Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
UNIT -1 INTRODUCTION
It should be able to withstand the electrical, mechanical and thermal stresses which are produced
in the machine.
4. Mechanical strength
Especially in turbo machine due to large size and high speed.
5. Efficiency
If high efficiency is the aim, the machine becomes costly, for lower efficiency higher running
cost and temperature rise with associated problems.
6. Customers specifications
Imposes limitations to identify criterion for best design
7. Commutation
In DC machine output is limited because of commutation problem
8. Power factor
Power factor imposes a limitation especially in case of 3 phase induction motor.
9. Standard specification
Specification is biggest strain on the design because both the manufacturer as well as the
consumer cannot get away from them without satisfying them.
Basic structure of an electrical machine
The basic structure of an electrical machine consists of the following parts
1. Magnetic circuit: It provides path for the magnetic flux and consists of core, yoke, air gap
etc.
2. Electric circuit: It consists of stator, rotor winding and transformer winding. It conveys
electrical energy from the working region and is concerned with production of emf and
production of magneto-mechanical force. Windings are formed from suitability insulated
conductors
3. Dielectric circuit: It consists of insulation required to isolate one conductor from another and
also the winding from the core. The insulating materials are essentially non-metallic and may be
organic or inorganic, natural or synthetic.
4. Thermal circuit: It consists of cooling medium such as air, water, insulating oil and gas
(Hydrogen) . It is concerned with mode and media for dissipation of heat produced inside the
machine on account of losses.
5. Mechanical parts: The important mechanical parts of a machine are its frame, bearings and
shaft .
Magnetic materials
Ferromagnetic materials
Relative permeability -r >> 1 (Nickel, cobalt, iron, steel, silicon steel etc.,)
Paramagnetic materials
Relative permeability -r > 1 (Air, Alluminium, palladium etc.,)
Diamagnetic materials
Relative permeability - r < 1 (Bismuth, silver, lead, copper, water etc.,)
Ferromagnetic materials are very useful for electrical engineering applications. Why?
When a ferromagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, there is considerable distortion
and, therefore, the force exerted is very large. This property makes ferromagnetic materials are
very useful for electrical engineering applications. Example: Iron, nickel, cobalt and their alloys.
Types of magnetic materials based on hysteresis loop
1. Soft magnetic materials- making magnetic core used in alternating magnetic fields
hysteresis loops are more or less narrow.(Silicon steel, nickel- iron alloys etc.,)
Classifications:
a. Solid core materials
b. Laminated core material for pulsating fluxes
c. Electrical sheet and strip
Insulating materials
Electrical properties
*high dielectric strength ,sustained at elevated temperatures.
* high resistivity or specific resistance
* low dielectric hysteresis
* good thermal conductivity
* high degree of thermal conductivity
Factors affecting the electrical properties
(i) dimensions of test piece
(ii) r.m.s. value, wave form and frequency of impressed voltage.
(iii) temperature and moisture content of test piece
(iv) mechanical pressure on test piece
Applications of insulating materials
Employed for the insulation of
1. Wires for magnet coils and windings of machine
2. Laminations for Machines and transformers
Temperature
90 C
105 C
120 C
130 C
155 C
180 C
above 180 C
Example
Class Y Cotton, silk , paper, cellulose ,wood without impregnation
Class A - class Y materials impregnated with natural resins cellulose esters, insulating oil etc.,
Class E- Synthetic resin enamels, cotton and paper laminates with formaldehyde bonding
Class B - Mica, glass fibre ,asbestos with suitable bonding substances.
Class F Materials of class B with bonding materials of higher thermal stability.
Class H Glass fibre and asbestos materials and built up mica with silicon resins.
Class C Mica, ceramics ,glass, quartz without binders.
(Class C Materials are not directly involved in machine design.)
Insulating materials used in modern electric machines
Fibrous glass, cotton fibre, polyamides, synthetic resin enamels - for wires of field coils
Petroleum based mineral oils and Askarels (60/40 mixture of hexachlorodiphenyl and
trichlorovenzine)- are synthetic non-flammable insulating liquids- used for cooling and
insulation of immersed transformers.
Wood and two , three-ply varnished cotton-slot lining materials.
Area of stator slot: Slot area is occupied by the conductors and the insulation. Out of which
almost more than 25 % is the insulation. Once the number of conductors per slot is decided
approximate area of the slot can be estimated.
Slot space factor = Copper area in the slot /Area of each slot
This slot space factor so obtained will be between 0.25 and 0.4. The detailed dimension of
the slot can be estimated as follows.
Space Factor
The magnetic core of electrical machines is often made up of thin iron laminations in order to
reduce eddy-current losses and improve the performance. These lamination sheets are slightly
insulated with a coating and are oriented in parallel with the direction of the magnetic flux.
Laminating a core increases its volume not only due to the applied coating, but also since the
stacked laminations are not perfectly flat due to manufacturing or processing, e.g. punching.
It is important to account for the space factor when designing an electrical machine, since a
space factor of less than 1.0 reduces the flux carrying capacity of the iron core accordingly. The
space factor is low for very thin iron laminations and is approaching unity as the lamination
thickness increases. The space factor is sometimes also called lamination factor or stacking
factor.
Definition of space factor (General)
The ratio of the active cross-sectional area of an insulated conductor to the total area occupied by
it.
Transformer
Window space factor
The window space factor is defined as the ratio of copper area in the window to the total window
area.
Window space factor , =
It depends upon the relative amount of insulation and copper provided, which in turn depends
upon the voltage rating and output of transformers. Space factor is larger for large outputs and
smaller for small outputs.
The following empirical formulae may be used for estimating the value of window space factor:
=
10
(30 + )
kVA)
=
=
12
(30 + )
8
(30 + )
The ratio of area of copper in each field coil to area of cross section of field coil
Question:
rotating machine.
