which

E^

values

found

be

can

any

small

how

which

n,

nevertheless,

than

less

B, he J^",

than

is less
"

and

and

and

7n

0;

surable,
incommen-

are

of

nB

"

of

for certain

than

is greater

7/1 A

kind,

values

nB

"

and

values

same

",

whole

mA

that

nB

"

no

that

make

Suppose,

when

equation

prove

which

that

are

satisfythe

will

E'

is

be

from

magnitude

there

mA

and

can

differing

B,

since

A.

We

pE

If therefore

which

quantity,

MATHEMATICS.

m",

magnitude

third

OF

is with

A, that

of both.

measure

or

STUDY

=pE

B-{-E\

whence

pmA"(pn-^l)B
is necessary

*It
nB

we

mA

nB

"

given
from
the

frequently

more

supposing

from

to

can
in

some
same

here

and

be
n

"

its form

to

have

to

that

of A

viz., that

mA

than
nB

"

is less
of

"

C,
C,
C.

than

speaking

than

certain

smaller

made
such

multiple
form,

refer

and

in

that

observe,

to

to

any

known
we
or

The

that
some

of B

mpA
imA

nB

"

"

"

[np -\-T.)B

4""^,

etc.,

etc.

of

value
When
some

multiple

following

of ^:
in

actual

say

that

can

be

values
of

from

"

it,derived

we

expressions

subtracted

}"iA

expression

of the

values.

mean

that

multiple

some

E'.

subtracted
are
some

all of
tiple
mul-

251

PROPORTION.

Let

and

VI

=i

pn-\-l^=n,

whence
viA

We

is less

which
of E'

which

least

as

than
is

great
take

cannot

found

therefore

have

n'B^E\

"

than

greater

/, since

as

p'E'
then,

being

multiple

first

the

/'

be

must

than

greater

of E'

multiples

of

where

B,

than

of E

more^

be

p'E'

Let

E.

difference

it

E'
,

exceed

to

at

Let

B.

B-^E",

before,

as

ni'p'A

{n'p'-f 1) ^

"

E",

or

m"A

of

multiples

the

the

that

This

will

at

the

million

ten

Here

is

diminution
*

33,

It may

though

as

7 is less

taken

as

than

be

roots

without

many.

8.

Thus

small

so

should

it

as

Again,
as

many

steps,

root

root,

square

have

requires

of

at

Nevertheless
tracted,
ex-

and

unity, although
extracted.

been

diminution,
limit.

who

diminished

its square

that

of

root

not

and

extent.

number

the

peated
re-

show

to

beginner,

the

please.

we

continual

of

is not
require

10, be

will

of square
case

as

any

quantity

small

square

result

to

by continuing

as

the

to

be

may

remains

only

proceed

that

imagine

number,

on,

it

ence
differ-

the

process

superfluous

appear

and
so

the

will

become

if any

and

may

step, must,

last

diminished

diminution

probably

every

of times

number

any

E";

still further

therefore

have

we

n"B

"

in which
from
of 7

as

the
of 8

to

the

point
exceed

252

ON

in

the

line

less

AB

than

points C, C,

though

diminished

greater

than

for

in

all

7?iA

such

proved

yet

AC,

step, will

every

The

on.

from

AC",

etc.,
remain

always

diminution,

of

species
the

to

so

dicular
perpen-

further

always be
AC,

dicular
perpen-

C7^

and

CE,

lines

Some

BE

Draw

CC

the
at

AD.

anything

place

take

angle with

an

Draw

BC^BE.

etc., will

and

making

DE,

take

and

MATHEMATICS.

right angle.

and

C",

is;

Z"

OF

draw

AB

AB,

to

STUDY

half

AB,

to

than

THE

contrary,

take

may

nB.

"

To

the

the

compare

quantities E,

E'
,

etc.,

have

we

equations
=B^E'

pE

p'E' =B-^E"
p"E"

B^E"'

etc.

The

we

can

for

and

E'

E",

show
finite

again,

continued,

of steps,

number

finite
and

etc., diminish

that/, /', etc.,

the

after

another

/', /", etc., do

numbers/,

lines E,

etc.

so

increase
number
on,

until

one

can

at

show
of them

and

remain

that

the
as

the

then

as

same

for

increase

must

process

great

same

increase,

then

must

only

is

the

only remain

can

the

If then

step.

every

of steps, and
we

diminish;

not

we

can

be

please

253

PROPORTION.

let this

be/^^),

which

number

the

exceeds

that/^^^

^^^^

can

be

be

as

great

can

/',/", etc.,
as

appears

remain

from

their

that

Let

as

Let

the

former

\i

be

great

as

or

same,

of

method

that/,

the

remain

is, let /=/'=/",

=B^E'

pE'

=B^

since,

they
for

same

equations

The

etc.

pE

increase,

formation,

as

show

To

please.

we

step.

oi E^''\ which

can
p'^^^

as

be

^^^^

please, observe,

we

the

them

process.

multiple

small

as

must

diminish.

steps,

first

the

and

reached,

have

from

given quantity B,

the

please,

we

the

of

remainder

/^^^^^^^is

since

will

marks

but

exponent,

an

notation

our

corresponding

Then,

is not

(s -f 1)*^step

the

indicates
the

where

not
can-

some

come
be-

E"

pE"=B^E"'
etc.

etc.

Then

by subtraction,
E'

"E"

=p{E

"E')

E"

"E"

=p{E'

"E")=pp{E"E')

E'"

"

E""

=p

{E"

"

E'") =ppp

(E

E')

"

etc.

etc.

Now,
E-E"

={E-E')(l-^p)

=E-E'-\-E'-E"

E-E'"=E-E'+E'-E"-\-E"-E"'={E-E'){l-\-p-^p'^)
etc.

etc.

etc.

Generally,
""b:^^)=e"E'-]-e'"e"-{-

_^^("

1)_^(^)

254

ON

which

THE

is derived

if this

can

/ + /^ +
since

"

"

p is

"

less

+/^

+/

of
from

This

"

times
the
1

E^'"^

To

take

is 54

which

^'

times

more

feet

the

54

times.

taken, give
that

is, it

find,

on

"

we

as

will, if

-]-2 -f 22 +

cannot

be

the

than

E'

times

-f-

for,

any

at

which

the

ber
num-

in

E\

for,

contained

is

E'

"

it is

and

should

that

in
tradictory
con-

contained

be

in E.

it is contained
suppose

step

greater

"

55

is

feet,

is

equation

54-^=

its present

process

first

If, then,

maintain
of the

and

the

addition

exceeding

sum

from

than

example

an

continual

+/"'-!
that

please;

we

is contained

"

suppose

53^

equation,

2 X

where

is absurd,

until

on

go

as

time, give

Now,

process.

can

the

unity,

-\-P'^^ becomes

+/-f/2

to

"

"

above

E"E^-^\

and

"

the

great

as

than

will, in

number.

