Drilling Engineering For Non Drilling Engineers (NExT) (2006) PDF

Drilling engineering for non Drilling EngineersWeek 1, Day 1
Overview of the well construction process

Created by Steve Devereux CEng, Drilling Consultant
Presented by Arthur Dacre M.Sc. Drilling Consultant
Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved
Course and Training Centre Orientation

1.
Instructor introduction.
2.
Fire alarms / drills / muster point.
3.
Classroom procedures and timings.
4.
Delegates introductions; name, current job, expectations for

this course, main hobby or interest outside of work.
Week 1 timetable
Day 1. Overview of the Well Construction Process.
Day 2. Drilling Fundamentals.
Day 3. Designing the well.
Day 4. Programming and Drilling the well.
Day 5. Evaluating and Completing the well.
Tests on days 1 and 5.
At the end of today, YOU should be able to;

1.
Name or describe the five requirements for the accumulation of

hydrocarbons
2.
Draw a high-level process map of the E&P process from Exploration

to Abandonment.
3.
State the outcome or end result and the main stakeholders of each
phase of the process
4.
Identify where drilling fits in the E&P process
5.
Define the types of information gathered during the drilling of a well
6.
Differentiate between exploration, appraisal and development drilling

7.
Differentiate between land and offshore drilling rigs and operations.
8.
List and explain the functions of the major components of a rig
9.
Draw a typical drilling organizational chart and explain the functions of

the rig crew
10.
Describe the steps involved in drilling and completing a well,

highlighting the reasons behind each step.
11.
Identify the major time-consuming operations and cost elements

when drilling a well
12.
Explain the main HSE hazards and loss prevention measures taken in
drilling operations.
How do We find Hydrocarbons?

Oil Gas or Condensates
5 requirements for an oil reservoir
Source rock
Migration
Reservoir rock
Quantity
Trap
Source rock
Usually shales, buried in low energy environments.
0.5 to 10% organic carbon
> 100 ppm by weight of hydrocarbon
Oil generation starts at 50C, peaks at 90C, stops at 175C

(oil window)
Age 120m + years
HC content is destroyed above 260C.
Coal deposits from woody plant remains, no oil, associated

gas
Reservoir rock & quantity
Porosity, %age and pore sizes,

Hydrocarbon Pore Volume.
Permeability, different in
different directions.
Buoyant separation of fluids
Water, Oil, Gas layers
Seal rock above
Size matters!
Drive
Water Drive
Sandstone porosity
SEM showing sandstone structure & porosity
10
Limestone porosity
Limestone porosity fractures or vugs
11
Traps
Reservoir rock structure shaped

to stop HC migrating to the
surface
Seismic can indicate trap

presence
Salt diapir traps are important in

some areas (N Sea, Gulf of
Mexico)
Stratigraphic
Anticline
12
Exploration and Production (E&P) Process
Exploration
Appraisal /Development Drilling
Field Production
Field Abandonment
field management & planning

monitoring & surveillance
cash flow
well design & planning

well construction & operations
production enhancement
time
data management
Exploration
Appraisal
Development
Production
13
So to find Hydrocarbons, we need to .
Find a likely Structure
Determine the rock types
Determine Lithology
14
So How do we Start ?
Sink an oil well
Problem - COST
$ 8 - 300 million per well

Want a cheaper and more reliable solution
1.
Need to look into the Earth
2.
Locate suitable rock structures
3.
THEN sink an oil well
15
Problem
Surface area of the Earth

183,322,724 sq.km. = 2x108 km2
Where do we start ?
Geologists walk around looking at rocks
Measure PHYSICAL properties of the Earth - GEOPHYSICS
16
Exploration and Production Process, phase 1

Identify possible targets
1.
2.
3.
Survey prospect area

(seismic, gravity, geology)
Prioritise possible Exploration
targets
Put forward proposal to drill a
well
Outcomes; Management
decision to drill well(s). Budget
allocations made.
Main stakeholders;
Exploration, Geology
departments.
17

Exploration drilling
1.
2.
3.
Design well & write programme

to meet objectives
Drill the well, Log the well,
Production test the well
Suspend or abandon the well
Outcomes; initial decision as to
commerciality of reservoir.
Drilling information gathered to
optimise future wells.
Main stakeholders; Exploration,
Drilling, Geology, Reservoir
Engineering departments.
18
Reasons for drilling a well

1.
Gain information about the sub-surface.
2.
Allow production of pore fluids (oil, water, gas).
3.
Allow injection of fluids underground.
4.
Exploit high temperatures underground (geothermal).
5.
Waste disposal (nuclear waste).
6.
Training wells.
19
Drilling a well; broad sequence of operations.

Example; land rig.
1.
Prepare location before rig

arrives.
2.
Dig cellar
Install conductor pipe
Prepare support pad for rig,
camp etc
Build roads, fencing, dig pits
Sometimes drill water well
Move rig on to location, rig up

and prepare to start drilling.
20
Land rig location showing lined waste pit
21
Land rig location, mud tanks, pump
22
Drilling & Casing; conductor
Large, thick walled pipe driven in to

the ground (typically 30 OD).
May be drilled and cemented.
Purposes;
1. Bring return fluid to the rig.
2. Support a diverter.
3. Prevent washing out surface soil.
23
Drilling & Casing; surface hole
Drill a shallow hole inside the

Conductor.
Purposes;
1. Deepen the well.
2. Allow a surface casing.
24
Drilling & Casing; surface casing
Cement surface casing (typically

20 OD).
Purposes;
1. Use a blowout preventer (BOP).
2. Protect freshwater sources.
3. Reduce losses.
25
Drilling & Casing; drill intermediate
Drill deeper with a smaller drill bit.
Directional work often started in this

section.
Purposes;
1. Deepen the well.
26
Drilling & Casing; intermediate casing
Cement the next casing.
Note that each casing is smaller

than the previous one.
Purposes;
1. Increased shoe strength to drill
ahead.
2. Protect drilled hole.
3. Case off kickoff.
27
Drilling & Casing; final hole
Drill deeper, into the reservoir.
Purposes;
1. Penetrate the reservoir.
2. Allow a pocket below the reservoir
(logging, casing, drop guns).
3. Run logs to measure reservoir
properties.
28
Drilling & Casing; production liner
Cement a production liner into the

reservoir.
Purposes;
1.
2.
3.
4.
Protect drilled hole.

Isolate the reservoir.
Contain production equipment.
Increase pressure capacity.
29
Drilling & Casing; completion
Run completion tubing.
Perforate the production liner.
Purposes;
1. Allow hydrocarbon production.
2. Form a conduit for tools to be run.
30
Drilling and completing a well
Any questions so far on drilling

and completing the well?
31
Production Testing
The reservoir is flowed,

pressures and flow rates are
recorded. Fluids are burned at
the surface.
Information obtained;
fluid types
maximum flow rate
rate at which sand is produced
reservoir characteristics.
32
Pressure vs Time
33
Pressure derivative curves
Upper curve; pressure build up.
Lower curve; derivative curve

(rate of pressure change with time)
Derivative curve profile gives information on reservoir shape
34

Appraisal / Development drilling
1.
Decide objectives for appraisal wells.
2.
Drill wells to appraise extent and

nature of reservoir.
3.
Drill wells to efficiently produce

reservoir.
4.
Create production infrastructure;

platforms, pipelines etc.
Outcomes; field development plan,

major investments made.
Major stakeholders; Production,

Drilling, Geology, Reservoir, Civil
Engineering.
35

Field production
1.
Produce field, monitor performance.
2.
Workover (repair / re-complete) wells.
3.
Stimulate field, maintain pressure, 2ndary recovery.
Outcomes; major investments made, production started.
Major stakeholders; Reservoir, Production & Drilling

departments.
36

Field abandonment
1.
Abandon wells.
2.
Remove infrastructure
(if not used by other projects).
3.
Restore environment.
Outcomes; no surface facilities

remain. Wells plugged
subsurface.
Major stakeholders; Drilling,

Civil Engineering,
Environmental Agencies
37
Exploration and Production Process, Drilling

involvement
Drilling is involved from Phase 2

onwards;
Exploration Drilling
Appraisal /Development Drilling
field management & planning
Field Production
Field Abandonment
monitoring & surveillance
well design & planning

cash flow
well construction & operations

production enhancement
time
data management
Exploration
Appraisal
Development
Production
38
Information obtained during drilling;

Geological
Elastic Strength
Subsurface formations;
Formation lithology
Formation depths
Formation pressures and
temperatures
Pore fluids
Rock stresses
Electric logging results (day 5)
Core samples (day 5)
10
0
Earth Stress & Pore Pressure
Youngs
70
100 0 Friction Angle
Modulus
Poissons
Ratio
20
UCS
400
Stress DirectionhS
Stress
200 W
MPa
1.0
fault ?
PR
UCS
Pp
Sh
SH
SV
Regional
Trend
Validate / update geological model
39

Drilling
1.
Drilling properties of rocks
2.
Problems encountered, possible causes & solutions
3.
Costs
4.
Drilling optimisation information

N
12000
13500
13000
40

Reservoir
1.
Samples of reservoir (cuttings, core samples)
2.
Samples of reservoir fluids (via mud, or logged samples)
3.
Extensive wireline logging information
4.
Gas type and presence
5.
Build detailed reservoir model
41
Jackup Rig on Locaton
42
Drilling Package on the Platform
43
Major rig components - overview
Cantilever deck
V door
Pipe racks
Choke manifold
Poorboy degasser
Drawworks
44
Major rig components - derrick
Allow a good range of movement of

the travelling block. Allow pipe to be
racked back during trips.
45
Major rig components blockline and block
Allow high loads to be

supported and moved in and
above the well.
46
Major rig components - drawworks
Control the movement of the

travelling block up and down the
derrick.
47
Major rig components mud pumps
Provide fluids at high pressures

and high flow rates to the drill
floor and well.
48
Major rig components BOPs
Allow the top of the well to be

sealed against very high
pressures and allow fluid to be
pumped in.
49
Rig types
50
Land rigs heavy land rig
Capable of drilling deeper than 10,000
Typical derrick load > 1,000,000 lbs
BOP rating => 10,000 psi
Cost around $85,000 / day
51
Land rigs light land rig
Capable of drilling up to 10,000
Typical derrick load < 750,000

lbs
BOP rating 5,000 psi
Cost around $50,000 / day
52
Land rigs helicopter portable
Breaks down into small packages for moving (6000 lbs max)
Can deploy in locations not otherwise useable without very

high cost (jungle, mountain tops, inaccessible locations)
53
Marine rigs floating - semisubmersible
Rig towed on to location, then either anchors or uses DP.
Can move off location fast if problems.
Usually uses BOPs located at the seabed.
Accommodation for up to 100.
High cost; $250,000/day

up to $600,000/day for the rig
Other costs can add $300k
54
Marine rigs floating - drillship
Ship shaped hull, usually selfpropelled for rig moves
Often uses Dynamic Positioning

but may be anchored
High storage capacity; 1 or 2

wells without resupply
High cost, can be well over

$600,000/day plus operating
costs of $300k per day
55
Marine rigs floating drilling barge
Floating rectangular barge with self contained rig on board
Sheltered inland waters (Lake Maracaibo)
Can drill to 20,000
56
Marine rigs bottom supported - jackup
Usually 3 legs which stand on the seabed
Hull is lowered and legs raised for rig moves
Can drill in shallow waters (to 300)
Can cost between $200,000 to