The specific magnetic loading is determined by.
1. Maximum flux density in iron parts of machine
2. Magnetizing current
3. Core losses
I.
In a well designed machine the maximum flux density occurs in the teeth of the
machine.
II.
Magnetic current
The magnetizing current (Im) of a machine is directly proportional to the mmf required to
force the flux through the airgap and iron parts of the machine.
mmf required for air gap (ATg) Bg (gap flux density).
i.e., specific magnetic loading
(since, Bg = Bav/)
If a small value of specific magnetic loading is chosen, the flux density in the iron parts is
low and therefore these parts are worked on the linear or knee portion of the curve.
If a large value of specific magnetic loading is chosen, the flux density in the iron parts is
in the saturation region of the B-H curve
Thus a large value of a specific magnetic loading results in increased value of
magnetizing mmf and hence more magnetizing current.
The value of magnetizing current is not usually a serious design consideration in dc
machines. But in induction motors an increased value of magnetizing current results in
low power factor. Hence, specific magnetic loading in induction motor is lower than dc
machine. For a synchronous machine, the magnetizing current is not so critical and the
value of specific magnetic loading is intermediate between that of dc and induction
motor.
III.
Core loss
Area of cross-section of iron parts of the magnetic circuit of a machine.
a = flux carried by parts/flux density in the parts
a 1/B
If this part is subjected to alternating magnetization, there will be core loss in it. This
because the hysteresis loss is directly proportional to the frequency and eddy current loss is
proportional to (f2). Core loss also depends on flux density. This is because hysteresis loss B mk
and eddy current loss Bm2.
Thus a large value of specific magnetic loading resolves in increased core loss and
consequently a decreased efficiency and on increased temperature rise.
For high speed DC machine (or) high frequency ac machines, Specific magnetic loading
must be reduced in order to achieve lower iron loss.
Advantages due to higher specific magnetic loading
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Increases noise.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
ii.
increased leakage reactance because of larger turns per phase (Induction and synchronous
machine)
iii.
iv.
v.
Increased field excitation causing more field copper losses (DC m/c)
vi.
vii.
Thermal considerations
The temperature of a machine rise, when it runs under load condition starting from cold
condition. The temperature rise is directly proportional to the power wasted (i.,e Loss). The
heated part of an electrical machine dissipate heat into their surroundings by conduction,
convection and radiation
Transfer of heat - solid medium conduction
Transfer of heat - liquid medium convection
Transfer of heat air or gas medium radiation
Conduction
Heat flow by conduction between two surfaces separated by a heat conducting medium like iron,
copper or insulation is given by
1 2
= ,
1 , 2 = ,
= , ( /)
=
Thermal resistance
The thermal resistance is defined as the resistance which causes a drop of 1 C per watt of heat
flow. It can be expressed as
= ,
= ,
= , 2
\
Radiation
The heat dissipated by radiation from a surface depends upon its temperature and its other
characteristics like color, roughness etc., the heat radiated per unit surface is given by Stefan
Boltzmann law:
= 5.7 108
14 04 /2
Where T1 and T0 = absolute temperature of the emitting surface and the ambient medium, K
e = co-efficient of emissivity; 1 for perfect black and always less than unity for others.
Convection
(i) Natural convection
Liquid and gas particles near heated body become lighter and rise, giving place to cooler
particles which in turn get heated and rise. This natural process due to changes in fluid density is
known as natural convection.
The heat dissipated per unit surface by natural convection is given by
= (1 0 ) /2
Where Kc = a constant depending on the shape and dimensions of hot body
n = a constant depending upon shape and dimensions of hot body. Its value lies between
1 and 1.25
1 = temperature of emitting surface, 0C;
0 = temperature of ambient medium,0C.
(ii) Artificial convection
In modern machines heat is removed by artificial circulation of cooling medium. For
example, a transformer tank may be cooled by blasting air on it or a turbo alternator may be
cooled by circulating hydrogen. This is known as cooling by artificial convection. The usual
method employed for cooling of machines is by blasting air on heating surfaces; these surfaces
may be open or closed. The most widely used formulae for air blasts on open surface is
= ( 1 + ) /2 C
Where = specific heat dissipation of a blasted surface.
= specific heat dissipation by natural convection.
= relative velocity of cooled surface and air blast, m/s,
= a constant, depending upon whether the blast is uniform or non-uniform,
= 1.3 for uniform blasts
The value of Kv comes down to even 0.5 for non-uniform blasts.
Rating of machines
The rating of machines refers to the whole of the numerical values of electrical and mechanical
quantities with their duration and sequences signed to the machines by the manufacturers and
stated on the rating or name plate, the machine complying with specified conditions. The
duration of the sequence may be indicated by the qualifying term.
The rating of a motor is the power output or the designated operating power limit based upon
certain definite conditions assigned to it by the manufacturer. An electric motor is normally rated
upon thermal basis of temperature rise i.e., maximum possible temperature at which the
insulating materials may be operated without deterioration. The types of ratings are defined for
electric motors depending upon the load and duration.
Types of duties and ratings as per IS:4722-1968
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
S1 : Continuous duty
S2 : Short time duty
S3 : Intermittent periodic duty
S4 : Intermittent periodic duty with starting
S5 : Intermittent periodic duty with starting and braking
S6 : Continuous duty with Intermittent periodic loading
S7 : Continuous duty with starting and braking
S8 : Continuous duty with periodic speed changes
S1 : Continuous duty
It may be defined as the load that may be carried by the machine for an indefinite time without
the temperature rise of any part exceeding the maximum permissible value.
N indicates the duration for which operation under rated conditions
Example; Continuously running fans,pumps,compressors
Conveyors etc.,
Standard specifications