of

infinitum, it

4-/^^"^ is

"

MATHEMATICS.

steps

ad

on

not

given

OF

from

go

of its powers

in E

STUDY

55-^+ 53-^,
E'

:=V,

continue

place
the
2^

the

so

number

same

-[- etc.,

the

of

steps.

in
not
can-

steps

many

greater

for six

same

process,

through

actually performing

is contained

and

terms

than
And

be

54;
we

operations,

2x54^=55-^+53-^
55-^

2x53-^=

4-51-^

2x5K=55^-f

47^

2x47^=55^-^39-^
2x39-^=55^+23^
3x23^=55-^+14^
We

do

not

say

that

/, /', etc.,

will

remain

the

PROPORTION.

until

same

of

number

would

-\-p -\-p'^+

"

"

be

greater

"

which

times

255

contains

than

the

but

only

E'

"

that

they
of

the

increase

And

one.

extent

any

when

and

brought
the

C, of
from
and
be

equal

near

and

E,
Let

of which

mA

lie

between

by

and

(/+l)w^
which
less

last

than
than

greater

E,

"

The

entirely

the

C, and

same

is

sort

the
are

nB

"

=.pE'

(/+l);/^

first
both
for

false

of

of

be

(^p^V)E\
as

E\

since

l)^'.
by

and

less

tity
quansecond

the

mA
the/t?;-;;/

"

71B,

numbers.

that

commensurable.

practicallycorrect,

from

proportion

notion

may

case,

much

so

(/ +

being

other

nB

differ

are

let

E' ;

nB

"p

ideas

common

upon

differ

to

this

Then

E.

quantity

"

and

by

as

expressions

being changed

much

so

mA

from

may

For

niA

pE'

that

nB

"

E.

in

to

shown

not

as

nB,

"

differ

can

not

therefore

the

let

quence
conse-

other

that

VI

and

so

so

case,

be

niA

any

B,

given

any

be

given quantity

as

and

as

much

so

therefore

Both

it may

to

until

on

diminished

be

can

please

we

as

kind

E'

to

neither
and

as

than

less

to

incommensurable,

are

taken, by the last

be

same

by

shown

nB

"

further

so

than

please. Similarly

we

in

and

greater

alread}^ been

this, that

that

place,

quantity

show

can

take

tion
By repeti-

longer.

same

we

must

it has

of

the

process,

attained

have

we

be

same

further

and

remain

cannot

if there

all
That
are

grounded

are

quantities
the
any

of

tion
supposilimits

to

256

ON

the

senses,

be

may

as

with

as

the

limits

inaccuracy
clusions

being

drawn

be

always
shown
we

found

such

this

please,

since

This,

please.
it

7/1A

the

should

the

the

not

therefore

be

the

and

and

",

as

small

as

we

at

all the

of

substituted,

as

answer,

definition

can

truth

made

perfect

have

We

^.

force

of

case

zon-

the

ceding
pre-

of

portion
prowhile

which,

commensurable

tities
quan-

already given, is equally applicable

one

of incommensurables.

case

that

to

low
be-

general

near

as

be

can

is

7iB

"

in geometry.

itself, in the

to

mA

unanswerable

reasonings

to

nB

"

all

numbers,

brought

however,

wants

it reduces

be

can

reduced

Nevertheless,

supposition

that

its approximate

be

infest

whole

be

able
commensur-

and

may

must

the

from

that

least

extent

magnitudes,

two

is

perceptible quantity.

some

jected
re-

quantity' can

between

magnitude,

of

to

since

be

quantity

any

please, which

we

commensurable

let

then

difference

the

A,

for

shown,

to

near

MATHEMATICS.

OF

imperceptible,

as

found

STUDY

THE

definition

We

already given

proceed

with

view

to
to

amine
ex-

this

object.
Resume

the

equations
n

mA

7iB^^,

"

or

A=z

"

mF"nQ

^,

or

F=-

Q
in

If

take

we

;/

^,B

other

any

expression

of

the

sort

same

;/
and

metical

,Q, it is plain that, according

"

as

arith-

the

fraction

"

is

greater

than,

equal

to,

or

less

PROPORTION.

71

than

257

"

will

so

be

"B

than, equal

greater

or

less

71

71

tl

than

to,

the

and

,B,

"

and

oi"Q

same

the

771

in

7)1

Let

,Q.

"

symbol
X

"
w

the

be
X

is

abbreviation

less

than

greater

equal

to

j,

than

of the

is

equal
The

w.'"

is

y,

following

to

than

greater

when

following

sentence

.r

when

is less

"when

than

j,

will

conclusions

is

be

is

dent
evi-

If
a

"

and

"

"

Then

"

And

from

"

first of these

the

alone

"

just noticed

have
71

the

(2)

77l'

"

following

71

771

and

"

that

fid

TIC

We

it follows
771

77ia

"

(1)

71

771

771

"

"

71

71

.Q

-Q
771

771

771

Therefore

771

(1)
71

B
in

771

71

71

or

-,Q
l

771

Therefore

,B

771

(2)
77l'A
77l'P

"

258

ON

Or, if four
the

first and

third

to,
that

as

the

of

than, that

of

follows

from

than,
third

the

nB

of

he

kind,

same

gained

by

stated

the

difficulties

of

simply
the

from

even

the

the

of

*It
inP

"

nQ

positive

are
or

the

expressed

nothing
both

the

is

on

;
be

would

that

the

for

negative,

the

propert}', since

former

for

cessarily
ne-

the

of

values
other

multiples
equi-

be

may

into

the

very

inaccuracy

there

by

saying
vi

and

of

is

that
",

and

they
n.

are

and

of

of

tending
at-

the

fraction

no

if

all

fact

the

quantities

two

and

from

arithmetical

value

if

is lost

freedom

of

of

two,

third, etc., repeating

hand,

algebraically

of proportion

and

two

inquiring

of

The

quantities,

removal

are

ter
lat-

is not.

definition

entire

an

other

every

to,

ties,
quanti-

What

determinate

same

cording
ac-

equations

definition

supposition that,

other

the

^,

incommensurable

necessity

kind, each

same

enunciated.

gain is

existence, and

their

first and

Euclid's

adopting

second,

proportional, when,

the

just

property

greater

property*

magnitudes,

four

of

ond
sec-

than, equal

is Euclid's

called

be

taken

be

the

let

says,

is

incommensurable

of

true

of this property
:

by definition, the

which,

existence

of the

of the

be

possibly

may

the

This

follow

consequences

necessary

of

the

equations

"

therefore

not

that

of

first

is greater

inP"nQ
it does

also

the

to

multiples

same

and

fourth.

the

mA

but

the

of

multiple

less

or

that

being taken,

the

fourth,

than, equal

less

proportional, according

are

notion, it follows

and

or

MATHEMATICS.