$450,000/day + operating costs
BOPs are below the derrick

cantilever
Accommodation for up to 100
57
Marine rigs bottom supported platform
Self contained rig installed on platform
Once drilling finished, rig can be

removed
or replaced with small workover rig
Can be tender supported
58
Marine rigs bottom supported other platform

types
Tension Leg Platform
Concrete Gravity Platform
Guyed Tower Platform
59
Marine rigs specialist equipment slip joint and

riser tensioners
Allows relative movement

between the rig and the well
(heave, tide).
Tensioners keep the riser top in

tension.
60
Marine rigs specialist equipment riser joints

and flex joint
Riser joints contain

buoyancy chambers
(reduce load), kill & choke
lines and boost line.
Flex joint at seabed allows
lateral movement of rig.
61
Marine rigs specialist equipment subsea BOP
Subsea blowout preventer is

positioned on the wellhead at
the seabed.
Remote controls from the

surface.
Accumulator bottles on the

stack allow operation even if
disconnected by sonic signals.
62
Drilling organisation
63
IPM Project organisation example

Base
Project Manager
Project
Well Engineer
Testing FSM
Dowell FSM
Coordinator
QHSE Engineer
Anadrill FSM
Wireline FSM
Sub-contractors Sub-contractors Sub-contractors Sub-contractors Sub-contractors Sub-contractors

Suppliers
Suppliers
Suppliers
Suppliers
Suppliers
Suppliers
Wellsite Supervisor
Rig site
Sub-Contractors
Testing
IPM Representatives
Dowell
Anadrill
Wireline
Suppliers
Service Companies
Drilling contractors; Transocean, Global Santa Fe, many others.
Drilling fluids; Baroid, MI
Cementing services; Halliburton, Dowell, BJ
Tubular running; Franks, Weatherford
Drill bits; Hughes, Smith, Reed, Security DBS
Coring services; Hughes Christensen
Electric logging; Schlumberger, Halliburton
Well testing; Schlumberger, Halliburton
Wellheads; Vetco, Dril-Quip, Cameron, FMC
65
Rig crew
2 crews on board work 12 hour

shifts
Driller is in charge
Plan and execute drill floor

operations
Front line for safety
66
Drilling time
vs depth
67
AFE - what is it?
AFE - Approval For

Expenditure
Generally a detailed cost

estimate which is submitted for
Management approval to
allocate money.
68
Types of cost - fixed
Costs in an estimate are generally divided into 5 types.
FIXED costs do not change with well depth or duration.
Examples;
Surveying the rig location
Mobilising the rig to the wellsite
69
Types of cost - depth dependent
DEPTH DEPENDENT costs change with well depth.
Examples;
Casing and accessories
Drillbits
Drilling fluid
70
Types of cost - time dependent
TIME DEPENDENT costs change with well duration.
Examples;
Drilling rig dayrate

Supply boats and helicopters
Salaries and consultant fees
Fuel
71
Cost of Drilling Rigs

Offshore
Onshore
Daily Rig Cost

1998 $90,000
1999 $40,000
(Single year contract)
2007
$400,000
Ultra Deep
Daily Rig Cost
1998 $180,000
1999 $180,000
Daily Rig Cost

1998 $60,000
1999 $30,000
(Single year contract)
2007
$100,000
(Five year contract)
2007
$650,000
JMA
72
Types of cost - overheads
OVERHEAD costs are not incurred at the wellsite. They

may be shared among several operations and a portion of
the cost is allocated to each well. Tend to be time
dependent.
Examples;
Office costs including secretaries, stationary etc.
Logistic bases and supply depots.
73
Types of cost - contingency
CONTINGENCY costs provide for problems. The

contingency cost = cost of problem x probability of
occurrence.
Examples;
Stuck pipe
Fishing
74
5 cost types - recap
5 different cost types were described;
Fixed
Depth dependent
Time dependent
Overhead (or Support)
Contingency
75
What type of cost?

1.
Air transport.
76
What type of cost?

Air transport.
1.
2.
Could be time dependent (not shared) or overhead (if

shared).
Well planning.
77
What type of cost?

Air transport.
1.
Well planning.
2.
3.

shared).
Not shared between wells so this would be a fixed cost.
Mud logging services.
78
What type of cost?

Air transport.
1.
Well planning.
2.
3.
4.

shared).
Time dependent.
Losses that might occur in a particular hole section.
79
What type of cost?

Air transport.
1.

shared).
Well planning.
2.
3.
Time dependent.
Losses that might occur in a particular hole section.
4.
Contingency.
80
Types of cost estimate
Base cost - estimated cost, no problems.
Budget cost - base cost + contingency costs
Dry hole cost - cost if the well is dry
Maximum cost - (base cost + contingency costs) at the upper

limit of estimate accuracy
Supplemental cost - estimate for additional funds
81
Example AFE
An example of an AFE will be handed out and discussed.
82
Exercise
Look at the well cost spreadsheet and see the effect of the
following changes.
1. Increase time related costs by 10% and see the % total figure
increase. Restore the dayrate.
2. Increase depth related costs by 10% and see the % total
figure increase. Restore the TD.
3. Increase the contingency probabilities by 10%
and see the % total figure increase.
What caused the greatest %age change? Why?
83
Exercise Solution
Original total cost = $4,999,918
10% increase in time related costs = $197,038 or 3.9%

(overheads are also time related)
10% increase in depth related costs = $143,089 or 2.9%
10% increase in contingency probabilities = $160,256 or

3.2%
Time related cost increase has the greatest impact because

time related costs are the highest.
84
Drilling Risk Management
How risks are evaluated and controlled in Drilling operations.
85
Risk management in Drilling

IDENTIFY
risks
REDUCE
exposure
RECORD
risk register
ASSESS
exposure
MANAGE
remaining
risk
86
Identify risks
Risk = probability of event leading to injury, loss of assets or environmental damage
Well Design (inputs not accurate, loads not accounted for)
Drilling Programme (problems; stuck pipe, losses)
Environmental (weather, infrastructure)
Simultaneous Operations (impact of one operation on another)
Equipment failure (loss of time, control)
Historical analysis (what happened previously)
Uncertainty (eg geological)
Management (move the goalposts! Drill a bit deeper)
87
Assess exposure (each risk)

IMPACT
HIGH impact = Multiple Fatalities or Cost > $10M
MEDIUM HIGH impact = Fatality, Permanent Disability or Cost $1m

- $10m
MEDIUM impact = Lost Time, Temporary Disability or Cost $100K $1M

LOW impact = No Lost Time, First Aid case, cost < $100K
88
Assess exposure
PROBABILITY
How likely is the event to occur?

High = very likely, often
Medium = possible, sometimes
Low = very unlikely, hardly ever
Use historical data, expert opinion, guesswork.
89
Exposure matrix
Combine Impact and

Probability to get Exposure;
1 Very High
1 High
1 Medium
1
ow
90
Risk register
1.
Hazard description
2.
Hazard effect
3.
Exposure (impact, probability)
4.
Assumptions
5.
When is the hazard possible
6.
Prevention
7.
Recognition
8.
Mitigation/Cure
9.
Risk owner
10.
Action plan (when/where/who)
11.
Date of next review
91
Risk register entry
92
Reduce risk to ALARP

ALARP = As Low As Reasonably Practicable
Reduce the Probability of Occurrence;

Identify and address the Root Causes
Reduce the level of Impact;

If the event does occur, what could be done to reduce the cost
or likely injury to personnel?
93
Manage remaining risks
Define the risk register review interval (at least at start of

each operational phase).
Review action plans for active risks.
Check assumptions are still valid.
Ensure all actions are captured in Design or Operational

procedures.
Identify new risks which have occurred.
Close all non-active risks.
Keep risk register up to date.
94
Other risk management tools

Wellsite
Management
STOP system
HAZID
Job Safety Analysis
HAZOP
Permit to Work
Management policies
Pre-job Safety Meeting
Safety Case
Weekly Safety Meeting
Safety Alerts
Standard procedures, manuals
Training
Alert system for identified

hazards
Material Safety Data Sheets
Experienced Supervisors
95
Loss Prevention Measures
Competency assurance of personnel (training, mentoring,

testing etc)
System of documentation and approval of decisions and
calculations
Use of policies, procedures, manuals
Peer review of designs and programmes
Effective team working and communication
Proper change procedures in place
Use of contractors with QA systems
Bridging of safety systems
96
Main hazards in Drilling operations
Slips, trips and falls.
Trapping body parts between moving objects or in power

tools.
Lifting equipment failure loads dropped.
Exposure to high noise levels.
Exposure to chemicals.
Failure of equipment containing high pressure.
97
Day 1 review
Any questions or comments on todays activities?
Short test to follow
98
Now, YOU should be able to;

1.
Name or describe the five requirements for the accumulation of

hydrocarbons
2.
Draw a high-level process map of the E&P process from Exploration

to Abandonment.
3.
State the outcome or end result and the main stakeholders of each
phase of the process
4.
Identify where drilling fits in the E&P process
5.
Define the types of information gathered during the drilling of a well
6.
Differentiate between exploration, appraisal and development drilling
99

7.
Differentiate between land and offshore drilling rigs and operations.
8.
List and explain the functions of the major components of a rig
9.
Draw a typical drilling organizational chart and explain the functions of

the rig crew
10.
Describe the steps involved in drilling and completing a well,

highlighting the reasons behind each step.
11.
Identify the major time-consuming operations and cost elements

when drilling a well
12.
Explain the main HSE hazards and loss prevention measures taken in
drilling operations.
100
Drilling engineering for non Drilling EngineersWeek 1, Day 2.
Drilling Fundamentals
Presented by Arthur Dacre M.Sc. ExCalibre Limited

1.
Describe 3 different types of sedimentary rocks, their properties and

their impact on drilling
2.
Define various formation pressures: Hydrostatic pressure,

Overburden pressure, Pore pressure; Formation fracture gradient
3.
List and describe 2 methods of predicting overpressures before

drilling the well
4.
List and describe 2 methods of detecting overpressures whilst drilling

the well
5.
Define the terms: Limit Test and Leak Off Test and explain their
applications in drilling
102

7.
Outline the procedure used for conducting leak off tests
8.
Calculate the fracture gradient of a formation.
9.
Define kick and kick tolerance
10.
Define the term "Wellbore Instability", name or describe some of the

mechanisms causing instability and list the Drilling problems resulting
from instability".
103
3 Classification of Rocks
Rock-forming Source of
process
material
IGNEOUS
SEDIMENTARY
METAMORPHIC
Melting of rocks in hot,

deep crust and
upper mantle
Weathering and
erosion of rocks
exposed at surface
Rocks under high

temperatures
and pressures in
deep crust
Crystallization
(Solidification of melt)
Sedimentation, burial
and lithification
Recrystallization in
solid state of new
minerals
104
Igneous Rocks
Basalt
Gabbro
Examples
Rhyolite
Granite
105
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Conglomerate
Breccia
Examples
Sandstone
Shale
106
Metamorphic Rocks
Examples
Mica schist
Marble
Gneiss
Slate
Quartzite
107
The rock cycle
Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks have three sources:

1. Clastic. Forms from rock particles and skeletal remains.
Example; sandstone, shale.
2. Chemical. Deposited by the evaporation of water. Example;
salts.
3. Biological. Remains of plant and animal life.
Example; coal, coral.
109
Clastic rock formation
There are six processes for clastic sedimentary rock

formation.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Erosion. Existing rocks are broken down.

Transport. Wind or water move the rock fragments.
Deposition. Rock fragments are laid down in beds.
Compaction. Burial decreases the sediment volume.
Cementation. Minerals grow in the spaces between grains.
Diagenesis. Chemical changes to fragments to form rock.
Engineers Training for Drilling Can Cheer Daily!