OF

magnitudes

common

of the

STUDY

THE

niA

obvious
"

nB

either

and
both

PROPORTION.

connexion

between

and

all

into

it ;

Euclid's

itself

ideas

is made

and

lastly,
called

the

which
is

not

first

the

proposition

by

of

fall under

fall under
is

propose
and

and

said

are

can

that

A,

according
numbers

and

found

C,

as

and

from
follows

from

the

one

of

in

consonance

that, if four

definitions, they
which

as

A,
A,

show

are

that

we

B,

F,

and

B-\-C
B

to

and

proportional
is, if whole

equations

C)=0

R^=^.

that

Euclid's

just given,

Euclid's, that

please

we

Q ^ F,

n{B^

the

removed

be

may

notion,

"

the
after

convinced

kind

as

satisfy the

can

to

now

read

definition

same

jfiF"n'yQ^
have

objection

magnitudes.

near

common

mA

We

last

more

The

the

tudes
magni-

proportional, if magnitudes

be

the

to
m

be

be
rest

''Four

is of

B
to

Q^
so

follows:

as

it cannot

immediately

of these

also.

four
quent
subse-

any

demonstrating

either

other

of which

Q,
F,

the

the

definition,

ideas, and

common

magnitudes

Q,

another

enter

the

could

book

the

infinity,

for

are

The

thereby

proportionals

showing

with

would

of

matter

learner

sixth

of

beginner

nary
ordi-

quantities

there

the

the

definition, and

existence

as

of

to

that

since

strong,

very

is

definition.

satisfy the

idea

existence

since

the

proportion

four

the

very

unlikely

very

and

the

proportional,

demonstration,
appear

of

involve

to

possible multiples of

quantities,

but

definition

well-established

definition
since

259

and

is, if there

definition
also
are

that
four

the

lows
follast

magni-

26o

ON

tudes

which

the

fall

other

definition

STUDY

THE

is

either

under

also.

Let

of A,

true

n,

so

only

not

as

also

but
less

than

last

may

as

that

so

be.

make

to

proved

be

can

if

make

never

mF

F, and

let

Qj and

also

less

than

pmA

"

than

Q, and

F^

still

We

have

value

let E

less

be
mP

shall

more

then, if

of mp

and

than

than

multiple
so

than

is

last

"

since

be

npQ

"

be

"

npQ

than

B^

is greater

than

Q,

or

mpA

7npF

is less than
is greater

"

shall

be

nB^,

or

than

{np-\- 1)^,
(np -\-1)^,

than

than

correct,

while

mpF

quantity

/i^ is greater

greater

supposition

will

exceeds

pE

p{niA

pose,
sup-

by hypothesis greater

is less

npB

and

which

that

been

be)

7n

np^ for which

mpA

it has

certain
of F

this
taken

so

may
of

shall
But

^.

small

then

more

are

some

be

small

(which

values

same

please,
time

same

and

the

vipF

our

given

we

F, however

while

taken

nQ

"

the

at

small

first

be

still

B,

pnB

the

as

and

in

than

small

as

take

can

less

however

less

nQ

"

be

pF

that

Euclid's

that

so

we

nB

"

shall

less

done,

possible,

be

if not,
nB

"

Q,

that

magnitude

For
niA

7?iA

nQ

"

given

follow

may

uiF

that

der
un-

( nB

make

to

E, which

magnitude

and

F,

it will

being true,

definition, they fall

first suppose

us

B,

mA

This

MATHEMATICS.

OF

Q.
some

261

PROPORTION.

Is contrary

which

A,

P, and

B,

of

to

is less

7npF is
We

then
mP

and

7?i

shall

nQ

"

if

("/ + 1)^if the

that

be

may

be

small

as

taken

so

as

quantities

four

definition

Q satisfy Euclid's

F, and

B,

A,

than

less

nition
defi-

(np -["1)^

conclude

therefore

must

than

respecting

Euclid's

being

which

from

proportion,
nipA

hypothesis

hypothesis

that

Q,

first

our

that

of

niA

tion,
propor-

and

nB

"

please.

we

Let
?nA

nB

"

mP

"(2

"

Then

mA

and

^and

F=nP.

n{B +

"

E=^nC

C)

mF"n{Q^F)
and

since
made

be

n,

Q,

and

and

that

so

that

show

to

the

"

the
as

if the

as

we

according

please,
to

hypothesis

same

the

and

to

near

which

are

to

will

exhibited

and

the

to

it may

as

"

and

please,

we

remains

be

follow
as

to

assumed,
it.

from
to

near

proportional

ordinary notion,

duce
pro-

way

only

property

be

can

proportional

are

It

proportion
can

"

notion.

last-mentioned

is, if quantities

That

we

same

the

can

according

the

and

more

please

we

F,
In

C, /'and

of

as

and

ordinary

definition

Euclid's

B,

A,

near

notion.

found

be

can

2iS

to

on

much

R, consequently

arithmetical

according

and

and

Q-\-

that

please,

we

as

(i,

by properly assuming

can,

proportional

proved,
"

with

-{- C and

common

be

small

as

done

be

same

and

it follows

to

that

and

262

ON

STUDY

THE

let

B-\- C and

MATHEMATICS.

mA

For

OF

inB

Q-\-J^he

/A-g{B^C)

in which,
that

by

the

are

and

that

shown
numbers

with

same

small

without

regard

case

7;iA

is

never

mP

being

be

can

the

at

have

any

less

or

than

time

same

That

ready
al-

being

greater

taken

so

We

and

(w

n{Q-\-B).

to

please.

we

as

this

in

whatever)

n(^B-\-C),

hypothesis, /and
as

that

quantities, such

two

the

is, if

mA

is greater

than

nB-\-nC,

mB

is greater

than

nQ-{-

then

Take

given'^ values

some

first condition

if not,

For

andjv being

then, since

the

please,

we

as

let

*It
for

true

this

In
may

give

we
w

be

are

every

Cand

given.

A*,

or

nR;

than

71Q.

=nB

mA

"

is

x"^

fiB -\-nC

y ""

"

and

and

rather

"

may
we

the

and
both
must

limits

if then

y^

"

Then

if

^ -["^^f

evidently impossible

recollect

small

as

mP^=nQ

magnitudes.