110
Sedimentary rocks - relative abundance
Shales, dominant sedimentary

rock, 75% of the total.
Sandstones, conglomerates,
11% of the total.
Limestones, dolomites 12%
All others about 1%.
Sedimentary Environments
Glacier
Lake
Tidal flat
Desert
River
Delta
Organic reef
Continental shelf
Beach
Continental slope
Deep sea
112
Drilling shales
Reactive shale minerals hydrate and destabilise
Fractured or stressed shales can be very unstable
Competent shales are suitable for setting casing
Shales cause 90% of all geological hole problems!
113
Drilling limestone
Fractured limestones cause total

losses and stuck pipe
Bentonite based mud systems

may flocculate with drilled
limestone
Chert inclusions can destroy

most bits
Unfractured limestone can make

a good casing point
114
Drilling coal
Coal is brittle, often fractured before or from drilling.
Stuck pipe due to blocks of coal falling in
Gas may be present
Overgauge hole and ledges
Total losses in fractured coal
Can ignite if drilled with air.
115
Drilling salts
Very high pressure kicks, in or just below the salt
Muds and cement slurries must be designed for the

particular salts present
Stuck at the bit while drilling
Casing design to withstand

mobile formation
116
Drilling Sandstones
Sandstones can be abrasive;

high wear on bits, especially the
gauge area.
Potential for differentially stuck

pipe if filtercake builds up.
Unconsolidated sands require

filtercake and overbalance
support or else will collapse into
the hole.
117
Drilling geology
Any questions or comments on drilling problems in

sedimentary rocks?
118
Formation Pressures
119
Pressure; hydrostatic
A cube of pure water has 1

sides.
1in3 of water weighs 0.03604

lbs.
Pressure = load area
Pressure = 0.03604 1 =
0.03604 psi.
120
12 cubes of pure water, 1 sides, stacked up, 1 high.
1in3 of water weighs 0.03604 lbs, so 12in3

weighs 0.4325 lbs.
Pressure = load area
Pressure = 0.4325 1 = 0.4325 psi for 1 depth

of water.
Pressure gradient of pure water = 0.4325 psi/ft.
121
Pressure h depth.
Pressure depth = gradient
Depth x gradient = pressure
10,000 x 0.4325 = 4325 psi.
Pressure at 6000?
122
Pressure h depth.
Pressure depth = gradient
Depth x gradient = pressure
10,000 x 0.4325 = 4325 psi.
Pressure at 6000 =
6000 x 0.4325 = 2595 psi.
123
Pressure vs depth
Container shape makes no

difference to pressure at depth.
124
Normal Pore Pressure

Normal Formation Pressure is equal to the hydrostatic pressure of water
extending from the surface down to the particular subsurface formation.
Thus, the normal formation pressure gradient in any area will be equal to
the hydrostatic pressure gradient of the water occupying the pore spaces
of the formations in that area.
The hydrostatic pressure gradient is affected by the concentration of
dissolved solids (salts) and gases in the formation water.
Increasing the dissolved solids (higher salt concentration) increases the
normal formation pressure gradient whilst an increase in the level of
gases in solution will decrease the pressure gradient.
125
Variation in Normal Pressure Gradients

The following table gives examples of the magnitude of the normal formation
pressure gradient for various areas.
126
Normal pore pressure
Assume all formations are

permeable vertically.
Fluid in pores becomes more

saline with depth so gradient
increases.
Normal pore pressure at any

depth = depth x average fluid
gradient above.
127
Abnormal pore pressure
Pore pressure can be different

to the normal pressure for the
depth.
2 conditions are both

necessary:
1. Impermeable barrier above.
2. Mechanism causing pressure
change.
128
Normal vs Abnormal pressure
Question; normal pore pressure gradient

= 0.465 psi/ft at 5,500.
Pressure at 5,500 = 2,950 psi.
Is this pressure normal or abnormal?
129
Normal vs Abnormal pressure
Question; normal pore pressure gradient

= 0.465 psi/ft at 5,500.
Pressure at 5,500 = 2,950 psi.
Is this pressure normal or abnormal?
Normal pressure = 5500 x 0.465 = 2558 psi, pressure is

abnormal.
130
Abnormal Pressure Gradients

Abnormal Pressure
Every pressure which does not conform with
the definition given for normal pressure is to
be considered abnormal pressure. The
principal causes of abnormal pressures are:Under-compaction in shales
More than 50% of the total volume of an
uncompacted clay-mud may consist of the
formation water in which it is laid down.
As the thickness and weight of the overlaying
sediments increases there is a gradual
reduction in porosity as the formation water is
driven out of the shale.
131

Under-compaction in shales
This aerial photo of the Mississippi Delta shows shale mud from the river being deposited
If the formation fluid removal
from the shale is slow or the rate
of compaction build up is high
then pressures within the shales
will increase.
This will show as higher porosity
than normal and will be seen on
MWD or wireline porosity Logs
and in the d exponent.
132

Reservoir Structure
75% of the worlds oil is found in
this type of trap which is called
an anticline.
Abnormally high pressures can
develop in normally compacted
rocks.
In a reservoir with a lot of vertical
height that contains oil or
especially gas, an abnormally
high pressure gradient can exist.
133
Calculations
Convert the following mud densities into pressure gradients.
1. 13.5ppg
2. 16.0ppg
3. 12.0ppg
0.702 psi/ft
0.832 psi/ft
0.624 psi/ft
Convert the following gradients into mud densities
1. 0.806 psi/ft 2. 0.598 psi/ft 3. 0.494 psi/ft
15.5ppg
11.5ppg
9.5ppg
Calculate the hydrostatic pressure for the following
9.5ppg mud at 9,000ftmd/8000fttvd
= 3,952 psi
15.5ppg mud at 18,500fttvd/21,000ftmd
= 14,911 psi
0.889 psi/ft mud at 11,000ftmd/9,000fttvd = 8,001 psi
135
Overpressure prediction while planning
Overpressure predictions from;

Offset well data.
Seismic interpretation.
136
Overpressure detection while drilling
Overpressure detection from;

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Connection gas trends (reducing overbalance).

Drilling rate trends (reducing overbalance).
Seismic while Drilling (changes in t).
Resistivity while Drilling (RAB tool, porosity changes).
Mud conductivity (formation fluids entering the mud).
Shale cuttings density (compaction trend).
Influx into the well (kick).
137
Pressure and Stress
Pressure = Load Area, in a fluid

Stress = Load Area, in a solid
Imperial units are pounds per square inch (psi) for both.
138
Stresses in Rock
Pressure within a fluid is always positive and compressive. Shear stresses

are also possible but tensile stresses are not.
Stresses in a rock can be tensile. In mechanical engineering, a tensile stress
for instance in a bridge wire is positive but in rock mechanics, a tensile stress
is negative.
Shear stresses are also possible in rock.
139
Principal rock stresses
Axial stresses only (no shear)
Vertical stress = overburden

stress.
Horizontal stresses arise due to

rock elasticity.
Fracture pressure = lowest

horizontal stress.
140
Overburden stress
Overburden; weight of rock

above the depth of interest.
Gradient increases with depth

(compaction).
Overburden stress at 10,000 =

10,000 x 0.945 = 9450 psi.
Overburden stress at 4,000?
Gradient is 0.895, so stress =

4000 x 0.895 = 3,580 psi.
141
Formation Integrity Testing - procedure
To measure formation fracture

pressure at the shoe fracture
it!
1.
2.
3.
4.
Drill out of the shoe.

Close the BOP.
Pump slowly into the well.
Measure pressure vs volume
pumped.
142
Formation Integrity Testing full leakoff test
143
Formation Integrity Testing limit test
144
Formation Integrity Testing - uses
Limit Test. Development wells, confirm sufficient shoe

strength to reach the next planned casing point. Limit test
limits the information gained.
Leakoff test. Determine actual shoe strength. Gain

information on in-situ rock stresses.
145
Formation Integrity Testing calculation example
Calculate the formation fracture

pressure and gradient. Mud in
use 0.5 psi/ft, shoe depth
6,000, leakoff point at 750 psi.
Fracture pressure
= 750+ (0.5 x 6000) = 3,750 psi.
Fracture gradient =
3,750 6,000 = 0.625 psi/ft.
146
Formation Integrity Testing calculation answer

Fracture pressure
= 750+ (0.5 x 6000) = 3,750 psi.
Fracture gradient
= 3,750 6,000 = 0.625 psi/ft.

147
Formation Integrity Testing calculation answer


Fracture pressure
= 750+ (0.5 x 6000) = 3,750 psi.
Fracture pressure
= 850+ (0.5 x 7000) = 4,350 psi.
Fracture gradient
= 3,750 6,000 = 0.625 psi/ft.
Fracture gradient =
4,350 7,000 = 0.621 psi/ft.
148
Well planning pressure & stress profiles
These pressure/stress
profiles are important in
well design.
What happens to the

pore pressure below
9,200?
149
Well planning pressure & stress profiles
Drilling at 13,600 with

mud shown.
What will happen when

pore pressure > mud
hydrostatic?
150
Kick - definition
A kick occurs when formation

pore fluid flows in to the
wellbore due to insufficient mud
hydrostatic pressure.
151
Casing Points
The predicted pore pressure
from seismic is shown
The predicted fracture
pressure from seismic is then
added.
Finally mud weights are added
which fit between the pore and
fracture pressures gradients.
From this the casing points are
selected and Kick Tolerances
are calculated.
This helps to reduce the risk of
blowouts from kicks and
influxes, but is not a
guarantee!
152
Kick Intensity
The intensity of the kick is how much
the mud weight would need to be
increased to control the new formation
pressure.
Example:
Old mud weight
Pf1 = 12.0ppg
Mud hydrostatic
pressure
New Mud Weight Pf2 = 12.5ppg

Kick intensity is
0.5ppg
Pf1 Pf2
153
Hydrostatic Pressure
A cubic foot contains

7.48 US gals
A Fluid weighing 1 ppg is equivalent
To 7.48 cu/ft
7.48 cu/ft
= .052
144 sq ins
154
Kick Definitions
Induced Kick - zero SIDP.
Under Balance Kick when we use the term

SIDPP, the well is under
balance with the bit on
bottom and the inside
of the drillstring full of
mud.
155
Formation Test
Leak-Off Test and Equivalent Mud Weight Test
Prudent drilling practices require that the formation exposed below the last casing string
be pressure tested for well control integrity. The test may be to a specified equivalent mud
weight or to the formation frac or leak-off value. The results of the leak-off test limits
mud weights to be used at later depths and may alter the planned casing for the well. The
test also indicated the quality of the cement job.
1200
Leak-Off @ 1000 psi
Pressure, psi
1000
800
600
400
200
Example:
Casing Test
Leak-Off Test
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Volume Pumped (bbls)
158
Kick Tolerance
When a gas influx has entered a well there are 2 critical locations
for the influx:When the influx is at the bottom of the well. In this case the
SICP must not exceed the MAASP, if the formation has not
fractured at the casing shoe.
When the influx has been circulated up to the casing shoe, by a
constant bottom hole pressure method. In this case, the pressure
at the choke must not exceed the MAASP.
160
Kick causes
Insufficient mud hydrostatic pressure might be caused by:
Drilling in to an overpressured formation

Not keeping the hole full of mud
Swabbing
Mud gradient reduces due to contamination or poor
maintenance
Unplanned disconnect of a marine riser.
161
Immediate actions
Kick is detected by:

1. Increase in flow rate out of the
hole
2. Increase in surface mud
volume
Driller has to close the Blowout

Preventer asap!
162
Overpressure - well closed in
163
Well kick - example
A well kicks. The true vertical

depth of the kicking formation is
10,000. The mud gradient in
use is 0.6 psi/ft. The well kicks
and after closing the BOP, the
drill pipe pressure stabilises at
1,000 psi. What is the formation
pressure and what mud gradient
is required to balance it?
165
Well kick - exercise


8,000. The mud gradient in use
is 0.5 psi/ft. The well kicks and
after closing the BOP, the drill
pipe pressure stabilises at 400
psi. What is the formation
pressure and what is the kill
mud gradient to balance it?
166
Well kick - answer


8,000. The mud gradient in use
is 0.5 psi/ft. The well kicks and
after closing the BOP, the drill
pipe pressure stabilises at 400
psi. What is the formation
pressure and what is the kill
mud gradient to balance it?
167
Annular gas expansion
Pressure in the gas

reduces as it rises, so -
Gas expands as it rises

(Boyles Law), so -
Gas height increases,

mud height decreases.
Hydrostatic of gas + mud

decreases, so -
Pan must rise to

compensate if the BHP
stays the same.
169
Annulus pressure rises
Annulus pressure rises when circulating out a gas kick

because gas expansion reduces the height of mud in the
annulus.
170
Well kicks and well kills
Any questions so far?
171
Kick tolerance elements
A Kick Tolerance is a measure of the volume and

pressure of a gas influx that can be safely circulated out of
the well.
A kick tolerance must state two values.

1. The assumed pore pressure of the kicking formation or its
intensity (That is the formation pressure which is in excess
of the mud hydrostatic pressure).
2. The acceptable influx volume at this assumed pore pressure
that can be safely circulated out.
These two factors must both be defined.
172
Kick Tolerance 1
173
Kick Tolerance 2
174
Kick Tolerance 3
175
Kick tolerance
Any questions on Kick Tolerance?

What two elements must be defined for a kick tolerance?
When is the maximum pressure exerted on the shoe?
176
Wellbore Instability
177
Definition of Wellbore Instability
Wellbore instability is recognised when the wellbore

diameter does not stay the same as the diameter of the
bit that drilled it.
178
Cost to the Industry
$ BILLIONS annually due to;
Stuck pipe
Problems drilling and deviating
Problems tripping
Problems logging
Problems running casing
Inadequate cement jobs
Excessive generation of solids from the well
179
Shale Hydration
Forces holding the

plates together;
Overburden
Cementation
Forces pushing the

plates apart;
Pore pressure
Hydration stress
180
Reactive shales
Montmorillonite (aka Bentonite)[extremely reactive; 80,000

psi hydration stress]
Smectite [very reactive]
Mixed Layer (smectite to illite graduation)[variable reactivity
depending on the proportions of Smectite and Illite minerals]
Illite [not very reactive]
Chlorite (another mixed layer clay) [not reactive]
Muscovite (mica) [not reactive]
Kaolinite (2 crystal layers with balanced electrostatic
charges) [not reactive].
181
Fractured rock
182
Plastic deformation and creep
183
Erosion
Mostly occurs at the bit
Excess hydraulic horsepower

on bottom + low to medium
compressive strength formation
184
Rock effective stress
185
Effect of horizontal stresses on wellbore wall

stress
Wall stresses are most

compressive aligned
perpendicular to Sigma H.
Wall stresses are least

compressive aligned
perpendicular to Sigma h.
186
Effective stress exceeds rock strength

2
Pm + tension >3total gives

near wellbore fracture
Pm > 3total gives

far field fracture
DANGER
RISKY
SAFE
TOO HIGH
TOO LOW
MUD WEIGHT
Pp
3total
TENSILE
FAILURE
COMPRESSIVE
& SHEAR FAILURE
187
Elongated Hole
188
Rule of Thumb
The wellbore will be most stable if the principal stresses

acting on the wellbore wall are as similar as possible.
Drilling along 2 aligns the maximum and minimum stresses

perpendicular to the well, SO
Avoid drilling parallel to 2
189
Beneath Your Feet
190
Day 2 review
191

1.
Describe 3 different types of sedimentary rocks, their properties and

their impact on drilling
2.
Define various formation pressures: Hydrostatic pressure,

Overburden pressure, Pore pressure; Formation fracture gradient
3.
List and describe 2 methods of predicting overpressures before

drilling the well
4.
List and describe 2 methods of detecting overpressures whilst drilling

the well
5.
Define the terms: Limit Test and Leak Off Test and explain their
applications in drilling
192

7.
Outline the procedure used for conducting leak off tests
8.
Calculate the fracture gradient of a formation.
9.
Define kick and kick tolerance
10.
Define the term "Wellbore Instability", name or describe some of the

mechanisms causing instability and list the Drilling problems resulting
from instability".
193
Drilling engineering for non Drilling EngineersWeek 1, Day 3.
Designing the Well

At the end of today, YOU will be able to;

1.
Explain what information is required for well planning and who

contributes to the well plan.
2.
Define directional drilling and explain 3 of its applications
3.
List 5 factors considered when designing a wellpath
4.
Describe a typical drillstring & BHA and explain the functions of the
main components.
5.
List two main types of bits and explain their applications.
6.
Define casing and state two drilling related reasons for setting casing
7.
Explain the factors that govern casing point selection
195

8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Explain the functions of the different casing strings

Differentiate between different types of wellhead
Differentiate between primary and remedial cementing
State the factors considered in the design of a primary cement job
List 2 common types of cementing additives and explain their
applications
Review the key components of a typical cementing program
List what processes are necessary prior to spudding a well: Land
leasing, Contracts, AFE, Site Preparation etc.
196
Drillstring; drillpipe and bottom hole assembly

Drillpipe
Heavy Wall Drill Pipe
(Crossover, Jar)
Stabiliser
Drill Collars
Bottom Hole
Assembly (BHA)
Stabiliser
Drill bit
197
Drillpipe
3 component
parts;
Pipe body
Tooljoint box
Tooljoint pin
198
Drillcollars
Thick walled pipe, able to withstand high buckling forces.
Used to;
Put weight on the drillbit while keeping the drillpipe in tension.
Control directional performance.
199
Crossovers
Drillpipe; connections NC50

Crossover; NC50 box on top,
65/8 Regular pin on bottom
Drillcollar; 65/8 Regular box
on top
200
Jar
201
Stabilisers
Run within the BHA

to;
Control directional
performance.
Minimise dynamic
buckling & fatigue
damage.
202
Drillbits
Different types;
Roller cone, mill tooth

Roller cone, TCI
Fixed cutter, PDC
Fixed cutter, natural diamond
203
Bit Action on Bottom
204
Well Design vs. Drilling Programme
The Well Design defines the

final status of the well.
The Drilling Programme advises

How to achieve the well design
safely & cost effectively.
The Drilling Engineering team

design the well and write the
programme.
205
Well Design
The well design defines the final

status of the well.
5 parts to the design;
Completion
Deviation
Casing & cement
Well fluids
Wellhead
206
Completion
Completion design passed to

Drilling Engineer from
Production Engineers.
Inflow system hydrocarbon

movement from rock to well
Outflow system hydrocarbon

movement from well to surface
lines
The completion design defines the final hole size at TD.

207
Deviation
Field development
wells
208
Deviating the well
Deviated drilling requires

exerting a controlled side force
at the bit.
Greater side force = faster

change of direction.
Speed of change measured by

Dogleg Severity (DLS)
degrees of change per 100 (or
30m) drilled.
209
Kicking off the well
Downhole wedge (whipstock)

can start to deviate the well.
Old technique, still used.
210
Rotary directional drilling
Stabiliser
positions and
sizes control build,
hold or drop of the
wellbore.
211
Build hold - drop with rotary assemblies
212
Directional plan
Define the optimum path

through all the targets.
Not necessarily through the

centres.
Targets defined by reservoir

engineers.
213
Why drill directionally?
Horizontal well
Multilateral wells
Multiple wells from one surface location
214
Why drill directionally?
Drill around salt

Relief well to stop blowout
Reach otherwise impossible targets
215
Why Drill Directionally?
Sidetracking
Drainage/re-drill
Fault Controlling
Multilaterals
216
Wellpath considerations
1.
Proximity to other wells.
2.
Achieving all the targets most efficiently from the surface location.
3.
Required orientation and inclination within the reservoir.
4.
Casing setting depths.
5.
Torques and drags while drilling.
6.
Avoiding the hole cleaning problem angles 45-60 degrees.
7.
In situ stresses.
8.
Avoiding downhole problem areas, eg faults, mobile formations.
217
Casing, Cement, Fluids
Casings; steel type, OD, ID, connection, shoe depths.
Cement; chemical makeup & where placed.
Drilling fluid density (specific gravity).
218
Wellheads different types
Land well with submersible pump
Platform offshore
Mud line suspension
Subsea wellhead
219
Wellhead
1. The wellhead is a collection of valves and other equipment
which terminate the well at the surface. All the casings are
suspended in the wellhead system, as is the completion
tubing. It has to withstand high stresses and high
pressures from the well.
2. It has to allow electrical cables to pass through if downhole
electric pumps are used, plus hydraulic lines for subsurface
safety valves. So the wellhead is an expensive and
complex piece of equipment.
3. The type of wellhead used reflects the environment that the
well is situated in. On a land well or a fixed offshore
platform, similar wellheads can be used.
220
Spool type surface wellhead

Xmas tree made up above
Control line inlet
Tubing head spool
Side outlet valve
Tubing hanger
Casing spool
Casing hangers
Casing Head Housing
221
Vetco multibowl surface wellhead
Xmas tree
Tubing hanger
Casing hangers
Single housing for all hangers
Valves give access to annuli
222
Vetco VG100 Surface Wellhead

This is a surface wellhead for an
Electrical Submersible Pump
(ESP) completion.
Tubing hanger
Electrical cable
for submersible pump
Casing hanger
223
Surface Wellhead Systems

Surface Wellhead
On Platform or Jackup
Mudline Hangers
about 15ft below
the seabed
224
Vetco mud line suspension system
225
Casing Hangers
226
Casing Seal Assembly
227
Tubing Hangers
228
Wear Bushing
229
Installed Tubing Hanger
Seal Assembly
Test Port
230
Subsea Wellheads
Well Head Selection
correct pressure rating
ease of operation
cost
operator preferences
High Pressure
Wellhead
Wellhead Housing
231
Dril-Quip SS15 subsea wellhead

Guide base
18.75 High Pressure housing
Casing /Tubing hangers
30 Low Pressure housing
26 casing landing ring
232
ABB Subsea Video
233
Well design process - preparation

1.
Analyse data from previous wells.
2.
Obtain completion design.
3.
Define well requirements for the life cycle.
4.
Finalise surface location and downhole

targets.
5.
Gather all other relevant data.
6.
Identify possible hazards (eg shallow gas).
7.
Question all data, try to verify it.
234
Well design process - execution

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Can any hazards be addressed

by well design?
Define the optimum directional
path.
Design casing & cement & fluid
densities.
Decide on wellhead
configuration.
Document decisions &
calculations.
Peer review of design.
Approval by management.
235
Time for well design
Evaluate offset well . 2-4 days / well
Gather relevant data ... 1-5 days
Directional plan .... 0-5 days
Casing Design inc cement specs & mud density . 3-15 days
Wellhead configuration . 0-3 days
Draft design 2-5 days
Review & finalise design .. 1-4 days