In

and

while

-\-x,

to
vi

sufficiently small,
to

and

is greater

necessary

investigation

of nC

mP

definite

of

be

tiB

equation

value

may

than

mP^nQ.

is very

is greater

some

if mA^nB,

and

fulfillingthe

n,

mA

last

and

is true

same

nB

which

for

nR.

the
that

same

the

be

true

great

very

them

suppose

which

we

therefore

it may

way

relations

therefore

be

just expressed

for
in
to

assign

any

particular

order
vary
to

are

that

case.

and

with

the

values

them;

but

and

263

PROPORTION.

if mA"^nB,

that

proved

definition
of the

definition

given,
its
to

the

and

the

used

\}i\Q method

the

incommensurable,

n,

by

nB

assign.

word

which

make

fulfil
it is

be

such

as

near

admit

to

as

as

according
It is
the

on

the

the

same

no

will

give

of

such
as

as

to

the

the

in

which

please

we

of

definition

only

not

tional,
propor-

are

algebra

as

l/2, and

notion.
admit

we

use

fraction, although

multiplied

But,

however

must

taken

being

in

also

tudes
magni-

arithmetical
that

those

fulfil

whatever

first,which

the

but

should

they

we

differ

shall

mA

magnitudes

reality as,

product.

that

0,

proportionals, they

quantity

definite

nB

"

we

never

can

condition,

that

common

principle

fraction
2

other

the

to

manner

such

of

of

same

existence

given

always,

name

please

we

the

impossible

by the

that

have

time

we

it embrace
a

fails in

we

same

mA

any

extend

condition, provided
call

than

have

We

what

case

or

so

n,

less

therefore
and

denominated

are

the

at

nB,

analogy

proportion

of

this

and

quantity

others, of which

we

in

7nA

find

proportion,

that

but

that

close

here

established

exhaustions.

magnitudes

though

so

We

magnitudes

is

the

that

nevertheless

from
to

where

and

of

definition

common

shown

bear

ancients, and

the

by

called

can

clid's
Eu-

have

we

have

we

in use,

one

cases

that

so

consequence

which

which

by

certain

take

etc.,

necessary

proportion

the

moderns

that

have

be

to

methods

process

the

seen

of

with

identity

by

is shown

"^nQ,

proposed.

one

The

rnP

it in
there

by itself,
small

264

ON

quantity

we

THE

we

name,

may

MATHEMATICS.

OF

STUDY

assign

can

multiplied by itself,shall

less

differ

which,

fraction

2 than

from

that

quantity.
the

established

Having
figures, as

far

necessary

to

their

as

proportions
the

ascertain

figures in this respect.

of

the

for

kind

same

rectilinear

no

be,

may

called
that

great

curvilinear.
in

every

the

less than

only

whose

properties
and

the

in all standard
this

or

it

self-evident.

the

This

being

figures

differ

The

circle

from

in

question

the

is discussed

Indeed,
is almost

proposition

granted,

is the

tary
in elemen-

geometry.

established

are

scribed,
in-

be

by magnitudes

curve

on

shown

may

shall

be

can

be

may

figure

proposition

curve

its sides

considered

are

treatises

other

any

curvilinear

the

outset,

number,

assigned magnitudes.

geometry,

for

their

of

the

at

soever

perimeter

perimeter

any

curve

and

difficulty

us

rectilinear

area

and

area

met

small

soever

curvilinear

of

occurs

Nevertheless,

curve

whose

which

figure, how

how

or

that

as

here

it is

concerned,

are

properties

And

rectilinear

of

properties

of

properties
of

by help

the

lowing
fol-

theorem.
If A,

B,

C, and

these, if C and
P

and

both

Q,

than

less, then
Let

A,

and

B, P^P,

always proportional,

are

be

may

made

which

they

A,

F,

B,

may
and

near

as

as

always

are

and

and

C=P^F,
P'

and

are

made

Q-\- Q'

as

are

please

we

both

greater

of
to
or

proportional.
where

D=^Q^Q,
be

and

small

as

we

pothesis
by hyplease,

proportionals.

If

265

PROPORTION.

A,

B,

be

and

F,

proportional

proportional

are

and

to

and

to

-\- F'

since

Then,

F.

and

and

Q-\-

and

and

Q,

Q-^-F

also

F
F

to

therefore

F,

Q^

let

proportionals,

not

are

F^F':Q^Q':.F'.Q^F
in

which
let

Now
which

the

the

In

same

in

the

"

/'

is

with

those

of

which,

or

(Simson's
(Ginn

classical

edition).
"

Co.,

this

method
the

This

and

of

name

contains

the

solidities,

surfaces,
the

by
form
the

are

first

may

surfaces,

the

method
of

germs

Fluxions,

the

or

principles

of

all

whether

employed,

now

to

not

theorem,

surfaces,

solids,

absurd.

consequently

B.

please

as

(2+^,

is

F,
be

can

is

and

to

than

than

that

B,

to

we

investigation

mixed

which

lines

as

under

F^

the

and

Calculus,
of

of

figures
In

methods

curve

nearly

as

rectilinear

pure

of

less

Q'

less

proved

that

prove

is

Q'

kind.

same

"2' is

than

proportion

lengths,

theory

*For

etry

of

the

Differential

in

proportion

exhaustions.*

that

the

be

represented

etc.,
of

may

which

and

areas,

be

in

to

it

way

the

hypothesis

(2+

is less

F'

that

by

Hence

-^

of

are

taken

so

since

done,

please.

we

therefore

and

be

Q'

be

as

magnitudes

and

F'

may

small

all

mathematics.

example,

also

Consult

Boston),

pp.

Prop.

see

of

and

190.

the
Smith's

and

Beman

144-145,

II.

"

Ed.

twelfth
Piane

book
and

of

Solid

Euclid
Geom-

CHAPTER

APPLICATION

ALGEBRA

OF

FIGURES,

kind

being

measured

most

useful

measure,

greatest

number

together

with

complete

the

exactly
of

fraction

of

first.

Thus,

suppose

into

parts,

and

in

the

line

taking /

first,

the

will

contains

formed

be

can

if

it, or

which

second,

the

which

remainder

in

ber
num-

first,by- the

the

contained

second

most

the

by

repeated
in

the

are

we

line

contained

the

times, with

dividing

the

is

one

But

which

one

ticed
no-

of

another.

with

line

have

magnitudes

of

express

another

is not

second

the

of

that

We

and

measure,

those

and

which

times

of

defined

by

number.

familiar, is

OF

SURFACES.

instances

several

MEASUREMENT

PROPORTION

AND

already

have

WE

THE

TO

ANGLES,

LINES,

OF

XVII.

by

of them.

Then

P
B

is to

viq-^p,

if ^

and

PI

_|_ L^

or

in w,

fixed

to

?n

-\

line, which
then

whatsoever,

if it be

"

or

is used
the

for
line

understood

that

for

is

to

be

and

that

for

taken,

also

the
is

every

^
B

q to

as

unit

be

all lines

of

comparison

of

proportion

in the

p
"

the

ON

APPLICATION

THE

OF

P
fraction

same

is to

of B

be

taken

267

ETC.

ALGEBRA,

that

is of

"

unity.

In

this

here

But
ratio

the

of

one

made

these

mA

-\-p

be

can

small

as

please by

we

in

Hence,
the
in

the

of

made

be

represented

where

is the

approximation

an

for
which

manner,

student

any

who

has
of

be

easily

stood
under-

facility in

tolerable

with

remainder

P,

contain

P,

q times

with

remainder

Q,

contain

Q,

times

with

remainder

If

the

operation
nothing.
E,

then

of which

pB,

number

of

the

common

and

so

on.

measure

the

end

For,
P

has

both

times.