Simple development well, 3 offsets 13+ man-days
Complex well could exceed 40 man-days
236
Well Design data requirements all wells
Pore and fracture pressure prognosis

KEY
Full completion details KEY
Expected lithology, in-situ stresses,
temperature gradient
Well objectives, targets, depths, logs
and other evaluation requirements
and required final hole size at TD
Site survey and shallow gas survey
Local infrastructure and inhabited
areas
Environmental impact assessment
Seasonal weather information
As much offset data as possible
237
Well design data requirements offshore wells
Water depth, tide and current information
Seabed conditions
Proximity to shipping lanes or other marine hazards
Proximity to suitable ports and airports
238
Some Aspects of Well Design: Casing
239
Casing what is it?
Steel pipe that is screwed together in 40

lengths and cemented in to the well.
240
Steel Grades for Casing, Tubing, Drill Pipe

Industry standard defined by the American Petroleum Institute (API).
API Specification 5CT defines manufacturing requirements.
A fine Austenitic grain is required in the finished steel.
Elements and amounts are specified (C, Al, Cr etc).
Heat treatments are specified (normalizing, tempering, quenching)
Final physical properties are specified, e.g..
API Minimum Yield Stress, psi
Fracture toughness (Charpy test)
Manufacturing tolerances
Non-destructive examination (NDE)
241
Grade designations
API Spec. 5CT defines different steels and assigns grade

letters and numbers to each steel.
Grades vary by alloy and heat treatment.
The API Minimum Yield Stress in thousands of psi is shown

by the number part of the grade.
N80 is a heat treated carbon steel with a Minimum Yield

Stress of 80,000 psi.
242
Grade markings
Pipe identification markings specified by API;
243
Specifying a casing
OD, Weight, Grade (ID, Drift Diameter)
244
Casing design process
The five steps in the casing design process are;

1. Data collection
2. Preliminary design
3. Detailed design
4. Triaxial analysis
5. Documentation of decisions
245

The casing design process has five steps.
1.
Data collection. Certain information is required for the engineer to

properly design casing for the life cycle of the well.
The life cycle of the well starts when the well is spudded and finishes when
the well is abandoned. During the life cycle, the well may undergo changes
of use, for instance a producing well being used as an injector, or
abandoning a lower zone and recompleting on a higher zone. Information
is therefore required on all the different uses that the well will experience
during the life cycle.
2.
Preliminary Design. Preliminary design defines the casing setting depths

and ODs and the fluid densities for each hole section.
3.
Detailed Design. This is covered later today. Detailed design examines

loads that the casings are subjected to and allows the casing weights,
grades and connections to be defined.
246

4.
Triaxial Analysis. This is an optional step which is not covered in this

course. Triaxial analysis is used to examine a casing design and it
examines all loads that act together on the casing. The result of these
combined loads is compared to the API Minimum Yield Stress of the
casing. Triaxial analysis may identify cases where the design is
inadequate when combined loads are considered. The calculations are
done using a computer program.
5.
Documentation of Decisions. All decisions that are taken, all

assumptions that are made during the design process must be
documented. There are two reasons for this:
When the design is checked for approval, the assumptions and decisions
made can be validated.
If the design has to be revised lateR, the design can be revised taking into
account all of the original decisions.
247
Casing Setting Depths

Factors affecting selected depths;
1. Kick tolerance - kick tolerance calculations are done to show
how deep a casing must be run to reach the next casing setting
depth.
2. Lithology (high strength impermeable formation preferred).
3. Protection of freshwater sources. Shallow casings may be run
shortly after penetrating fresh water source zones, to protect the
water from contamination. This may be a legal requirement in
some areas.
4. Separate mutually incompatible hole sections.
248
Casing Point
Selection
Example Casing Programs

This figure shows typical casing
programs for deep wells in several
different sedimentary basins.
A well that will not encounter
abnormal formation pore-pressure
gradients, lost circulation zones, or
salt domes may require only
conductor casing and surface
casing to drill to the depth objective
for the well.
Deeper wells with problems such as abnormal pressures and lost circulation will require one or more
strings of intermediate casings between the surface-casing depth and the final well depth
Liners are casing strings
that do 2.1
not extend
to the surface
but are suspended
from bottom of the next
Figure
- Typical
casing
program
larger casing string. This lower cost.
251
Casing Manufacture
252
Float Equipment
253
Running Casing
254
Typical casing scheme

Drill 36 bit
30 x 28 conductor
Drill 26 bit
20 x 18.75 surface casing
Drill 17.5 bit
13.375 x 12.415 intermediate casing
Drill 12.25 bit
9.625 x 8.875 production casing
Drill 8.5 bit
7 x 6.125 production liner
Clean out with 6 bit
255
Review
Any questions so far on the well design process, completion,

deviation, wellheads, casing?
256
Some aspects of well design: cementing
257
Primary vs Remedial cementing
Primary cementing the first time cement job on casings

and liners.
Remedial cementing repairs to bad cement jobs or other

repair work.
Effective cementing is CRITICAL to well integrity.
258
Mixing cement
94 lbs
sack of
cement
powder
5 gallons
of water
Neat
cement
259
Mixing and pumping cement
PRISM
, rate, p
260
Cementing Unit
261
Re-circulating Mixer
262
Primary cement design
Key factors;
1. Complete mud removal.
2. Sufficient long term compressive and shear
strength.
3. Maintenance of primary well control.
4. Zonal isolation between zones and to
surface.
5. Impermeability; gas entrainment.
6. Avoid losses / fracturing during placement.
263
Complete mud removal
Centralisation
Spacers, chemical washes
Flow regime
Pipe movement
264
Long term compressive and shear strength
Shear strength not

measured
Compressive
strength specified
High temperatures,
long term
stability, add Silica
Flour 35% BWOC
500 psi to support
casing
2000 psi for
perforating &
around shoe
5000
Compressive strength (psi)
at 3,000 psi UCA
Compressive
strength at 320F
4000
Compressive
strength at 350F
3000
2000
Thickening
time at 350F
(5hr, 27min)
1000
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Time (hr)
265
Primary well control during cementing

Hydrostatic pressure
must exceed all
exposed pore
pressures throughout
the displacement.
266
Zonal isolation
Cement must prevent movement

of pore fluids behind casing
including to the surface!
Formation with
Salt Layers
Shale
Fresh Water
bearing Formation
267
Cement Impermeability gas influx
Problem; gas entering the

cement during setting.
Cause; loss of hydrostatic

during transition phase.
Solutions; Right Angle Set

Cements & gas blocking
additives.
268
Avoid losses / fracturing during placement
Cement
higher density gradient than mud higher hydrostatic
pressure.
More viscous than mud higher pressure losses.
Smaller annulus than during drilling higher pressure losses.
Use simulation programme to examine total pressures vs FG
269
Primary cement design any questions?
Key factors;
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Complete mud and filter cake removal.

Sufficient long term compressive and shear strength.
Maintenance of primary well control.
Zonal isolation between zones and to surface.
Impermeability; gas entrainment.
Avoid losses / fracturing during placement.
270
Cement additives
Used to modify the properties of liquid or set cement.
Silica flour maintain long term strength at high temperature

Bentonite extender allows more water to be used
Haematite weighting agent increases cement density
Retarders and accelerators change the time for the cement
to set
Gas blocking additive blocks gas entry during setting
271
Cementing programme
Refer to the handout, which will be discussed.
272
Primary Cementing Procedure - Casing
View the primary cementing animation SingleStage.exe
273
Primary cementing - review
Any questions on cementing?
274
Other actions required prior to spud
During well design / drilling programming, other actions

needed prior to spud include;
1.
2.
3.
4.
Complete the AFE process to get the money to drill.

Have contracts in place with all service providers.
Lease or purchase the land.
Build the location and infrastructure
(roads, water pits, wells etc).
5. Obtain all necessary permits.
6. Notify all interested authorities.
7. Safety Case for the rig & well.
275
Day 3 review
276

1.
Explain what information is required for well planning and who

contributes to the well plan.
2.
Define directional drilling and explain 3 of its applications
3.
List 5 factors considered when designing a wellpath
4.
Describe a typical drillstring & BHA and explain the functions of the
main components.
5.
List two main types of bits and explain their applications.
6.
Define casing and state two drilling related reasons for setting casing
7.
Explain the factors that govern casing point selection
277

8.
Explain the functions of the different casing strings
9.
Differentiate between different types of wellhead
10.
Differentiate between primary and remedial cementing
11.
State the factors considered in the design of a primary cement job
12.
List 2 common types of cementing additives and explain their

applications
13.
Review the key components of a typical cementing program
14.
List what processes are necessary prior to spudding a well: Land

leasing, Contracts, AFE, Site Preparation etc.
278
Programming and drilling the well


1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Explain the components of, and contributors to, a drilling

program
Write a basic, high-level operational sequence for drilling a
well including a time-depth curve
Match different service companies to the activities stated in
the operational sequence
Appreciate the contents of a Daily Drilling Report
Describe and explain the benefits of Real-Time drilling
operations
Name or describe 2 types of Drilling Fluids.
287

7.
List 4 common Drilling Fluid additives and explain their use.
8.
Review a typical Drilling Fluids programme.
9.
Describe 3 common types of drilling problems and how

they are prevented or solved.
10.
Describe 3 reservoir impairment mechanisms originating

from Drilling
11.
Explain the main functions of the BOP system.
12.
List options to bring a blowout back under control.
288
DRILLING PROGRAMME OBJECTIVE:

Maximise Return On Investment
The Four Priorities for the Drilling Programme to maximise

ROI are;
Maximise Progress
Minimise Problems
Minimise Reservoir Damage
Select technical solutions leading to the lowest well cost, not
the lowest solution cost.
289
Drilling Fluids a Key Factor in maximum ROI
A complex fluid of specific physical and chemical

characteristics;
1. Pumped down the string, returns up the annulus.
2. Cleans and cools the bit, lifts cuttings to the surface.
3. Density provides primary well control without fracturing
formations.
4. Suspends weighting materials and cuttings when static.
5. Provides for in-gauge holes.
6. Avoids reservoir damage.
7. Maximises bit performance.
290
Components of drilling fluids
Liquid component; may be one or more fluids

Air
Water
Oil
Dissolved chemicals
Salts to reduce shale hydration or allow drilling salts
Caustic Soda, Calcium Hydroxide
Polymers
Suspended or dispersed solids

Bentonite
Baryte (Barium Sulphide, BaSO4)
Lost circulation materials
291
Common muds water based, KCl polymer
Liquid phase = water
Potassium Chloride added for shale stability (ionic

substitution)
Polymers wrap around cuttings, keeping them stable
Polymers contribute viscosity and gel strength
Polymers give filtration control (affect filter cake, also filtrate

viscosity)
Baryte for density
292
Common muds - IOEM
Liquid phase = emulsion of water in

oil (invert oil emulsion)
OWR varies 95/5 to 60/40
(OWR affects almost all mud
properties)
CaCl2 added to the water phase
(shale stability)
Bentonite adds viscosity
Emulsifiers to maintain the emulsion
Baryte for density
293
Mud programme
Review the mud programme handout.
294
Drilling Problems: Formation Damage
295
Drilling Damage to the Reservoir
Definition of reservoir damage;

The existence of a barrier to flow in the near-wellbore region
of the reservoir rock that results in reduced production and/or
abnormal decline in productivity.
(Shell Exploration & Production Company)
296
Damage effect on Net Present Value
297
Skin factor, s
298
Damage occurrence - considerations

1.
Damage occurs due to interactions between the drilling

fluid and the reservoir.
2.
The drilling and completion fluids must therefore be tailored

to the particular reservoir.
3.
More damage is created with more overbalance; damage is

avoided by drilling underbalanced.
4.
Shallow damage can be perforated through.
299
Damage mechanisms examined

1.
Drilling solids invade the rock and block pore throats.
2.
Filtrate reacts with shale particles, which swell and block

pore throats.
3.
Filtrate reacts with pore fluids, causing emulsions or

precipitates which block pore throats.
300
Solids Blocking
Contributing factors - drilled and

added solids in the mud; overbalance;
duration; filtercake disturbance;
particle size < 1/3rd pore throat.
301
Shale swelling
Contributing factors water in the

filtrate; reactive clays in the reservoir;
overbalance; duration; filtercake
disturbance.
302
Emulsion and precipitate blocking
Contributing factors water and

chemicals or polymers in the filtrate;
reactive chemicals in the reservoir;
overbalance; duration; filtercake
disturbance.
303
Drilling problems
1.
Loss of drilling fluids downhole.
2.
Stuck pipe.
3.
Fishing.
304
Drilling problems: lost circulation (losses)
305
Losses; definition
Lost circulation can be said to occur when whole mud leaves

the circulating annulus downhole.
306
Conditions for losses to occur
Two conditions ARE BOTH NECESSARY;

1. The pressure in the wellbore exceeds pore
pressure.
2. There is a pathway for fluid to flow out of the
wellbore.
307
Pressure condition
Downhole pressure results from;

Mud hydrostatic
Circulating pressure losses
Surge pressures
Kick
FIT
308
Pathways
Four distinct pathways can be identified for losses;

Natural fractures (including non-sealing faults)
Cavernous spaces or vugs

Very high permeability (unconsolidated coarse sands)
Induced fractures (from the Drilling operation)

309
Categories of lost circulation
Seepage losses; up to 10 bbls/hr lost

while circulating.
Partial losses; 10 - 50 bbl/hr lost while

circulating.
Severe losses; over 50 bbl/hr lost while

circulating, some returns, the hole is
static and full when pumping stops.
Total losses; the mud level stays below

the surface whether or not the well is
being circulated.
310
Calculating the pressure in the loss zone
If the depth of the total loss zone is known, the pressure can
be calculated.
311
Example
121/4 hole, 5 drillpipe. Loss zone
suspected on bottom at 10,000.
0.6 psi/ft mud, 0.433 psi/ft water.
Annulus topped up with 30 bbls of
water.
Pressure in loss zone = addition of
fluid hydrostatic pressures
Height of water Hw = 30/0.1214
Hw = 247
Pp = Hww + Hmm = 5960 psi
312
Exercise
water.
Hw = 247

water. Pressure in the loss zone?
313
Answer
water.
Hw = 247

water. Pressure in the loss zone?
Hw = 329
314
Lost circulation
Any questions?
315
Drilling Problems: Stuck Pipe
316
Definition of Stuck Pipe
Stuck Pipe occurs when the tool or equipment in the hole

cannot be pulled out without exceeding the Design Strength.
Tool or equipment includes drillstring, casing and logging

tools.
317
Signs of Stuck Pipe
Using our definition, pipe may be stuck (unable to pull out)

but;
The drillstring or casing may or may not be free to rotate.
The drillstring or casing may or may not be plugged in the
annulus (unable or able to circulate).
It may or may not be possible to lower the drillstring, casing or
logging tool.
These signs help to diagnose the root cause of the stuck

pipe.
318
Hole Geometry
The profile of the well (hole

sections that are not straight or
are not full gauge) may cause
stuck pipe.
Avoid by;
1.
2.
3.
4.
Careful directional design.

Maintain a stable wellbore.
Use keyseat wipers.
Trip carefully through problem
formations.
Geometry problems usually

prevent movement in one
direction but allow circulation.
Stiff BHA
319
Solids buildup
Poor hole cleaning solids build up. Pump

stops, solids drop back.
Avoid by;
1. Good hole cleaning practices.
Usually the pipe cannot move at all and no

circulation is possible. aka PACKED OFF!
320
Mechanical sticking, junk or formation lumps
Junk or large fractured formation chunks fall in to the well

& jams the drillstring.
Avoid by;
Good housekeeping.
Keep the rotary table covered.
Be careful when working on BOP etc.
Most often stuck while POH. First action, try to jar down.
321
Differential sticking
4 conditions must all be

present;
1.
2.
3.
4.
Overbalance.
Filter cake.
Stationary pipe.
Wall Contact.
322
Hole Problems Video
323
Stuck pipe
Any questions?
324
Drilling Problems: Fishing
325
Fishing - definition
Operations which are necessary to remove unwanted items

from the wellbore before normal operations can resume.
326
4 main causes
A break in the drillstring or logging cable
Stuck pipe
Junk
Workover
327
Unintentional string break
A break in the drillstring or logging cable may occur

unintentionally, due for instance to fatigue failure or
overstressing a component. Woo! But can be prevented
string includes drillpipe, casing, tubing or anything attached

to it.
328
Stuck pipe
Stuck pipe, casing or logging tools which cannot be freed

may have to be cut and fished.
Backed off or severed DP
Logging tool weak link broken
Prevention;
Dont get stuck!
329
Avoiding junk downhole
Good rig housekeeping
Use the hole cover
Use the DP wiper when tripping
Close blind rams when OOH
Be careful for dropped tools when working on BOPs.
330
Workover
Sometimes a well has to have the completion string removed, possibly to
repair damage, or change the completion configuration, or to abandon the
well. These operations often involve planned fishing when the
completion cannot simply be pulled out. Over time, solids can settle
around the lower part of the completion, sticking it in place. The tubing
can be cut and then a fishing assembly run on drillstring to latch on to the
fish and put great force on it.
Old tubing strings or packers may not come out easily!

Completion must be parted or cut
Permanent packers must be removed
Prevention - cannot really be prevented, its part of working

over.
331
4 main causes discussed
A break in the string
Stuck pipe
Junk
Workover
Any questions?
332
Situation diagram
Always make a diagram of the

situation!
Helps visualise the situation

Group discussion aid
Avoid common mistakes
All information available,
nothing forgotten.
333
Outside catch tools
Works by gripping the outside diameter of the fish.
Used when the fish ID is significantly smaller than the hole

diameter.
Outside catch tools are very strong - often stronger than the
drillpipe.
May allow circulation and tools to be sent through the fish.
You know when youve got the fish.
Usually the method of choice, with an Overshot.
334
Bowen series 70 overshot
Grip increases as pull increases

Grip increases with LH torque
Grip releases with RH torque
Very strong in tension, can jar
on
Allows circulation and wireline
tools to go inside the fish
Can be released downhole
without damaging the fish
Can mill over light damage
The Tool Of First Choice!
335
Inside catch tools
Works by gripping the inside diameter of the fish.
Used when there is not much annular clearance but the fish
has a large open ID (casing).
Inside catch tools are not very strong - the strength is limited
by the strength of the inner mandrel.
Allows circulation and (sometimes) tools to be sent through

the fish.
You know when youve got the fish.
The Releasing Spear is the most common inside catch tool.
336
Releasing Spear
An overshot in reverse.
Grip increases as pull increases
Grip releases with RH torque
Not so strong in tension, can
lightly jar only
Allows circulation through the
fish
Can be released downhole
without damaging the fish
337
Washover and basket tools
Used to recover small, non-tubular junk -bit cones, tong dies.
Circulation may used to move the junk into a receptacle.
Barrel may be used to move over the junk and close below it.
A magnet may be used (permanent or electro).
No surface indication of catching the junk.
Remove the junk by enclosing it or sticking to it!
338
Jet Junk Retriever
Main characteristics;
A ball is dropped which diverts
the fluid flow around and up
inside the tool.
Spring loaded fingers allow the
junk in but not out.
Ideal for drillbit cones.
339
Fishing
Any questions?
340
Drilling Operations: Well Control
341
Blowout Preventer (BOP) system functions
Quickly and reliably seal the well against wellbore fluids at

high pressures and temperatures.
Allow fluids to be pumped into the well.
Allow fluids to be released & controlled from the well.
Allow pipe to be moved into the well under pressure.
Suspend the drillstring in the well and seal it.
Cut the drillstring and seal off the well.
342
BOP system unit and accumulator/control unit
343
Choke manifold and remote choke panel
344
Adjustable choke (manual)
345
Rams
346
Annular preventer
347
Primary, Secondary, Tertiary well control
348
Tertiary well control stopping a blowout
Options;
1. Baryte plug; heavy slug that
settles out on the bottom to
stop flow. Well might be
saved.
2. Cement plug; keep mixing and
pumping cement into the well
until flow stops. Well lost.
3. Relief well. Takes months,
costs million$.
349
Well control and blowouts
Any questions?
350
Real-Time Drilling Operations
351
Real-time Drilling? What is It?
352
Real-Time Drilling
z In real time operations, a close multi-disciplinary team works
together with real-time wellsite information streaming in to
the operations center, where it is analyzed and decisions
made with access to lots of high quality data.
z The onshore operations center becomes a virtual part of the
rig. All the major drilling parameters are relayed in real time
to the operations center, which can be anywhere in the
world. Better and faster decisions result in better progress,
fewer problems and therefore improved Return on
Investment.
353
Real-Time Drilling - Features

1. Real-time data capture; transmission of downhole and surface drilling
parameters and formation evaluation data
2. Constant monitoring and surveillance of the above in the context of a plan
and predictive models
3. Integration of the real-time information into a data store that includes asset
models and offset data
4. Informed, constantly updated drilling engineering plans and analyses
dedicated to the identification and reduction of risk, while optimizing drilling
performance
5. Informed, constantly updated geological models that can be used to
understand risks to drilling operations due to geological conditions and also
to determine the best placement of the well to meet the well objectives
6. Sophisticated information presentation techniques to foster better and
more rapid decision making
354
Real-Time Drilling - Benefits

1. Reduce non-productive time and reduce invisible lost time
Better decisions through an improved understanding of
operations and the current geological opinion,
2. Improved drilling performance driven by constant monitoring
of the plan versus the actual, revising the engineering
whenever warranted by the current understand of the well
and the earth;
Reduced risk from better planning, monitoring and the
integration of drilling engineering and geology above the
reservoir;
355
Real-Time Drilling - Benefits

1. Place well in the right position to maximize asset value
Improved economic results through better well placement;
Better understanding of their assets using improved
models bridging the disciplines of drilling and geology;
2. Improved management with associated economic advantages
Managed knowledge of their assets, decision, operational
successes and challenges;
Corporate access to integrated drilling information and key
performance indicators; and
Better leverage of experienced personnel from a safer offwell site environment.
356
Real-time Enabled Drilling Collaboration Center
Visualization,
communication,
decisions
Collaborative well
placement
Earth-driven
drilling optimization
Model-based
surveillance
Transmission
Real-time capture
357
Example Well Placement

RT Drilling parameters
Trajectory and seismic
Petrophysical analysis
RT log data
3-way VC
Clients
Geosteering Correlation
Inform 3D
Modeling
Reporting
RT Structural
Dip Analysis
358
Day 4 review
359

1.
Explain the components of, and contributors to, a drilling

program
2.
Write a basic, high-level operational sequence for drilling a

well including a time-depth curve
3.
Match different service companies to the activities stated in

the operational sequence
4.
Appreciate the contents of a Daily Drilling Report
360

5.
Describe and explain the benefits of Real-Time operations
6.
Explain 2 out of 3 common types of drilling problems and

how they are prevented or solved.
7.
List and briefly describe the various [reservoir] impairment

mechanisms originating from Drilling
8.
Explain the main functions of the BOP system.
9.
List options to bring a blowout back under control.
361
Created by Randy Davis Drilling Consultant


1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
List 3 common types of well evaluation methods and

describe their applications.
Associate 3 different formation properties with logs.
Identify sand and shale from a simple log
Define LWD and explain it benefits and limitations.
Define Geosteering and explain its benefits and limitations.
List two types of perforating techniques and explain their
applications.
Explain 3 different types of well completions and their
applications.
363

8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Draw and label a simple well completion schematic.