All

will

by

let A
the

and

E,

one

and
same

pB

because

Again,

remainders

Let

algebra.

magnitudes

two

has
are

are

of
B

the

R,
able,
commensur-

remainders

have

contain

the

and
same

therefore

common

for

measure,

to

whatever,

purpose
will

found

be

may

B, p times

measure

as

unit.

linear

contain

on.

as

nearly

as

becoming

"

be

can

"

operations

so

nB

"

the

this

juA

we

sufficient

A,

the

performing

and

Let

as

following
by

be

can

fraction

practice

value

small

since

please,

we

take

we

never

can

n.

by

have

we

If

as

;;/

expressed

it

and

;;/

and

B-\

"

be

made

71

then

E,

being

q, which

to

taken,

impossible.

please, by properly assuming

=

can

7iB, though

"

nothing,

to

line

to

be

to

unit.

mq

cases

cases,

equal

numbers

some

linca7'

that

line

other

whole

in

shown

the

suppose

we

of any

of the

that

is called

case

an

is

exact

contain
measure,

multiples

268

ON

of E,

and

whole

STUDY

THE

if E

be

become

by

nothing.
it is

whole

numbers

please

we

From

the

the

found

be

ratio

of A

and

never

and

approximate

ratio is

near

as

as

B.

above

suppositions

eventually

magnitudes

whose

if the

remainder

the

Nevertheless,

can

to

the

end,

by

ually
contin-

be

it must,

without

that

sign

number

number,

If, therefore,
a

represented

are

whole

whole

incommensurable.

are

unit,

continued

be

can

disappears,

if

Now,

diminished

MATHEMATICS.

linear

the

numbers.

operation

OF

mentioned

it appears

that

(aj

A=pB-^P''
B

qP^Q

etc.

\b)

etc.
,

Substitute

Q from

in
the

give

the

value

result, and

Q in (r); find
the

("^)the

value

values

of

following

of F

substitute
of F

Q and

series

of

from
F

in

derived

{a), find

from

the

values

the

result, and

(^), and

so

and

oi F

stitute
subwhich

on,

equations:

A=

pB^F

\pg^l)B-Q

qA=

{qr^l)A=

{pqr^p-^r)B^R

{qrs-\-q+s)A={pqrs^ps^rs-^Pq-^rl)B-S
{qrst^qt-^st^qr^r)A=
{pqrst^pst-^rst^pqt^pqr^p^r-\-t)B^T
"Throughout

these

investigations

the

capital

letters

represent

the

lines

ON

On
of A

and

formed
one

the

product

the

letter

is r,

and

and

/, and/^r

remainders
and

negative.

and

{n-^-^y^ numbers

Xj X'y and
the

Let

the

first

seen

by

from
the

reference

the

Eliminate
is a" b'

"

themselves,
small

letters

and
are

a"A

b"B^X"

supposed
be

the

to

in the

letter

new

b' B"X'

x"

b" =^ab'

not

whole

the

of

last

odd, since,
aA^bB

dx"^a

b"

b'x"^b.

numbers

numbers,

Let

these

of
as

will

as

deduced.

the

two,

b, the

a'

X,

"

it even,

were

be

Hence,

being

equation,

"

etc., and

coefficients, x"

the

a"

from

q, r,

remainders.

equations

of formation

law

/,

B-^X

A=b

would

equation

""", {n -\-1)%

be

a! A-.=

be

must

are

The

1)^ + A

the

series

the

corresponding equations

Here

be

x"

corresponding

coefficients

signs alternately positive

x', and
of

the

X"

the

pqr^p-\-r)

(/ ^+

-!-''

with

x,

is

ding
adthat.

before

comes

is
the

letter, and

preceding

two

+/

also

enter

of

which

multiplying

new

which

one

the

the

by

coefficient

third

the

/^+1

preceding

coefficient

every

preceding, by

two

immediately

Thus
new

the

by

is introduced

and

one,

formed

be

may

letter

preceding

from

to

each

In

in the

not

equations

these

law.

simple

very
was

in

coefficients

the

that

found

it will be

inspection

269

ETC.

ALGEBRA,

OF

APPLICATION

THE

first

units, which
in the

last

result

side

represent

chapter.

of

of which
which

them,

while

is

the

270

ON

the

STUDY

THE

of

numerator

then

and

be

either

both,

have

the

and

same

",

denominators

the

that

proved

fraction

be

"

and

the

being

by

lie between

must

of

the

last,

two

or

;;//
1 -f

"

"

?"ip

is

q
"

4--^"l

-,

-,

than

less

and

unity,
^

;
m

any ^

fraction

1
But

by this is diminished.

multiplied

and

then

"

therefore

^"-,

or

for

-^,

"

"

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APPLICATION

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/-]

271

ETC.

ALGEBRA,

OF

""

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third, etc., and

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71

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than

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ing
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i;

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272

ON

units
of

in

small
be

as

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as

The

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and

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at

of A

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MATHEMATICS.

to

process

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made

OF

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carrying

STUDY

n^^ coefficient

the

units

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be

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proved
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equations
A=b

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a"A=b"B-{-X"
obtain

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ory
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circle.

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to

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{"\g. ii).

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Lagrange'

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of

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273

unit, which

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ETC.

ALGEBRA,

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AOC

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whale

"

Ed.

a^id

ON

274

THE

STUDY

proportional

are

/ and

numbers

the

AOC'is-

angle

and

AB

arcs

AC,

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to

or

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portional
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ON

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approximation
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last

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by the

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is that

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theoretical

in geometry

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of

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to

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cient
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276

"

ON

3.14159266

the

or

THE

the

and

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STUDY

number

OF

MATHEMATICS.

right angle, is

of the

one-fourth

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radius

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206265

example,

unit

206265

^r=

'

radius,

theoretical
in

Geometry,

analysis ;
p. 192.

"

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ON

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thus, in the

If

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the

APPLICATION

angle of

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substituted

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7^777777771^.

theoretical

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confounded,

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called

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with

the

to

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206265

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etry
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3.14159265,
in

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viz.

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277

in

called

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for

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ALGEBRA,

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unit

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206265
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second.
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If, thereany

points

278

ON

STUDY

THE

B, B', B", etc., in

the

side,

in

that

the

and, vice
of

of the

triangle

To

these

of

ratios

all of both

of the

name

sine

their

known,
angle

Thus,

which

to

"

of

"

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complement

two

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of the

are

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ra-

that

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be

to

to

^-^-^

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as

in

,,

called

is

side opposite
"

complement*

angles

two

hypothenuse

..

; while

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angles

angles,

bear

they
side

or

"

AB

sine

not

also

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; and

the

names

rr^i

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.