Explain the functions of the main components of a
completion string.
Give a basic description of Intelligent Completions and its
benefits
Differentiate between well suspension and well
abandonment.
Describe 2 common well abandonment techniques.
Draw a schematic of an abandoned well and explain the
functions of the main components
364
Mud Logging
365
Mud Logging
What is Mud Logging?

Mud Logging is the process of analysing drilling mud as it is
pumped from the well bore for increases or decreases in the
amount of entrained oil and gas.
Also, the Logger (a trained geologist) examines drill cuttings
for reservoir quality and lithology identification.
Both of these processes are helpful towards analysing
formations and evaluating the reservoir quality of the
formations.
Entrained Gas and cuttings are returned to the surface for
analysing some time after (Lag Time) they are drilled.
366
Rig Fluid Circulating System

Function is to remove rock cuttings
out of the hole as drilling
progresses
Principal components are
Pumps
Pits/tanks
Mixing devices
Contaminants removal
equipment, and
Flow conduits
367
Mud Logging Mechanics
Mud source starts in Mud Pit
Pumped via Mud Pump, Stand

Pipe, Kelly Hose, Kelly / Top
Drive, through Drill pipe and bit
into the Annulus.
Gas and cuttings in the mud are

circulated up the annulus,
through the flow line and into
the shaker/header box where
gas is extracted from mud using
an agitator and then routed to
logging unit for analysis.
368
Gas Analysis
Origins of Gas in Mud

Liberated gas is defined as gas mechanically liberated by the
bit, into the drilling fluid, as the bit penetrates the formation.
Produced gas is defined as gas produced into the drilling fluid
from a specific zone in response to a formation pressure which
exceeds the opposing effective hydrostatic pressure.
Recycled gas is defined as gas which has been pumped back
down the hole to appear a second time at the surface.
Contamination gas is defined as gas artificially introduced to
the drilling fluid system from a source other than the rock
formations.
369
Mud Logging
Typical responses from gas in

mud. Note that the liberated
response can be largely
influenced by the penetration
rate.
370
Evaluation Benefits of Mud Logging
Indicative of Hydrocarbon presence Total gas analysis and

chromatograph analysis interpretation possible as to
reservoir fluid type and composition i.e.... oil, gas, water.
Lithological properties - i.e.... rock type, inclusions
Reservoir qualities porosity, permeability,
371
Example Mud Log Combined with LWD Log
372
Wireline Logs
Wireline Logs
Electric Logging
Electric logs are used to

determine three basic
properties of the formations.
Resistivity
Oil / water saturation
Porosity
Volume of pore space
Shale index
Lithology indication
375
Resistivity
What are resistivity logs?
When are they used?
Resistivity tools determine:

hydrocarbon or water-bearing
zones,
Indications of permeable zones,
resistivity porosity.
Different depths of investigation
376
Porosity
Which logs are used to determine porosity?

Sonic - The sonic log is a porosity log that measures interval
transit time (Dt) of a compressional sound wave travelling
through one foot of formation.
Neutron Neutron logs are porosity logs that measure the
hydrogen ion concentration in a formation
Density - The formation density log is a porosity log that
measures electron density of a formation
377
Sonic Log
The sonic log is a porosity

log that measures interval
transit time (Dt) of a
compressional sound wave
travelling through one foot of
formation.
The sonic log device

consists of one or more
sound transmitters, and two
or more receivers.
Can show the drillers where

pressure transition starts.
378
Density Log
The neutron density logging

device is a contact tool which
contains a medium-energy
gamma ray source that emits
gamma rays into a formation.
The gamma ray source is either
Cobalt-60 or Cesium-137.
The formation density log is a
porosity log that measures
electron density of a formation.
The geologist can:
(1) identify evaporite minerals,
(2) detect gas-bearing zones,
(3) determine hydrocarbon density
(4) evaluate shaly sand reservoirs
and complex lithologies.
379
Neutron Log
Neutron logs are porosity logs that
measure the hydrogen ion
concentration in a formation. In clean
formations (i.e.... shale-free) where the
porosity is filled with water or oil, the
neutron log measures liquid-filled
porosity.
Whenever pores are filled with gas
rather than oil or water, neutron
porosity will be lowered. This occurs
because there is less concentration of
hydrogen in gas compared to oil or
water. A lowering of neutron porosity by
gas is called gas effect.
Neutron log responses vary, depending
on: (1) differences in detector types,
(2) spacing between source and
detector
(3) lithology-i.e. sandstone, limestone,
and dolomite.
380
Gamma Ray
Gamma ray logs measure natural

radioactivity in formations so can be used
for identifying lithologies and for correlating
zones.
As shale content increases, the gamma ray
log response increases because of the
concentration of radioactive material in the
shale.
The Spectralog* breaks the natural
radioactivity of a formation into different
types of radioactive material: (1) thorium,
(2) potassium, and (3) uranium.
If a zone has a high potassium content
indicated by a high gamma ray log
response, the zone may not be shale, but
could be a feldspathic, glauconitic, or
micaceous sandstone. All three minerals
are high in potassium content.
Shale-free sandstones and carbonates
have low concentrations of radioactive
material, and give low gamma ray
readings.
381
Log Analysis Exercise
Review the example and

determine the rock type from
13580-13650
Is it possible that hydrocarbons

are present?
Where is the possible oil / water

contact?
Is there an indication of
formation invasion or damage?
382
CBL/VDL Sonic Log Devices
USIT Tool
MDT
LWD
Logging While Drilling
The measurement of formation

properties during the excavation
of the hole, or shortly thereafter,
through the use of tools
integrated into the bottomhole
assembly.
386
LWD
Benefits and Features

Real Time Data Acquisition
immediate evaluation potential
Evaluation performed before
deep invasion / damage
Data gathered while opportunity
exists
Logging ability for high angle /
horizontal wells >70
Tubular strength over TCL
Quality and formation response
comparative to WL logs
387
LWD
Associated Risks
Rental Cost
Lost in Hole or Damage Beyond Repair Charges
Increased BHA length (potential for stuck pipe)
Dependent upon other rig mechanisms to be functioning
optimally (Mud condition, Mud pumps, Mud Density)
Complex technology subjected to rigorous working
environment. MTBF!
388
LWD Tool
389
LWD Tool
390
Sonic Tool LWD
391
EcoScope Multifunction Tool LWD
392
EcoScope Multifunction Tool LWD
393
Powerdrive Video
394
Schlumberger Powerdrive
395
396
397
398
Geosteering
The purpose of Geosteering is to be able to drill within a

predetermined layer of the reservoir. The near bit real time
formation analysis enables precise directional control.
399
GeoSteering
The basics of a geosteering tool are similar to LWD in

formation evaluation. The sensors are located closer to the
bit for tighter directional control.
400
Geosteering Assemblies
401
Geosteering
Power Drive Rotary Steerable System-
Is the basis of technology for the Geosteering process?
402
Geosteering
Benefits of Geosteering
Enhanced oil recovery through optimum placement of borehole
in reservoir in the high permeability sections.
Reservoir fluid production control borehole above oil/water
contact and below oil/gas contact.
Less borehole required for equivalent production
403
Geosteering
Risks Associated With Geosteering
Technical Difficulties / Tool complexity MTBF
Harsh Environment Failure
Interpretation / Analysis Wrong conclusions leading poor

production
Difficult to get all the data to surface with high ROP.
404
405
406
407
MWD/LWD Mud Pulse Telemetry

Pressure spikes sent through liquid drilling fluids.
Positive Pulse
Negative Pulse
Continuous wave tools - The information is contained in
the phase variation of this wave, and not the amplitude.
May have to restrict ROP to accommodate data rate
Sends surveys/data on command pumps off/still pipe
Slow Data Transfer rate
Does not work well with Heavy Viscous muds
Doest not work well with UBD Drilling Fluids
Sometimes hard to downlink data to RSS/MWD/LWD
408
409
Electromagnetic MWD/LWD Data

Electromagnetic Mud Pulse Telemetry
Drillpipe is used as an Ariel
Works in Gaseous/UBD fluids up to now only solution
May have to restrict ROP to accommodate data rate
Sends surveys/data on command pumps off/still pipe
Sometimes hard to downlink data to RSS/MWD/LWD
410
Wired Drillpipe Data Transmission

Wired Drillpipe High speed/Always on System
New Technology Grant Prideco 57k bits/second
Not affected by gas in mud. 10,000 times faster than MPT
Made up of 4 components
Bi Directional Interface Sub - between RSS/MWD/LWD and Wired
Drillpipe (available for different Service Company tools)
Number of IntelliLinks Boost signal take additional data from
each IntelliLink location.
Wired Drillpipe Uses tensioned cable in Drillpipe and is
connected to Inductive coils in tooljoints to communicate from pipe
to pipe.
Top Drive Sub Allows the use of wireless technology to transfer
data from drillstring to IntelliServer computer.
411
412
Tool Joints and Upsets

EXTERNAL UPSET ( EU )
INTERNAL UPSET( IU)
INTERNAL-EXTERNAL
UPSET ( IEU )
414
IntelliServ Wired Drillpipe
415
Schlumberger War Room
416
Schlumberger War Room
417
Current Directional Drilling Technology Limits
Al Shaheen Field Offshore Qatar for Maersk Oil April 2008

Longest Extended Reach well 40,320 ft (12,289m)
measured depth. Lateral reach 35,770 ft (10,902m). Longest
8 Section and Open Hole section - 35,449ft (10,804m)
Deepest MWD/LWD downlink 40,320ft (12,289m) kept

wellbore within a 3ft sweet spot of the 10ft thick reservoir for
95% of the open hole section.
Shortest measured length from vertical to horizontal 35 feet

TVD. (SPE 35244-PA)
418
Well Testing & Perforating
419
Well Testing
From its modest beginnings as a rudimentary productivity test, well

testing has progressed to become one of the most powerful tools for
determining complex reservoir characteristics.
420
Well Testing
Considerations for Testing