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sides

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triangle in

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B'AC,

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all, and

sides,
let fall

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triangles BAC,

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of

one

other, perpendiculars

the

MATHEMATICS.

OF

together
Generally,

or

to

^-^-"

"

the

or

hypothenuse
is

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called

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the

name

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given

to

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one

ON

of A.

to

279

ETC.

ALGEBRA,

the

which

names

expresses
BC
AC

BC

AC

AB

-^^

^-^

-^-^

-^^-^

-v^:=

AB

AB

AC

BC

AC

the

OF

table

following

The

given

are

APPLICATION

THE

ratios,

six

ana

AB
both

relatively to

BC

made

of.

use

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angles,

with

the

to

If all

proceeding

and

tables

and

of

part
the

of

is

an

whole

complement

taken,

formed

of

or

beginning

exact

number

logarithms

relatively
10.

to

the

of

rest.

45",

to

of

minutes,
Thus,

lo

being

or

2700',
of

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sines, cosines,
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of 3 to

their

minute,

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calculation, the
of

and

table.

from

2', 3', ep:., up

by

the

hypothenuse,

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explain here,

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tangents,

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angles

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angles

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last

angle

hyp., stand

opp.^ adj., and

terms

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refer

abbreviations

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made

portions
pro-

of whose

registered.
of 7 and

3, 7 is

28o

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whole

above

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rectilinear

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or

this

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figures
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great

ultimately

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explained

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observed,

that

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in

The

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triangles, and
the

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base

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rneasures

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reduced

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;

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portions
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are

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angles
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by

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algebra

treatise.

the

sine

of

of

these
is

which

minutes,

tables

of this

of

applying

of

number

XI.

measurement

divided

triangles,

for

application

given, yet, if

measurement

as

proportions

trigonometry,

the

proportion. Thus,

same

rules

for, though

is

an

the

sine, cosine, etc.,

proportion,

any

the

them

of

exact

the
;

of

Now,

into

right-angled,

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of

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angle

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stead
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tively.
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In

geometry.

tangent,

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right-angled triangles, a table

two

the

angle,

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45", is already registered.

whatsoever.

tables

of

cosine

the

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figures

difference

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made,

need

table

triangle is

every

above

right angle, because,

than

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table

it

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only,

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cotangent

the

Again,

all

MATHEMATICS.

sine, cosine,

its

of

reciprocals

which

OF

sines, cosines, and

say

angle

STUDY

THE

ON

since

and

triangle is

altitude.

in terms

to

figure

every

every

the

The

of which

ON

it is

chosen

arbitrary

to

convenience

the

square

that

and

sides

the

be

out

superficial unit,

and

the

oi

units,

scribed
de-

squares
is true,

proposition
the

linear

the

as

contain

Let

perfectly

points

chosen

ab

This

even

of units

number

1)1

in

is

fractional.

are

the

as

contains

unit.

the

on

theorem

rectangle

itself

rectangle

when

of

is

spaces,

common

which

line

sides

other

281

ETC.

ALGEBRA,

choosing,

of

on

If the

the

all

express

nevertheless,

the

unit.

OF

APPLICATION

THE

and

"

and

"

take

another

which

unit

^^

J
.

is

the

of

"

is obtained

first, or

by dividing

the

first

nq

into

unit

by

the

proposition

on

the

larger

on

the

as

contains

and-^,

"

11

first unit

parts
np

times

the

on

in the

nq

inqy^

-,

"

larger
is the

parts,

and

and, therefore, the

contains

the

of

mqY^np

unit.
on

of

rectangle

the

Whatever

the

are

unit

unit

longer
mp
or-^"

square

there

and,

are

there-

is

the

number

of

nq

in
of

the

and

"

rectangle.
This

"

following

sense,

incommensurable

be,

and

rectangle
the

these

inq

of these

But

product

may

of

one

nqy^nq
contained

in the

same

dividing

by

taking

is true

the

are

"

is, they contain

nq

osition

described

that

that

algebraical

of

"^

squares

described

formed

are

Then,

square

and

"

they

inp y^nq

ox

nqy^nq
the

since

smaller

square

np

^
"

the

them.

unit

by them,

described

fore,

np

smaller

the

contained

nqyc^

nq

and

mq

of

into

of

one

nqy^nq

Again,

nq

the

taking

just quoted,

unit

smaller.

fractions

and

parts,

nq

we

prop-

where
with

have

But

shown

the

sides

the

unit.

that, for

282

ON

incommensurable

any
b and
b

STUDY

THE

^,

numbers,

-\-\
great

too

MATHEMATICS.

magnitude,

whole

two

OF

until

that

so

go

can

we

is

"

little,and

too

"

.,

finding

on

IT

is

as

great

of

as

Let

please.

we

and

AB

them

be

lines

AJ^

the

he

AC

sides

incommensurable
and

with

unit

the

containing

AG,

units, be

and

"

and
c

and

"

Fig.

less and
The

AB

greater
differ

than

consequently

the

from

either,

much

But

the

so

difference

ad
b

"

Square

unit"

;,

is the

-f

abbreviation

"

differ
and

from

not
one

is

AI

or

ad

^\

"

ad
"

of AH

ad

or

they

the

second

the

rectangle does

given
as

and

units,*

given rectangle, and

the

another.

respectively,

contain,
square

figure.

the

complete

AI

first is less

and

-J,

AD

units, be respectively

"

c-\-l

and

let

13-

and

rectangles AH
b-\-\
X

"

than

greater

and

and

"

AC

4-1

containing

AE,

than

greater

let

the

Let

M.

respectively less

and

rectangle ^^,

-Iad

ad

of

"

square

described

on

the

unit."

APPLICATION

THE

ON

1^.1^
+
or-,Proceed

will

such, that"

be

four, six, etc., steps of the

linear

The

approximation.

be

than

less

always

"^

continually approaching

it.

to

^C,

b
.

but

results

the

being J/,

unit

will

J/

ad'

ad

two,*

through

--:7

da

283

ETC.

ALGEBRA,

OF

Hence

is

"

"z

AC

and

is

than

less

always

number

since

and

j-;

"

which

remains

^C

increase

may

the

same,

much

as

we

as

AC

carrying

please, by

the

on

and

approximation,

"jU

-17

fortiori

please

that

be

made

may

be

71/ may

"

"z

is,

"

"

please, and

so

"

small

as

we

as

we

as

the

-in

Also

manner.

same

ad

be

may

made

small

as

fore, also, the

sum

ber, when

the

difference
the

than

fractions
be

brought

their

and

AH

a.nd

which

represent
their

the

unit, represents

square

A/;

and

AI,

is greater

therefore, the
and

AC

AB

shall,

product

number

the

num-

ad

of AX

that

this

But

;.

ad

is the

there-

and

-A

please, represent

we

as

proximate
apmay

nearly
in

units

of square

rectangle.