Deck Space Available
Operating Criteria (i.e.... D.P or
Anchored)
Maximum heave/surface tree
height above rig floor.
BOP Stack/Test Tree
Configuration
Produced Fluids and proposed
treatment at surface
Anticipated flow rates
Sub-sea Test Tree
421
Well Testing
Well Fluids
Low Pressure Oil
Separator Gas
Water
422
Perforating
Two Methods
Wireline Conveyed Guns
Tubing Conveyed Guns
As far a completion design is concerned, the following

comment cannot be overstated. The fate of a well hinges on
years of exploration, months of planning, and weeks of
drilling. But ultimately it depends on perforating the optimal
completion, which begins with the first millisecond of
perforating. Profitability is strongly influenced by the critical
link between the reservoir and the wellbore.
423
Perforating
1. Firing head options include electric line, pressure, or mechanical systems.
Firing options include pressure activated for both wireline and tubing
conveyed systems, either by differential or applied pressure, and with or
without time delay devices.
2. Wireline perforating is common; the well can be perforated after nippling up
the Xmas tree.
3. Perforating Underbalanced to backsurge and clean up the perforation
tunnels is achieved by using coiled tubing to displace out fluid from the
tubing. The disadvantages include the limit on the size of the guns to an OD
that will pass through the tubing, and the maximum weight (length) of the
gun assembly per run.
4. Due to the small size of the charge, the guns must be held against the
casing wall for sufficient penetration; this restricts the gun to 0 phasing,
which reduces productivity compared to 90 phasing. The restricted gun
size may also give below optimum perforation depth.
424
Perforating
The major geometrical

factors that determine the
efficiency of flow in a
perforated completion
are:
Perforation length
Perforation diameter.
Shot density
Angular phasing
425
Perforating Charges
426
Gun Phasing
427
Perforating Wireline Conveyed Guns

The retrievable hollow gun carrier
consists of a steel tube into which a shaped
charge is secured - the gun tube is sealed
against hydrostatic pressure. When the
charge fires, the explosive force slightly
expand the carrier wall but the gun and the
debris are retrieved from the well.
The non-retrievable or expendable gun
Individually sealed cases made of ceramic
aluminium, or cast iron; Blasts the case into
small pieces. Debris remains in the well.
Semi-expendable guns, the charges are
secured on a retrievable wire carrier or
metal bar.
428
Perforating Tubing Conveyed Guns

Advantages - Large intervals can be perforated at one
time; Easy to perforate in deviated wells; Large gun
sizes can be used with high shot densities; Perforating
may be carried out in under-balanced conditions;
Safest method to perforate.
Disadvantages:- Entire completion string must be
pulled and re-run if the guns fail; Additional hole must
be drilled below the reservoir to accommodate the
guns.
Positioning:- Use a radioactive source in the casing
string for correlating the gun depth. Use with a gamma
ray logging tool to determine the exact position of the
guns with respect to the formation.
And/or use a pup joint in the casing
429
Completions
430
Well Completions
There Are Three Basic Types Of Completion
431
Well Completions
432
Well Completions
Purpose of Completion is to transfer fluids from the reservoir

to surface in a controlled manner.
Basic
completion
More
versatile
completion
433
Well Completions
z
The design of a completion string involves the selection of

components that perform specific functions and these functions
are dependent on the philosophy of the operating company.
Operating company philosophies differ with respect to
completion string design and in some cases there are historic
reasons for the inclusion of components that provide specific
functions.
In this section the functional requirements for a completion string

will be discussed here by example. Next, actual completion
examples will be illustrated and differing philosophies discussed.
434
Well Completions
Completion Design Example 1
Consider the following casing schematic. The objective is to design
a completion string for this well with following basic functional
requirements:
z To provide optimum flowing conditions
z To protect the casing from well fluids
z To contain reservoir pressure in an emergency
z To enable down hole chemical injection
z To enable the well to be put in a safe condition prior to
removing the production conduit (i.e. to be killed)
z To enable routine downhole operations.
NOTE: The above functional requirements are not exhaustive.
435
Well Completions
A completion string that fulfils
these functional
requirements is illustrated on
the right hand diagram. It is
important to realize this
example design is only a
solution and not the solution.
This design is called a single
zone single string
completion.
More
versatile
completion
436
Well Completions
Components of a Simple Completion
Xmas Tree
Tubing Hanger / Hanger Spool
Production Casing
Production Tubing
Downhole Safety Valve
Packer
Tail Pipe
437
Well Completions
Xmas Tree
A Xmas Tree is an assembly of

valves, all with specific
functions, used to control flow
from the well and to provide well
intervention access for well
maintenance or reservoir
monitoring.
438
Well Completions
Tubing Hanger
The tubing hanger is a

completion component which is
landed and locked inside the
tubing head spool and provides
the following functions:
Suspends the tubing
Provides a seal between the
tubing and the tubing head
spool
Installation point for barrier
protection
439
Well Completions
Downhole Safety Valves
The purpose of a safety valve is to shut

off flow from a well in the event of a
potentially catastrophic situation
occurring.
Sub-surface Controlled Safety Valves

Ambient pressure operated
Differential pressure operated
Surface Controlled Safety Valves

Wireline retrievable valve (WRSV)
Tubing retrievable. (TRSV)
440
Well Completions
Packer
A production packer may be

defined as a sub-surface
component used to provide a
seal between the casing and the
tubing in a well to prevent the
vertical movement of fluids past
the sealing point.
Thus allowing fluids from a

reservoir to be produced to
surface facilities through the
production tubing.
Retrievable Packer
Permanent Packer
441
Well Completions
Tubing
Although tubing is the last string

of tubulars to be run in the well,
its requirements often dictate
the whole well design. Tubing is
run mainly to serve as the flow
conduit for the produced fluids.
It also serves to isolate these

fluids from the A (Production)
annulus when it is used in
conjunction with a casing
packer.
Tubing Connections
API External Upset Connection
API Internal Upset Connection
442
Intelligent Completions
During the 1980s, many operators installed pressure and temperature

measuring instruments downhole to gather real-time production data.
This data provided valuable information concerning how to produce target
zones more efficiently.
More recently, the industry has favoured installations that have

remotely operated controls placed in the completion.
Sensor requirements have now extended beyond just pressure and
temperature to include flow rates, fluid density, fluid viscosity, fluid
composition, reservoir characteristics, etc.
A well that has a system of downhole sensors and controls, which includes
a surface system to collect and transmit production data to a remote
facility for analysis, has been dubbed a smart well.
The absence of downhole monitoring devices in traditional dumb iron
completions which make up the vast majority of completions, results in
limited reservoir data.
443
Basic Equipment
Downhole Sensors
To measure the desired parameters in the well
Controls
To reconfigure the downhole tools
Telemetry
To convey data to and from the surface
Surface Sub System

This includes a data collection terminal, software to analyse the data and
make decisions based on output, and some means of transmitting this
data to a remote facility.
444
Intelligent Well Schematic
445
Intelligent Completion
Intelligent Well Schematic
446
Example of Selective Zone Production
Demonstration of gas
zone being produced
and being shut off
from surface
controlled equipment.
447
Well Abandonment/Suspension
448
Well Abandonment / Suspension
Well Abandonment The objective of an abandonment is to

leave the well in mechanical state as to present no possible
threats to the environment. There is not intended future use
for the abandoned hole. All necessary equipment is
retrieved or salvaged. The location is restored to as close to
original state as is reasonably possible.
Well Suspension The objective of a suspension is to leave

the well in a safe and controlled state with no threat to the
environment for a temporary time. Generally the intent is to
return to the well and utilise for commercial purpose.
449
Well Suspension
Well is left with a minimum of two tested barriers between

potential hydrocarbon zones and surface.
Combination of mechanical (bridge plugs) and physical

(cement plugs) can be used.
Wellhead is left in place with protective cover over borehole
Suspension fluid ( non decaying bactericide) put in place in

the production casing.
450
Suspended well
3 mechanical barriers + fluid hydrostatic.

Hanger, plugged, kill string below.
Fluid hydrostatic overbalances the
reservoir.
Cement plug above drillable bridge plug.
Drillable bridge plug above perforations.
451
Well Abandonment
Well is left with a minimum of two tested barriers between potential

hydrocarbon zones and surface. Casing may be cut and retrieved at
top of cemented annulus.
All annuli are cemented to surface or pressure tested beyond LOT

pressure.
Combination of mechanical (bridge plugs) and physical (cement plugs)

can be used. Must be weight and or pressure tested to ensure
integrity.
Wellhead is removed and all casings severed to 10 below surface.
Seabed / location cleared and restored to original state.
452
Well Abandonment
5 mechanical barriers. All permeable

zones isolated with cement.
Casings cut below ground or seabed
level, cemented off stumps.
Cement plug covering shoe of
intermediate casing.
Production casing cut, cement plug
over stump.
Permanent bridge plug above perfs.
Cement squeezed into perfs.
453
Well Abandonment
A creative and more cost effective way of abandonment is to

set two cement plugs across areas that have totally
cemented annuli, pressure testing each plug as it is set.
Then the wellhead and all casings are severed in a single
cut, retrieved and disposed. The location is cleared and
restored.
The second and less cost effective is to pull all uncemented
tubulars, enact LSA (radioactive) handling, place cement
plugs across the top of each cut casing and retrieve the
wellhead from the final cut. The location is then cleared and
restored.
454
Day 5 review
455
Now, YOU should be able to:

1.
List 3 common types of well evaluation methods and describe

their applications
2.
Define the four basic sources of gas in mud.
3.
Explain the basics of well testing
4.
List the 5 major types of electric logs?
5.
Explain the elog responses for oil, water, porosity, shale.
6.
Define LWD and list benefits and limitations.
7.
Define Geosteering and explain the benefits and limitations.
8.
Review the two types of perforating.
456
Now, YOU should be able to:

9.
Explain the three different types of well completions along with

associated benefits and risks.
10.
Give a basic description of Intelligent completions and the

benefits.
11.
Draw and label a basic completion and components.
12.
Give a basic description of Intelligent completions and the

benefits
13.
Define well suspension and abandonment and explain the

differences between the two.
14.
Draw a schematic of an abandoned well.
457
Please complete the feedback

forms before you leave
Any questions before the test?
This is a closed book test. Please put away your notes and
handouts now.

Drilling Engineering For Non Drilling Engineers (NExT) (2006) PDF

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Título original

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Drilling Engineering For Non Drilling Engineers (NExT) (2006) PDF

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Drilling engineering for non Drilling EngineersWeek 1, Day 1

Overview of the well construction process

Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

Course and Training Centre Orientation

Fire alarms / drills / muster point.

Classroom procedures and timings.

Delegates introductions; name, current job, expectations for

Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

Day 1. Overview of the Well Construction Process.

Day 2. Drilling Fundamentals.

Day 3. Designing the well.

Day 4. Programming and Drilling the well.

Day 5. Evaluating and Completing the well.

Tests on days 1 and 5.

Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

At the end of today, YOU should be able to;

Name or describe the five requirements for the accumulation of

Draw a high-level process map of the E&P process from Exploration

Identify where drilling fits in the E&P process

Define the types of information gathered during the drilling of a well

Differentiate between exploration, appraisal and development drilling

Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

At the end of today, YOU should be able to;

Differentiate between land and offshore drilling rigs and operations.

List and explain the functions of the major components of a rig

Draw a typical drilling organizational chart and explain the functions of

Describe the steps involved in drilling and completing a well,

Identify the major time-consuming operations and cost elements

Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

How do We find Hydrocarbons?

Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

5 requirements for an oil reservoir

Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

Usually shales, buried in low energy environments.

0.5 to 10% organic carbon

> 100 ppm by weight of hydrocarbon

Oil generation starts at 50C, peaks at 90C, stops at 175C

Age 120m + years

HC content is destroyed above 260C.

Coal deposits from woody plant remains, no oil, associated

Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

Reservoir rock & quantity

Porosity, %age and pore sizes,

Buoyant separation of fluids

Water, Oil, Gas layers

Seal rock above

Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

SEM showing sandstone structure & porosity

Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

Limestone porosity fractures or vugs

Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

Reservoir rock structure shaped

Seismic can indicate trap

Salt diapir traps are important in

Exploration and Production (E&P) Process

Appraisal /Development Drilling

field management & planning

well design & planning

So to find Hydrocarbons, we need to .

Find a likely Structure

Determine the rock types

Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

$ 8 - 300 million per well