In
that

near,

so

rectangles

difference

please

we

unit

of the

as

"

as

made

line

may

small

as

precisely the

if the

unit

units

of content

the

on

in any

unit

of

it may

manner

same

or

the

soliditybe

length,

the

proved,

be

cube

of cubical

number

rectangular parallelepiped,is

scribed
de-

product

the
b

*This
too

steps

is

little
to

and

done, because,
too

give results

great

to

always

by proceeding
represent
less

than

one

step

y^C; whereas
AC.

at

we

time,
wish

"

is
the

alternately
successive

284

ON

of the

number

these

numbers

be

MATHEMATICS.

units

whole

fractional

or

if

even

in its three

sides, whether
in the

and

sense

they be incommensurable

with

unit.

the

of

content

rectangle

Greek

the

by

science

of

algebra,

are

last

given

to

the

aa,

of

cube

is a,

described

the

latter

things.

of ",

avoided.
method

ever

the

call

and

changed

real

connexion

any

so

all that
the

of

This,

if

future

once

too

can

be

second

to

the

recollect,
distinct

would

confusion

commonly

that

calls

mean

much

dent
stu-

units

of

he

if he

the

means

square

proved

has

however,

the

aaa

day,

The

b.

geometry

etry,
geom-

the

number

better

and

and

he

must,

much

speaking,

be

prevent

He

a.

be

to

this

to

units, because

is, nevertheless,

signification.
will

whose

by which

It
of

line

algebra

It would
to

that

the

of

in

imagine

square

square

himself
powers

to

of

vanced
ad-

an

deduction

called

are

rectangle

in

by

was

of

system

was

which,

names

distinct

no

algebra

first

ab, which

the

aa

squares

the

the

on

contain

to

that

led

geometry

and

observed

were

had

they

applying

of

sides

the

imperfect

very

of

aaa,
a,

as

them,

hence

is thus
square

knew

they

the

a,

and

; instead

state

what

; but

with

while,

between

parallelepiped

or

geometers

arithmetic,

from

relations

algebraical

These

OF

of linear

just established,

of

STUDY

THE

tom
accus-

and

third

would

expect

be
that

received, should

done

geometrical

is, to point
and

thoroughly

misconception.

out

algebraical
understood,

INDEX.

Addition,

67.

23,

Algebra,

Bourdon,

notation

of, 55

rules
the

on

192

of,
of

applied

of

study

nature

seq.;

of, 67

et

53,

advice

62,

the

surfaces,

Algebras,

in,

of

ures
fig-

266-284,

C,

Brackets,

the,

230.

188,

21.

Bradley,

212.

168.

Bruhns,

168.

Burnside,

W.

S., 189.

144-145.

bibliographical

list

Cassar,

of,

2, 229.

188-

Caillet, 168.

189.
in the

Analogy,

language

of

algebra,

79-

Angle,

definition

of, 196

of, 273

measure

Angular

et

seq.,

seq.,

Arrangment

of

Chrystal,

Cipher,

et

seq.,

267;

seq.;

of

Change

232.

algebraical

form,

105

et

seq,

48

242

Paul,

238;

units, 275-276.

et

Callet, 168.
Carus,

seq.

et

Approximations,
et

gentilhomme,

Bremiker,

measurement

Algebraically greater,

188.

Bourgeois
Bourlet,

et

175

reasoning

lines, angles, proportion

and

mentary
ele-

seq.;

seq.;
54,

the

to

et

130;

Prof., 189.
16.

171

Circulating

281

et

Clifford,

algebraical

decimals,

5r,

seq.
232.

sions,
expres-

CoeflBcient,

60.

73.

Arithmetic,
et

elementary

Arithmetical,
of

with

compared

seq.;

notation,

Axioms,

algebra,
et

11

et

244

seq.;

Collin, J., 188.

20

Commercial

arithmetic,

Comparison

of

76.

203

et

Bain,

et

187.

Condillac,

187.

Continued

fractions, 267-273.

seq.

Contraries,

fractions, 269

Converse,
Copula,

W.

Biermann,
Binomial

W.,

Courier,

O., 189.

theorem,

exercises

in, 177

et

13

232.

D'Alembert,
212.

seq.
of

seq.

Cube, the

Bosanquet,

et

problem

seq.

Bolyai,

Dauge,

seq.

203.

Counting,

265, 276.

et

205.

212.

R., 189.

205.

205.

Convergent

168.

Beman,

seq,

seq.

168, 174.

Baltzer,

et

seq.

Contradictory,

Bagay,

244

180.

231-232.

208, 231

Babbage,

53.

quantities,

tion
no-

Comte,

logical,

Assumptions,

of,

Computation,

proportion,

Assertions,

rules

term,

284.

187.

F., 187.

the

two,

112

et

286

ON

Decimal,
seq.

Definition,
Delboeuf,

J., 232.

Morgan,

decimal,

273;

singular values

without

necessarily

not

language,
187.

Geometry,

study of,
ideas

reasoning,

Division,

et

187,

72,

Duodecimal

et

Greater

and

Halsted,

the

second

identical,

of

90;

90-102
et

129

96

Haskell,

168.

Hassler,

168.

to,

92

mathematical

232,

188.

tions,
computa-

Holzmiiller,
seq.

signs,

Euclid,

106

seq.

theory of proportion,
method

Exponents.

See

guide,

et

seq.

Extension

Indices,

Hypothesis,

208.

equations,

Identical

quantities,

meanings

of

seq., 80-82, 143-145,

163.

and

rules

et

Increment,

59.

of

132

et

seq.

reasoning,

Indirect

seq.

et

in

algebraical
117

seq.,

important,

et

pressions,
ex-

T.

Fractions,

et

88-89, 99"

141-

arithmetical,

mathematical,
reasoning,

104,

et

seq..

179,183.

219.

spaces,

Instruction,
seq.;

compared,

principles

of

faulty, 182; books

187.

30

166,

seq.,

of,

123

et

seq.

et

212.

et

185.
Induction,

Infinite

seq.

163-167.

Fowler,

281

loi.

of, 60, 158

Infinite quantity, meaning

of

change

Formulae,

seq.

seq.,

226.

problems,

Indeterminate

Inductive

265.

105

142,

et

160;

roots,

equations,

logical, 216

Fluxions,
Form,

and

powers

quadratic

Figures,

seq.

et

169.

Indices, theory

of

et

et

seq.

of

Factoring

149

246

Incommensurables,

90.

quantities, 151

Impossible
as

algebraical,

33

232.

Imaginary

of, 263-265.

104.

Expressions,

terms,

258

240,

his

265;

mathematical,

Experience,

change

181, 234-235,

Exhaustions,

168.

Hutton,

by

Hyde,
et

G., 189.

algebraical

corrected

37,

4,

in

186.

algebra,

Hirsch,
et

of, 144,

170.

232.

Helmholtz,

seq.

48

meaning

smallness,

38.

Hindu

in

25 et seq.,

91,

problems

203

seq.

condition,

reducing

seq.;

degree,

degree,

suppositions,
of

first

of the

Equations,

Hariot,

proof,

188.

less,the

19.

Cyclopcedia, 174, 187.

seq.

and

seq.

and

Greatness

system,

mentary
ele-

seq.;

measure,

common

86, 267

232.

et

193

tions
defini-

232.

Greatest

38, 75, 165-167.

et

seq.

language,

Grassmann,
seq.,

of,

et

220

seq.,

on

Diihring, 187.

Errors,

185.

seq.,

seq.;

191

reasoning

German

of, dependent

37.

23

Duhamel,

226.

progress

language,

et

4 et

study of,

Geometrical

196.

Discovery,

et

et

188.

Freycinet,

186.

Direction,

et

163

exponents,

and

Diophantus,

of

seq.;

algebraical,

71, foot-note.

Frend,

limit, 251.

English

267-

et

123

calculus, 265.

Diminution,

Direct

of,

87-89, 97-99-

French

179.

continued,

42;

126-128;

Fractional

et

37,

Differential

75;

75.

mathematical,

187.

Descartes,

MATHEMATICS.

evanescent,

207.

11,

184; inductive,

seq.,

et

14

fractions, 42-54.

43;

Demonstration,

De

OF

numeration,

of

system

point,

STUDY

THE

Interpolation,

169-174.

235

et

seq.

natural,
on

21

ematical,
math-

287

INDEX.

W.,

James,
Jevons,

Jodl, F.,

extension

Keynes,

Numeration,

systems

Numerically

greater,

Panton,

187.

Lallande,

and

Particular

13, 37, 79.

Laplace,

185.

Laurent,

H., 188.

et

of,

et

14

seq.

144.

189.

Jones,

Line,

242.

193,

unit, 267.

Literal

notation, 57

surface,

Poincare,
et

Postulate,

232.

167

seq.

mathematics,

203-230.

list

Logics, bibliographical

of,

Predicate,

203.

Premisses,

211

Prime

212.

194-195.

210.

theory

Powers,
et

195.

H., 232.

Point, geometrical,

seq.

9.

of

i8g.

277.

Plane

Linear

Logarithms,

negative,

and

138.

square,

Petersen,

28.

rr,

Lobachevski,

of, 181, 231-237.

affirmative

Perfect

multiple,
37.

189.

203.

common

Leibnitz,

W.,

A.

Parallels, theory

168.

Language,

Logic

of, 15

187.

Laisant,

Locke,

163.

representation

Oliver, Waite,

187.

Lagrange,

Least

79, 159,

seq.;

seq.

212.

Lacroix,

et

55

of, 33, 80, 143,

Numbers,

232.

168.

Jones,

algebraical,

seq.;

232.

212.

of, 158

et

et

seq.

seq.

numbers

and

factors,

25

et

seq.

Mach,

Mathematics,

object,

nature,

utility of

the

language

of, 37

et

study of, 175

et

the

of,

study

et

and

198, 266

et

of

Measurement,

seq.

lines,

angles,

figures, and

of

of, 95

portion
pro-

surfaces,

of loss

couriers,

ity
util-

gain

trating
illus-

and

sign,

et

112

Proportions,

170 ;

Proportional

parts,

equations,

to

disciplinary

of

changes
two

of,

seq.; general

et

on

philosophy

seq.;

92

seq.;

advice

seq.;

of, 187.
Measures,

reducing

Problems,

E., 232.

119

as

of the

seq.

of, 240-265.

theory
173.

Propositions,

203

Pythagorean

proposition,

et

seq.
et

221

seq.

266-284.
Measuring,
Mill, J. S.,
Minus

et

241

logical,

Moods,

Multiplication,
et

of, 137

suppositions,
212

23

et

et

106

et

Radian,
34

et

seq.,

Mysticism

in

numbers,

Read,

276.
Carveth,

direct

14.

quantities,
et

103
151;

seq.,

181

72;

lated,
sign, iso-

; squares,

149,

indices, 166, 185.

Roots,

Rules,

185.

arithmetical,
general

seq.;

seq.

et

seq.,

137

et

seq.,

158

et

seq.

Newton,

etseq.;

et

13

129

Rules, 42;

Notation,

et

232.

Netto, E., 189.

37,

203

indirect, 226.

and

Riemann,

212.

geometrical,

Reckoning,
Negative,

seq.;

character

the

seq.

Reasoning,

164.

seq.,

et

of

et

129

seq.

seq.
seq.,

equations,

discussion

roots,

212.

quantities, 72.

Mistaken

68

Quadratic,

seq.

decimal,

principle of,

11

15

et

mechanical,

extension

80, 143,

Russell,

of

184.
meaning

163.
B.

A.

W.,

232.

of,

33,

288

ON

Schlomilch,

OF

Tannery,

189.

H.,
W.

J.,

Self-evidence,
Serret,

Shorthand

angular

urement,
meas-

20

Sigwart,

of

equations,

et

seq.,

179,

55

rule

of,

of,

et

277

tions
propor-

seq.

Trigonometrical

186.

96,

of

measurement

algebraical,

and

ratios,

278

et

seq.

212.

Simple

expression,

76,

j"].

Ueberweg,
Singular

values,

et

122

212.

seq.

Universal

Smith,

132

189.

Triangles,

212.

seq.;

algebraical,

284.

Theory

Todhunter,

55.

arithmetical

et

and

geometrical

190.

symbols,

Sidgwick,

232.

compared,
of

system
273.

Signs,

recommended,

168.

Terms,

188.

A.,

Sexagesimal

P.,

Taylor,

189.

209.

J.

mathematical,

168.

168.

Schubert,
Schiiller,

MATHEMATICS.

Tables,

189.

O.,

Schron,

STUDY

THE

D.

E.,

IV.,

265,

affirmative

negative,

and

276.
203.

Solutions,
Sqtiare,

the

Stackel,
Stallo,

algebraical,

general

J.

282,

term,

Paul,

line,

Subject,

203.

284.

232.

B.,

Straight

in,

232.

12,

Vega,

168.

Venn,

212.

193.

Weber,
Subtraction,

H.,

Wells,
Subtractions,

impossible,

168.

103-104.

Whately,
Surfaces,

of

measurement

212.

mensurable,
incom-

number,

Whole
280

Syllogisms,
Symbols,

210

et

invention

et

76.

seq.

seq.

of,

80-81.

See

Zero,

as

Signs.

Syllabi,

189.

23.

figure,
as

mathematical,

186.

122

et

seq.;

16;

an

its

varying

algebraical

exponents,

nificance
sigresult,

81,

166.

The

collection

good

will

The

The

2.

Three

3.

Three

have

already

4.

The

Diseases

the

on

The

Psychology of Attention.
Psychic Life of

7.

The

Nature

Double

8.

On

9.

Fundamental

By

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